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Lessons in tropical design and planning (Erich Meffert and beyond) - Chapter
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PROLOGUE
The prologue covers the following topics: introduction; background information;
and problem statement (Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328249104).
1
Author: Yusuf Ebrahim, lecturer, Department of Architecture and Building Science (DA+BS), University of
Nairobi. Email: ebrahimyusuf18@gmail.com or ebrahim@uonbi.ac.ke
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Textbook Series; Book 3 Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4): About; chapter six: tropical design and planning;
cited references.
CHAPTER ONE: CLIMATIC ELEMENTS
Chapter one (climatic elements) covers the following topics: climatic elements;
radiation (basic principles and distribution); temperature (basic principles and distribution);
atmospheric moisture (basic principles and distribution); evaporation (basic principles and
distribution); and wind speed and direction (basic principles and distribution) (Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327687845).
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Textbook Series; Book 3 Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4): About; chapter six: tropical design and planning;
cited references.
littoral; wet-dry tropical; dry tropical; and dry subtropical (Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327880569).
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Textbook Series; Book 3 Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4): About; chapter six: tropical design and planning;
cited references.
CHAPTER NINE: CIBSE; BUILDING SERVICES ENGINEERING; BSRIA AND BUILDING
SERVICES
Chapter nine (CIBSE; Building Services Engineering; BSRIA and building services)
covers the following topics: Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE)
(history; overview; membership; societies; special interest groups; certification; training;
publications); building services engineering (scope; mechanical services; electrical services;
public health services; other; consultant engineer; contractor; facilities manager;
professional bodies; education) Building Services Research and Information Association
(BSRIA) (structure; history of BSRIA; timeline history); and building services.
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Textbook Series; Book 3 Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4): About; chapter six: tropical design and planning;
cited references.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN: COUNTIES, SUB-COUNTIES AND PROVINCES OF KENYA
Chapter thirteen (counties, sub-counties and provinces of Kenya) covers the
following topics: counties of Kenya; establishment; list of counties; county governments;
county planning and development; provinces of Kenya; history; sub-counties of Kenya;
historical expansion of district numbers; and sub-counties (since March 2013).
CHAPTER SIXTEEN: DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THE DIFFERENT COMFORT ZONES OF KENYA
Chapter sixteen (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya) covers the
following topics: design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya; comfort; siting;
landscaping; building plan; roofs; structure and walls; windows and openings; and heating.
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Textbook Series; Book 3 Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4): About; chapter six: tropical design and planning;
cited references.
CHAPTER NINETEEN - ZONE 3: SAVANNAH (PLATEAU)
Chapter nineteen (design criteria for the different comfort zones of Kenya: zone 3 –
savannah: plateau) covers the following topics: comfort (prevailing conditions; and
requirements); siting (sun protection; and ventilation); landscaping (sun protection; glare;
ventilation; and rainfall); building plan (sun protection; and ventilation); roofs (sun
protection; and ventilation); structure and walls (sun protection); windows and openings
(sun protection; ventilation; day-lighting; rainfall; and noise.
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Textbook Series; Book 3 Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4): About; chapter six: tropical design and planning;
cited references.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325464561); and “Temperature Template
Software 2018 May” in CD format or can be downloaded (Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325464554 and also
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325464021); on a readable platform for use in
this section of the study.
CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR: PLANNING AND DESIGN OF OPEN SPACES IN TROPICAL UPLAND
CLIMATES
Chapter twenty four (planning and design of open spaces in tropical upland
climates) covers the following topics: background information; review of related literature
for open space variables; summary statistics for open space variables; Pearson correlation
matrix for open space variables; normality test using Shapiro-Wilk W Test for normal data
for open space variables; multicollinearity test using variance inflation factors (VIF) for
open space variables; heteroscedasticity using Breusch-Pagan/Cook-Weisburg test for
heteroskesdasticity test results for open space variables; multiple regression results for
open space variables; hypothesis testing for open space variables; reflection on the results
for open space variables; synthesis and interpretation of findings for open space variables;
summary of findings for open space variables; findings of hypothesis testing for open space
variables; limitations of findings for open space variables; concluding remarks.
CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE: CLIMATE CHANGE TREATIES AND THE PLANNING AND DESIGN
OF SUSTAINABLE BUILT FORM IN A TEMPERATURE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
Chapter twenty five (climate change treaties and the planning and design of
sustainable built form in a temperature changing environment) covers the following topics:
background information; climate change and appropriate built forms; climate change
manifestations; urban built form and temperature change; significance of urban built form
variables and temperature change; sustainable urban built form and microclimate;
application of design and planning strategies in a temperature changing environment;
universal climate change agreements; climate change treaties and national implementation
strategies; synthesis and interpretation of findings for climate change treaties; summary of
findings for climate change treaties; limitation of findings for climate change treaties; and
concluding remarks.
