FOUR MOST COMMON TYPE OF ROLLER

1. SMOOTH-WHEEL ROLLERS

Smooth wheel roller consists of

large steel drum at the front and
one or two drums at the rear end.
Smooth wheel rollers are most
suitable for compacting gravels,
sands and such materials where
crushing is required. The depth
of layer which can be
satisfactorily compacted depend
on the type of soil, and the
weight of the roller and nature of
the work.

REFERENCE:https://gharpedia.com/compaction-equipment-smooth-wheeled-roller/

2. PNEUMATIC RUBBER-TIRED ROLLERS

The pneumatic-tired rollers are widely

used for compaction of subgrades,
bases, bituminous mixes, and many
types of material. They have rubber
tires instead of steel tires or drums and
generally feature two tandem axles,
with three or four tires on the front
axle and four or five tires on the rear.

REFERENCE: http://enginemechanics.tpub.com/14081/css/Pneumatic-Tired-Rollers-290.htm
3. SHEEPS FOOT ROLLER

Sheepsfoot roller consists of steel drum

having many round or rectangular
shaped lugs or foot on it. Different
types of lugs or foot are namely spindle
shaped with widened base, prismatic
and clubfoot type. These type of soil
compaction equipment are most suitable
for compacting fine grained soils such
as heavy clays and silty clays. It can be
used for compaction of soils in dams,
subgrade layer in pavements and road
construction projects. These rollers are
also called tamping rollers.

REFERENCE: https://gharpedia.com/soil-compaction-with-sheepsfoot-roller/

4. VIBRATORY
Tandem vibratory rollers compact
freshly placed asphalt mats to specific
densities using two, smooth steel
drums that vibrate to consolidate the
material. Many have sophisticated
systems that continually measure
density as compaction progresses and
adjust compaction effort to avoid over-
compaction. Using GPS and
proprietary software, some rollers can
capture a digital record of compaction
results.

REFERENCE: https://www.constructionequipment.com/tandem-vibratory-rollers
 DETERMINATION OF FIELD UNIT WEIGHT OF
COMACTION

1. SAND CONE METHOD

A sand-cone method is commonly used to determine the density of compacted soils.
The density of the compacted soil calculated from the sand-cone method could be
correct, provided the calibration container has approximately the same size or volume
and allows the sand to fall to approximately the same height as a test hole in the field.
However, in most cases, the size or shape of the test hole is not exactly the same as
that of the calibration container. This can result in a difference in the settlement or
deposition of sand particles between the laboratory calibration and the field testing,
which may cause an erroneous determination of the in-situ density. The sand-filling
process is simulated in the laboratory and its effect on the determination of density is
investigated. Artificially made holes with different depths and bottom shapes are
prepared to simulate various shapes of the test hole in the field. Sands with different
particle size distributions are used in the testing to examine how sand grain size
influences the determination of density in the field. The error between the assumed
and calculated densities is highly dependent on the types of sand used in the sand-
cone method.
PROCEDURE OF TEST:
1. First, take the weight of the empty sand cone and then fill it with dry sand and
then weight again.
2. Collect the excavated soil from the hole and measure the weight.
3. After weighting, collect the specimen of soil to determine the water content in
it.
4. Now place the sand cone on the test hole with the help of the base plate and
allow the sand to run by opening the control valve.
5. When the sand stops running, close the valve and weight the cone with the
existing sand. Finally, calculate the dry density of the soil by given below
formula. If the test fails, compact and perform the test again.

REFERENCES: https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/doi/10.1680/geot.9.T.004
http://www.dailycivil.com/field-density-test-sand-cone-method/

2. RUBBER BALLOON METHOD

It is one of the methods used to find the unit weight of soil in field after compaction.
The test is carried out with the rubber balloon filled with water with a calibration
vessel. After compacting the soil in field, the small hole is excavated. Take the weight
soil excavated in field and find moisture content in the soil. Then, the compacted soil
dry weight in field is computed using the formula below.
 Here, wm is weight of moist soil excavated from the hole and w is moisture content of
excavated soil expressed in percentage.
The water filled with rubber balloon is introduced in excavated hole. Use the
calibration vessel to read directly volume of water filling the excavated hole.
Find the compacted dry unit weight for excavated soil in field using the expression
below.

Here, wd is field dry weight soil and V is volume of soil present inside excavated
hole.

This method is effective, less time consuming and it is done quicker than the sand
cone method, as the volume is to be measured using the calibrated vessel quickly. It is
suitable for all type of soils except the heavy gravel. Thus, it is a good field based
method used in all kinds of soils to measure their density.

