word �problem�. Problems show up in di?erent contexts, universes of
discourse,�worlds�. We are used to problems, we solve problems everyday, applying di?er-ent methods and tools that are available to us. Let us consider some examplesof problems and possible solutions.Example 2 (River crossing (ancient)). Imagine that sometimes at the dawnof humanity a person stands by a river observing that on the other side atree full of fruit. The problem is how to get there. There are many solutionsto this problem, and the early humnans reached those solutions accumulatingexperience from failed attepmts, observing their environment, learning from e.g.animals how to dam the river, how to ?nd fords in the river, how to bridge theriver by cutting down a tree long enough to support them, and then re?ningthese solutions by developing tools to build more permanent and reliable bridges,boats, etc.These solutions are part of the succes of humanity as a race. However, notethat this will be of little confort to that one individual at the dawn of humanity,trying to cross that river and reach the fruit, for whom these solutions mighthave taken a bit long to achieve. That is because this method of directly tryingto solve the problem, essentially by trial-and-error, could be:� slow: coming up with a successful solution can take a long time (genera-tions),� expensive: many resources may be needed in order to reach the solution,� exhausing: reaching the solution could also require sustained e?ort,� potentially irreversible: if the person gets badly injuried, or drowns at-tempting to reach the other side, then no other potential solution may beattempted.Of course, this direct approach should not be discarded. It is a successfulapproach (it goes by the name of evolution). While it may not have servedthe person in our story trying to get on the other side, humanity has evolvedto be able to solve these problems. But is there a more e?cient way to solveproblems?Example 3 (Black box problem solving (modern)). In modern life there is a bigpressure to solve problems quickly, and as directly as possible. To do so, weare used to call upon di?erent tools, services, black boxes: there is an app foranything, a swipe on the screen of a mobile and as if by magic, we have thesolution. Hardly anyone has patience if the solution is not available instantly.This technology-based method is:� fast: complying with the demand of the modern world,� cheap: more and more we expect the black boxes to be available, butnote that this may be a position of privilege, and in general such blackboxes are not widely available, one could even argue that where they areavailable their availability is at the expense of others (but this discussionis beyond the scope of these notes)