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cited references.
CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN: USE OF POLAR CURVES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN A
TEMPERATURE CHANGING ENVIRONMENT
Chapter twenty seven (use of polar curves for sustainable development in a
temperature changing environment) covers the following topics: introduction; graphic
representation of data; bar graph; scattergram; frequency polygon; polar curves; results
related to orientation variables; synthesis and interpretation of findings related to
orientation variable and polar curves; limitations of findings related to orientation of
buildings and open spaces; concluding remarks.
EPILOGUE
The epilogue covers the topic of conclusion and recommendations to the study
(Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328249104).
This chapter preview shows chapter six: tropical design and planning; and cited
references; while other chapters to God willing, follow in due course.
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cited references.
arranged in alphabetical order: adobe; arcology; cob; colonial; custom and customary;
Fathy, Hassan; indigenous; pisé; Solari, Paolo; tabia; tradition and traditional; type;
typology; vernacular; and vernacular architecture.
Adobe: Sun-dried unburned clay or earth building-brick or block (clay-bat) made
with straw, found in England, Spain, Latin America, The Netherlands, the southern USA, the
Middle East (e.g. high-rise buildings in Yemen), bronze-age Mesopotamia, Africa, etc. (Curl,
2006, p.8).
Arcology: Combination of architecture and ecology supported by Paolo Solari as a
solution to urban living involving the building of megastructures able to contain up to three
million people. Arcosanti, a future self-sufficient community powered by solar energy in
the desert of Arizona, was commenced in the 1970s and has been under construction ever
since (Curl, 2006, p.41).
Cob: Composition containing clay, gravel, sand, straw, and water, thoroughly mixed
until it is consistent and plastic, and applied in layers (without formwork) to make walls,
then finished with a roof and several coats of lime-wash. Commonly found in south-west
England, it offered a cheap way of building, and, provided it was protected from the rain,
was stable (Curl, 2006, p.182).
Colonial is applied to styles of architecture derived from those of the motherland in
a colony. American Colonial is a modification of the English Georgian or Queen Anne styles,
of particular interest because very often pattern-book designs were reinterpreted for
timber-framed structures, or otherwise altered, often by very subtle means. Although
originally associated with the thirteen British colonies in North America, the essentials of
American Colonial architecture were often revived well into 20th Century all over the USA.
Colonial Revival is a term given to architecture of the late 19th Century and early 20th
Century, especially in the USA, South Africa, and Australia. Attention had been drawn to
the qualities of colonial architecture in various publications from the 1840s, and several
writers advocated its revival, the catalyst for which was the Centennial International
Exhibition, Philadelphia (PA, 1876), at which the New England Log House and the
Connecticut House attracted particular attention, as did two half-timbered buildings (the
British Executive Commissioner and the Delegate Residence) by the British Rogue, Thomas
Harris (1830 – 1900), which encouraged an interest in vernacular architecture (Curl, 2006,
p.187).
Custom is the usual way of behaving or acting; established usage as a power or as
having force of law; while customary is accordance with custom (Allen Ed., 1985, p.179).
Fathy, Hassan (1900 - 89): Egyptian architect. He used traditional materials, means
of construction, and vernacular styles in his search for an inexpensive architecture for the
poor. At New Gourna, Luxor (from 1945), he created a model village made of sun-dried
bricks, and exploited traditional methods to encourage the natural convection of cool air.
He founded the International Institute for Appropriate Technology, Cairo (1977), intended
to develop his ideas. His writings include ‘Architecture for the poor’ (1973) and ‘Natural
energy and vernacular architecture’ (1986), and his individual dwellings include the Said
(1945), Stopplaere (1952), Riad (1967), and Samy (1979) houses outside Cairo. He designed
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cited references.
the Presidential Rest-House, Garf Hussein (1981), and the Greiss House, Abu Sier (1984)
(Curl, 2006, p.276).
Indigenous is native or belonging naturally to a place (Allen Ed., 1985, p.374).
Pisé: Type of wall-construction using stiff clay or earth (pisé de terre), kneaded,
sometimes mixed with gravel, rammed between two lines of wicker-work or boards that
are removed as the material hardens (Curl, 2006, p.583).
Solari, Paolo (1919 – 2013): Italian-born American architect. He worked for Frank
Lloyd Wright (1947 – 9) before going back to Italy to build the Ceramics Factory, Vietri-sul-
Mare, Salerno (1953). As a visionary designer, he returned to the USA where he established
the Cosanti Foundation, Scottsdale AZ: 1955), building the Earth House (1956 – 8) there to
demonstrate the possibilities of alternative technologies. He evolved the concept of
‘Arcology’ in which architecture and ecology are merged, and designed many
megastructures, one of which, called Arcosanti, near Scottsdale, intended to demonstrate
his ideas, was commenced in 1970. He published ‘Arcology: The city in the image of man’
(1969) (Curl, 2006, p.726).