REFERENCE: https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/rubber-balloon-method-8

3. NUCLEAR METHOD

This test method describes the procedures for measuring in-place density and
moisture of soil and soil-aggregate by use of nuclear equipment (hereafter referred to
as “gauge”). The density of the material may be measured by direct transmission,
backscatter, or backscatter/air-gap ratio methods. Measurements for water (moisture)
content are taken at the surface in backscatter mode regardless of the mode being
used for density.

Significance and Use:

* The test method described is useful as a rapid, non-destructive technique for in-place
measurements of wet density and water content of soil and soil-aggregate and the
determination of dry density.

* The test method is used for quality control and acceptance testing of compacted soil
and soil-aggregate mixtures as used in construction and also for research and
development. The non-destructive nature allows repetitive measurements at a single
test location and statistical analysis of the results.

* Density—The fundamental assumptions inherent in the methods are that Compton

scattering is the dominant interaction and that the material is homogeneous.

* Water Content—The fundamental assumptions inherent in the test method are that the
hydrogen ions present in the soil or soil-aggregate are in the form of water as defined by
the water content derived from Test Methods D2216, and that the material is
homogeneous.

REFERENCE: https://www.astm.org/Standards/D6938.htm

Vibroflotation
Vibroflotation is a ground improvement technique used at a considerable depth that by
using a powered electrically or hydraulically probe, it strengthens the soil. The
vibroflotation will compact the soil making it suitable to support design loads. It involves
the introduction of granular soil to form interlocking columns with surrounding soil.

The technique is used to improve bearing capacity and reduce the possibility of
differential settlements that might be allowed for the proposed loads. Sometimes it is
also referred as Vibrocompaction and the ultimate concept is to repack soil particles by
joining them together improving soil's bearing capacity. The compaction of soil can be
obtained in soils as deep as 200 feet.The risk of liquefaction in an earthquake prone
area is also drastically reduced.

Vibroflotataion Techniques

Vibroflotation can be obtained by using three different techniques:

 Vibro Compaction method- This method allows granular soils to be compacted.

This method is only used to compact sandy soils.
 Vibro Replacement method- The technique is used to replace poor or inadequate
soil material by flushing out the soil with air or water and replacing it with granular
soil. This can be used in various soil types such as clay and sandy soils.
 Vibro Displacement method- This procedure is used with no or small amounts of
water used during the technique. The probe is inserted into the soil and it will
displace it laterally as the new soil column is being formed and compacted.

Vibroflotation Advantages

Vibroflotation is one affordable way to improve ground conditions when a deep layer of
inadequate soil is found. The technique is so simple that will not require the delivery of
additional materials or additional equipment other than the probe and the equipment
that has it installed. The vibroflotation process can offer the following benefits:

 When the process is done properly, it will reduce the possibility of differential
settlements that will improve the foundation condition of the proposed structure.
 It is the fastest and easiest way to improve soil when bottom layers of soil will not
provide good load bearing capacity.
 It is a great technology to improve harbor bottoms
 On a cost-related standpoint, it helps improve thousands of cubic meters per day.
It is faster than piling.
 It can be done around existing structures without damaging them.

 It does not harm the environment

 It improves the soil strata using its own characteristic
 No excavations are needed, reducing the hazards, contamination of soils and
hauling material out from the site
  No need to manage table water issues, neither the permits required to manage
water discharge and dewatering issues.
 The technique of vibroflotation can be adapted to each scenario and site
 When vibroflotation is performed at a site, it will reduce the possibility of
liquefaction during an earthquake

How Vibroflotation Works

The process of vibroflotation is really simple as you will see in the following short
description. The depth probe is located over the compaction point. Flushing water or air
is expelled through jets in the tip of the probe. These induced injected vibrations will
liquefy the soil temporarily allowing the probe a continuous penetration under its own
weight.

Once the probe has reached the strata or poor soil, the water and air injections is
stopped. At this point the soil is densified by the probe vibrations causing a crater
around the vibrator, that should be backfilled with granular material.

Once the process has been completed, the probe is slowly withdrawn usually in stages
of 12 inches. A cylindrical compaction zone is formed around the probe, and the
achieved degree of compaction is indicated by an increase in oil pressure. The area
around the probe is backfilled with granular material that will auto-consolidate, as the
probe is begin brought up. The material used to backfill should be free of silt, gravel
or crushed stone.

REFERENCE: https://www.thebalancesmb.com/vibroflotation-improve-bearing-
capacity-844578