Tabia, tapia, tappia: Wall-construction of earth rammed in formwork, often with
added lime and gravel, finished with several coats of limewash (Curl, 2006, p.758).
Tradition is an opinion or belief or custom handed down from one generation to
another especially orally; this process of handing down; artistic or literary principle based
on usage or experience (Allen Ed., 1985, p.799); and traditional of or based on or obtained
by traditional based on early style (Allen Ed., 1985, p.799).
Type, firstly is exemplar, pattern, prototype, or original work serving as a model
after which a building or buildings are copied; secondly is something exemplifying the ideal
characteristics of, say, a temple, so some would hold that the Parthenon is the very type of
Greek ‘Doric temple’; and thirdly form or character that distinguishes a class or group of
buildings (building-type), e.g. church, mausoleum, town-hall, temple (Curl, 2006, p.796).
Typology is the study of symbolic representation or of types (Curl, 2006, p.796).
Vernacular language or dialect of the country; language of a particular class or
group; homely speech; of one’s native country, not of foreign origin or of learned
formation (Allen Ed., 1985, p.839).
Vernacular architecture is unpretentious, simple, indigenous, traditional structures
made of local materials and following well-tried forms and types, normally considered in
three categories: agricultural (barns, farms, etc.), domestic, and industrial (foundries,
potteries, smithies, etc.). In England and Germany the great range of timber-framed
medieval and later buildings would largely be classes as vernacular, while humble rural
structures, such as cottages, would also fall into the category. It was taken seriously in the
late 18th Century when attempts were made to recreate it as part of the ‘Picturesque
movement’, and it provided exemplars for 19th Century architects, especially those of the
Gothic and Domestic Revivals and the Arts and Crafts Movement. In the USA Colonial and
simple clap-boarded buildings provided models for designers, especially for the Stick and
Shingle styles. It has been contrasted with Polite Architecture, and even classed as
“architecture without architects”, but this is not really true, as most vernacular
architecture drew on more sophisticated designs somewhere in its developments, while
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cited references.
architects such as Devey (George (1820 – 86): Curl, 2006, p.231), Luhyens (Sir Edwin
Landseer (1869 – 1944): Curl, 2006, pp.457 – 9) and Webb (Sir Aston (1849 – 1930): Curl,
2006, p.838) (John (1611 – 72): Curl, 2006, pp.839 – 40) (Philip Speakman (1831 – 1915):
Curl, 2006, p.840) derived much of their styles from vernacular buildings, so it was never
really an isolated phenomenon; an architecture of the proletariat, rural or urban (Curl,
2006, p.817) (See also: Building in the tropics (Lippsmeier, Kluska & Edrich, 1965); Genius
loci: towards a phenomenology of architecture (Noberg-Schulz, 1980); Shelter in Africa
(Oliver, 1978); and Architecture with architects: a short introduction to non-pedigreed
architecture (Rudofsky, 1981).
INTRODUCTION
The five main latitude regions of the Earth’s surface comprise geographical zones,
divided by the major circles of latitude; the differences between them relate to climate;
and they are as follows:
The Earth’s climatic zones (Figure 6.1) are as follows: Ice cap Tundra Boreal Warm
temperate Subtropical Tropical.
On the basis of latitudinal extent, the globe is divided into three broad heat zones
as follows: Torrid Zones; Temperature Zones; and Frigid Zones (Wikipedia, 2018q).
TORRID ZONES
The Torrid is also known as the Tropics. The zone is bounded on the north by the
Tropic of Cancer and on the south by the Tropic of Capricorn; these latitudes mark the
northern and southern extremes in which the sun seasonally passes directly overhead. This
happens annually, but in the region between, the sun passes overhead twice a year. In the
Northern Hemisphere, in the sun’s apparent northward migration after the March equinox,
it passes overhead once, then after the June solstice, at which time it reaches the Tropic of
Cancer, it passes over again on its apparent southward journey. After the September
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Textbook Series; Book 3 Topical themes; Part 11/Section 4): About; chapter six: tropical design and planning;
cited references.
equinox the sun passes into the Southern Hemisphere. It then passes similarly over the
southern tropical regions until it reaches the tropic of Capricorn at the December Solstice,
and back again as it returns northwards to the Equator (Wikipedia, 2018q).
TEMPERATE ZONES
In the two Temperate Zones also known as tropical zone not, consisting of the Tepid
Latitudes, the Sun is never directly overhead, and the climate is mild, generally ranging
from warm to cool. The four annual seasons, spring, summer, autumn and winter, occur in
these areas. The North Temperate Zone includes Europe, Northern Asia, and North and
Central America. The South Temperate Zone includes Southern Australasia, southern South
America, and Southern Africa (Wikipedia, 2018q).
FRIGID ZONES
The two Frigid Zones, or Polar Regions, experience the midnight sun and the polar
night for part of the year – at the edge of the zone there is one day at the winter solstice
when the Sun is invisible, and one day at the summer solstice when the sun remains above
the horizon for 24 hours. In the center of the zone (the pole) the day is one year long with
six months of daylight and six months of night. The Frigid Zones are the coldest regions of
Earth and are generally covered in ice and snow. It receives slanting rays of the sun as this
region lies farthest from the equator. Summer season in this region lasts for about 2 to 3
months and there is almost 24 hour sunlight during summer (Wikipedia, 2018q).
Figure 6.3: World map with the intertropical zone highlighted in crimson.
Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018r).
The introduction section proceeds with tackling the following topics: the Tropics;
current agendas; tropical design and planning
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cited references.
THE TROPICS
The ‘tropics’ are, technically, low latitudes contained in ‘Torrid zone’ between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn (Figures 6.3 and 6.4), but the term is most typically applied
to the world’s hot, humid, equatorial coastal regions which have high rainfall, lush
vegetation and, almost invariably, a colonial past. For our purposes here, however, the
term can be applied to all climates in which the cooling load in buildings significantly
exceeds the heating load. This extends into the hot dry areas, the composite climates in the
centre of large continental land masses, and some areas tempered by warm seas or
prevailing winds that are as far away from the equator as latitudes 45o north and south.
This section provides an introductory design and planning guide for architects undertaking
work in unfamiliar environments and climates. All guidance must be substantiated by site-
specific data (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-1).
CURRENT AGENDAS
Within the last 20 years or so, there has been a major shift in design agendas
worldwide, with increasing awareness of global warming, climate change and the need for
responsible, sustainable design and planning. Environmental design has become an
essential component of building design. There has been widespread high-tech adaptation
of traditional third world technologies by architects working in temperate climates. There is
increasing awareness of the limitations of globalization when compared to the merits of
regionalism. Increasing sophistication in building design has become apparent in many
tropical countries, especially those around the Pacific Rim; and web-based documentation,
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communication and transfer of knowledge have revolutionized design methodologies in all
climates, whilst research has revalidated many traditional tropical design technologies.
Many governments are dependent on external funding to enable them to execute
major development programmes and government agendas may, therefore, be diverted or
constrained by the policies of the donor agencies which may be single governments
(United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Canadian International
Development Agency (CIDA)), regional organizations (European Community (EC), Asian
Development Bank (ADB), African Development Bank (AfDB)), international agencies (the
United Nations (UN), World Bank, World Health Organization (WHO)) or charities (Oxfam,
Red Cross, Red Crescent) (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-1).
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Table 6.1: Occurrence and characteristic of main climatic zones
Source: Modified from Littlefield (Ed. 2008, p.35-3).
Zone Approxi Natural Typical Climate Problems Requirements
mate vegetation cultivati
latitude on
range
Warm humid 7½N – Tropical rain Banana, Warm Humidity prevents Air movement from
equatorial 7½S forest palm oil with high sweat evaporation; hot fans or cross
humidity nights make sleep ventilation, low therm
and difficult; high rainfall capacity construction,
rainfall and glare from sloping roofs and large
overcast sky, sun on overhangs, windows
east and west facades facing north and south
Tropical 5-30oN Rain forest Sugar Warm, Similar to warm humid Similar to warm humid
island 5-30oS cane humid but equatorial, but clear but with additional car
less cloud skies and bright sun in the design of shadin
than more frequent the south facing
warm windows in northern
humid hemisphere (vice versa
zone in the southern)
Hot dry 15-32oN Desert, Palms. Hot and High diurnal range, High heat capacity
tropical 15-32oS steppe Grazing dry with very hot days in construction, shading
(nomadi annual summer, cool winter devices which allow
c) and daily days, low rainfall, very solar heating in winter
variation strong solar radiation small windows, flat
of and ground glare, roofs (often used for
temperatu sandy and dusty sleeping), small
re environment windows, flat roofs
(often used for
sleeping), small
courtyards to give
shade and protection.
Maritime 15-30oN Desert Palms, Hot, Similar to hot dry Similar to hot dry but
desert 15-30oS grazing humid climates but with high air movement is
with low humidity causing desirable at times
rainfall discomfort by
preventing sweat
evaporation
Intermediate 5-20oN Monsoon Paddy Warm Combines the Compromise between
composite or 5-20oS forest, dry rice, humid problems of warm the requirements of
monsoon tropical sugar and hot humid and hot dry warm humid and hot
forest or cane, dry climate dry climate or ideally
scrub, millet seasons (but more expensively
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cited references.
savannah often with two buildings or parts
cool of buildings for use at
season different times of the
year
Equatorial 10oN- Broadleaf Millet Temperat Combine the problems Design to take
upland 10oS forest, e to cool of warm humid and advantage of solar
mountain depending hot dry climates with when cool or cold.
vegetation on those of a temperate Heating and additional
altitude or cold climate for all insulation may be
or part of the year required
Tropical 10-30oN Steppe, Wheat Hot Do Do
upland 10-30oS cedars summers.
Cold
winters
Mediterrane 32-45oN Mediterrane Vines, Hot dry Summers have some of Design with high
an 32-45oS an scrub olives, summers, the problems of a hot thermal capacity,
citrus cold wet dry climate while medium to small
fruits winters winters are cold and opening, and
humid with moderate courtyards to give
rainfall shade protection
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advisable to establish a weather station on site to verify data and study microclimate. If
climate change accelerates as expected, more extreme weather will occur, causing
catastrophes of increasing magnitude. In particular, extreme storms, wind, rainfall or
drought may get worse as well as occurring more frequently. Building design and site
selection need to take account of this (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-3).
2
Note: 1 okta = 1 eighth of the sky.
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In areas with distinct seasonal variations, are there two (or more)
‘rainy’ seasons (as in Kenya)
Are the rains reliable or is there evidence of climate change?
Is there a known periodic cycle, such as El Nino?
Does the rain come from one direction and, if so, does this affect
microclimate on the site?
How heavy is the rainfall – does it drizzle for months or all come
at once in a torrential cloudburst?
Other Is there a risk of hail or snow – not unknown in the tropics?
precipitation
Storms, There are two aspects to these risks – how extreme are these
sandstorms, events, and how often do they occur?
gales, How often are two or more events inter-related or dependent on
hurricanes, other, predictable or observable climatic events (tornadoes and
tsunami, changes in atmospheric pressure, earthquakes and tsunami,
tornadoes, hurricanes and landslides)?
earthquakes,
flash floods,
landslides, and
other extreme
weather events
Sunlight and Are there clear skies all year, or does the sky stay overcast during
cloud cover the rains for weeks on end?
How predictable is the cloud cover?
Relative Records, seasonal variation
humidity Is there a risk of mould growth in cupboards?
Does high humidity affect normal tasks or construction
materials?
Temperature Yearly graph
Seasonal variations
Diurnal maximum and minimum
THERMAL COMFORT
Thermal comfort is dependent on temperature, humidity, radiation and air
movement as well as type of activity, clothing and degree of acclimatization. No two
people will perceive and describe comfort equally. In a hot dry climate, perspiration
evaporates quickly, enabling rapid cooling of the body; humid conditions prevent this,
leading to heat gain and discomfort. Table 6.4 indicates the range of bulb temperatures
that are likely to be perceived as comfortable at particular levels of relative humidity
(Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-4).
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Table 6.4: Thermal comfort limits (oC).
Source: Modified from Littlefield (Ed. 2008, p.35-4).
Monthly average relative Annual average temperature
humidity (RH)% Over 20oC 15 – 20oC Under 15oC
Day Night Day Night Day Night
0 - 30 26 - 34 17 - 25 23 - 32 15 - 23 21 - 30 14 - 21
30 - 50 25 - 31 17 - 24 22 - 30 15 - 22 21 - 27 14 -20
50 - 70 23 - 29 17 - 23 21 - 28 15 - 21 19 - 26 14 - 19
70 - 100 22 - 27 17 - 21 20 - 25 15 - 20 18 - 24 14 - 18
These thermal comfort limits assume that there has been no heat loss or gain due
to ventilation or isolation. Comparing monthly mean maximum and minimum
temperatures for known levels of relative humidity will indicate whether that particular
month will have days and nights that are comfortable or uncomfortable due to either heat,
cold or humidity (Table 6.5) (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-4).
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cited references.
Various formulae for relating these indicators to design solutions have been
developed. The most successful of these are the ‘Mahoney tables’ developed for the UN by
Carl Mahoney and reproduced in ‘Manual of Tropical Building and Housing: Part 1 –
Climatic Design’ Koenigsberger et al. (1974, pp.239 – 246; and pp.306 – 309). This remains
an important text (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-4).
METEOROLOGICAL DATA
Geographers and meteorologists distinguish a wide range of climate types in hot
and warm climates and disagree over what to call them, but:
The wet climates can be broadly distinguished by intensity and pattern of rainfall,
humidity and cloud cover
The dry climates by how dry they are; how cold they get in the cold season (for
simplicity, referred to hereafter as ‘winter’) and whether what little rain they do get
falls in summer or winter
The composite climates by the degree of seasonal fluctuations in all climatic
indicators; and whether it gets really cold in winter.
All these variables are moderated by latitude, altitude, prevailing winds, and
whether they are at the centre of large landmasses. They can be covered by short lists of
three or four types, based on data critical to particular groups (farmers concerned about
rain, tourists concerned about humidity and clear skies, skiers wanting snow) or broken
down into a longer definitive list. The local bureau of meteorology produces a range of
maps showing different criteria (Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.4 – 35.5).
CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate Change 2007, the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) of the United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), offers authoritative assessment of
climate change implications for the tropics:
Low-lying island nations may be overcome by rising sea levels
Future tropical cyclones (typhoons and hurricanes) are expected to become more
intense, with larger peak wind speeds and more heavy precipitation, but the
number cyclone events may decrease overall
Increase in draught in the centre of large continental land masses
Increases in temperature
Increasing unpredictability of weather patterns.
The report also anticipates ‘substantial reduction in regional differences in per
capita income’ which will drive an expanding construction programme needing more
resources and technological input (Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.5 – 35.6).
SITE SELECTION
Sites and the detailed siting of individual buildings should primarily be chosen to
maximize human comfort. Efficient performance of the building should follow from this.
Buildings should be sited:
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Close to, and downwind of, large heat sinks such as forests, rivers or lakes, which
lower temperature and screen the site from airborne dust and noise
Remote from major traffic routes and those industries which generate heat, noise,
pollution and smells
Where they will be shaded by trees or other buildings during the hottest part of the
day and/or the hottest times of the year
Where they will take advantage of the prevailing breezes (wet and humid climates)
Where they will be screened from dust-laden winds and glare (hot arid climates)
Where they will not be subjected to solar dazzle from other buildings
Where they will not maximize heat gain and glare reflected from bright external
paving or adjacent buildings with pale reflective surfaces (high albedo) (Littlefield
Ed., 2008, pp.35.6 – 35.7).
SITE CHARACTERISTICS
Altitude, aspect, insolation, gradient, prevailing wind, shelter, soil, geology, water
table, vegetation, existing structures, archaeology and ecology may all be important.
Traditional uses of the site, for grazing, footpaths or cultivation may all need negotiation.
Crops on a site may need to be reimbursed to their full value if destroyed, or allowed time
to be harvested (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-7).
POLLUTION
Pollution and smells from tanneries and other industries, saltpans, open storm
drains and sewers, contaminated water supplies and aerobic sewage treatment works may
present serious problems in countries without environmental legislation (Littlefield Ed.,
2008, p.35-7).
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Even small projects may affect water supply, soil stabilization, fragile flora and
fauna, and local inhabitants and their patterns of agriculture. An environmental impact
assessment may be required and should always be considered (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35-
7).
SUSTAINABILITY
The terms may differ – sustainable, ecological, ‘green’ – but the principles remain.
Good building design:
1. Should ‘touch the earth lightly’ by minimizing use of non-renewable fossil fuels in
collecting, manufacturing, transporting or using building materials;
2. Should reduce the need for the power derived from these fossil fuels in heating,
lighting, ventilation and cooking by using passive design strategies in building;
3. Lifestyle and working practices should reduce the need to consume energy in
transport, workplace, leisure or entertainment; and
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4. In the longer view, this should affect urban planning, the nature of residential
development, reticulation of services and the policies of central governments
(Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.9).
Sustainable strategies to consider include:
1. Use local materials – but don’t consume beyond the capacity to regenerate;
2. Make use of local waste products;
3. Use passive design;
4. Recycle energy; and
5. Restrict water consumption (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.9).
APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY
It is dangerous to make assumptions about suitable solutions: two neighbouring
countries may appear similar in terms of climate, environmental and socio-political culture,
but may have very different construction industries. One may have good labour, traditional
brick-making skills, popular decorative traditions, and use steel extensively, whilst its
neighbor has no masonry construction, but builds in cement block and reinforced concrete.
One may welcome low-tech solutions; another might be insulted by them. Clay ovens, sisal-
reinforced roofing sheets and modern pit-latrines may work wonderfully but are unlikely to
satisfy people wanting to come up to speed in the modern world. Indeed, these solutions
are most effective when offered to refugees from that modern world; who wish to
experience the ‘bush’ for a week or two. A technology is only appropriate if people want it
(Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.9).
TRANSFERABLE TECHNOLOGIES
High-tech buildings in temperate climates now use design strategies that originated
in the tropics (cooling towers, vented ridges, brises soleil). These sometimes perform less
well than expected, as temperature variation is not sufficient extreme to generate air
movement, but when updated and reinterpreted in the tropics, they should work more
efficiently. Conversely, temperature climate details (such as thermal insulation) can benefit
tropical design, especially in composite climates at higher altitudes (Littlefield Ed., 2008,
p.35.9).
ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
Both the subject of environmental design and environmental responsible
architecture requires definition, prior to tackling the following topics: environmental
comfort within the building; environmental design around the building; and performance
of the building envelope in the context of the local climate.
Environmental design is aspects of the design of buildings connected with the
control of the environment within them (e.g. heat, quality of air, humidity, etc.). Passive
environmental control might involve thick, well-insulated walls, but active control would
involve “air-conditioning by mechanical means, the regulation of temperature, humidity,
lighting, and so on (termed environmental control). Integrated Environmental Design (IED)
involved the control of solar heat-gain, artificial lighting-systems with supplementary
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backups capable of functioning by day and by night, and means of reducing energy
consumption by means of computers (giving rise to the term intelligent buildings) (Curl,
2006, pp.265 - 6).
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with associated extremes of thermal movement, persistent high humidity, extended dry
periods or salt-laden atmosphere. Structures that are elevated to catch the breeze will
need additional structural measures to withstand high winds (Littlefield Ed., 2008, pp.35.9
– 35.10).
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Generically, designers recognize three main climate types: hot dry, hot wet and
composite (with seasonal variation). In reality, most locations will have some seasonal
variation and overlap with other types. Tables 6.6 – 6.8 summarize the main indicators and
design responses (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.12).
Table 6.6: Climate responsive design strategies – hot dry desert climates (Baghdad, Alice
Springs, Phoenix).
Source: Modified from Littlefield (Ed. 2008, pp.35.12 – 35.13).
Indicators Measurements Design response
o o
Latitudes Between 15 and 30 N and S Establish sunpath data; use
to determine position of
windows features
Location – within Altitude
continental land mass
High daytime temperatures Monthly mean maximum Deep shade and high
o
(up to 50 C), and cold nights and minimum temperatures thermal mass with time lag
(clear skies permit re- to release warmth during
radiation of daytime solar cold night
gain)
high diurnal range Stone and tiled floors will
stay cool if fully shaded
Use sound and sight of
3
The hot arid climate building is cool, shaded, and heat retaining. Its form prevents normal ventilation flows,
so these must be induced by the use of wind-catching towers and wind vents, water placed strategically to
provide evaporative cooling and the creation of temperature differentials within the central spaces to drive
air movement (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.14).
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water for psychological
cooling during the day
Low humidity, dry air Average monthly relative Use water for evaporative
humidity (RH) (from monthly cooling
mean maximum and
monthly mean minimum) 10
– 55%
Low rainfall (precipitation) Annual rainfall (range 50 – Flat roofs, no gutters
155 mm) Provide for cleaning dust off
the building envelope,
especially windows
Two seasons, one hot, one Monthly mean maximum Use reduced solar altitude in
cooler or cold and minimum temperatures winter to capture and store
solar energy in trombe walls
and on high mass paved
floors. Reduce shading to
permit solar gain in
structure. Stabilize
temperature with ground
storage of water or energy.
Deep blue sky; glare from Solar radiation, luminance Small windows placed at
2
horizon worsens at end of (1700 – 2500 cd/m , haze up high level with view of deep
dry season as dust in the to 10 000 cd/m2) blue sky (not facing into the
atmosphere creates a haze sun’s path)
Use screens to cut glare (jail,
mesh, masrabiya) with
smaller apertures at lower
levels to cut glare from
horizon.
Air movement will contain Wind speed Ventilation strategies
dust and sand; whirlwinds depend on cooling and
will occur filtering air
Arid landscape with Rainfall Landscaping will depend on
drought-tolerant species or drought-resistant species or
desert conditions irrigation – but water use
may be costly or restricted.
Low humidity will affect
growth.
Sandstorms Wind speed Defensive land-forming and
building envelope with tight-
fitting infill of openings
(windows, doors, shutters,
storm guards)
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Air vents and filters will
require regular cleaning.
Variation – hot dry maritime climate (Kuwait, Karachi
Temperature – not as hot
but with less seasonal
variation)
Relative humidity 50 – 90% A particularly uncomfortable
climate – encourage air
movement with overhead
fans. Air-conditioning may
be needed.
Cloud cover – there may be Sunshine hours per annum
a thin haze, causing glare
Local breezes, off the sea Wind speed Orient openings to take
during the day, from the advantage of daytime
land at night breezes.
Salty atmosphere – risk Distance from sea Specify appropriate
corrosion materials
Design solutions
Individual buildings Buildings are inward looking defensive with thick walls and
small high windows. Building mass should be efficient with
as little of the envelope exposed to the sun as possible,
especially on the west where the afternoon sun is the
hottest. Internal courtyards are widely used, with the use of
water for evaporative cooling and decorative screens to cut
down glare. Roofs, walls, windows, terraces and courtyards
can be shaded, with canopies or secondary structures.
Urban development Buildings are packed close together – in particular, east and
west facing party walls should be protected from the sun.
This reduces travel distances – to markets, shops and
services. Adopt strategies that reduce physical effort.
Narrow streets running north – south will receive least sun.
Wind towers catch the breezes and cool the air, drawing it
over water into shaded courtyards.
Landscaping Create an artificial oasis by contouring land planting
shelterbelts with drought-resistant species. If irrigation is
possible, other species may be grown. Soil may have to be
imported. If so, it will need stabilizing and protection or the
wind will take it away. Use water for functional, decorative
and psychological benefits. Shade paved areas to cut down
glare.
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DESIGN FOR HOT WET HUMID CLIMATES
The main requirements here are to maximize ventilation, shade and protection
from the rain, and to have a thin-skinned rapid thermal response building envelope4. The
maritime equatorial climate exhibits little variation over the year (Littlefield Ed., 2008,
p.35.14).
Table 6.7: Climate responsive design strategies – warm humid equatorial climates (Lagos,
Dar-es-Salaam, Colombo, Singapore, Djakarta, Quito).
Source: Modified from Littlefield (Ed. 2008, p.35.13).
Indicators Measurements Design response
o o
Latitudes Between 15 N and 15 S High solar altitude with
small seasonal variation
enables specific shading
solutions to be accurately
designed; principal
elevations should face north
and south
Typical mean maximum Monthly mean maximum Temperatures exacerbated
daytime temperature 27 – and minimum temperatures by humidity – use thin-
32oC and mean minimum at skinned structures to speed
o
night 21 – 27 C; low diurnal cooling and ventilation
range Design should include
covered and fly-screened
verandahs, etc.
High humidity all year, Average monthly relative High humidity may
around 75% but may range humidity (RH) necessitate the use of air-
from 50 to close to 100% conditioners at night
High rainfall which may get Annual rainfall (range 2000 – Pitched roofs with deep
heavier for a few months 5000 mm) overhangs; no gutters or
wide gutters. Verandahs,
colonnades and covered
walkways will provide
protection from the rain.
Rainfall will increase insect Verandahs should be fly-
nuisance (mosquitoes, etc.) screened
Eliminate stagnant standing
water and take other
precautionary measures.
Little seasonal variation, Precipitation, monthly mean Little need for seasonal
with perhaps some increase maximum and minimum variation in design use.
4
The hot humid climate building is airy, shaded and thin-skinned with a roof that can disperse torrential rain.
All habitable rooms should have cross-ventilation (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.14).
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in rainfall, wind or storm temperatures
conditions from time to time
Overcast sky persists; cloud Sky cover and sunlight Fly-screens, brises soleil and
cover varies between 60 and hours. other screening devices will
90%. Glare is intensified by Luminance range between cut down glare, as well deep
reflection off cloud and can heavy and bright overcast overhangs and verandahs.
be intense. Cloud traps skies 850 – 7000 cd/m2
warm air, preventing night
radiation to sky.
There is little wind Wind speed Elevate buildings to
movement, but gusts are maximize air movement; use
occasionally recorded. louvre windows for
maximum ventilation; rooms
must have through
ventilation.
Lush landscape with tropical Rainfall, albedo Landscaping will need to be
forests, buttressed trees and controlled or will become
vines. Impoverished laterite overgrown.
soils produce vegetables Waterlogged sites may need
with little mineral content. draining or planting with
appropriate species.
Variation – warm humid island climate (Caribbean, Philippines, Hawaii)
Daytime mean maximum 29 Monthly mean maximum
– 32oC and mean minimum and minimum temperatures
o
at right 18 – 24 C. Small
diurnal and annual
temperature ranges.
Relative humidity 55% - almost 100% Assist ventilation with
design
High rainfall; storms may be Annual rainfall 1250 – 1800 Roofs must be well
heavy; sea spray may be a mm constructed
nuisance
Skies are clear or with Clear sky luminance 1700 –
broken cloud except during 2500 cd/m2
storms.
Trade winds are regular; Wind speed Design for high winds
cyclones may be severe
Salty atmosphere – risk of Distance from sea Specify appropriate
corrosion materials
Design solutions
Individual buildings Roofs must be robust to withstand heavy rain, and usually
have deep overhangs to shed the rain; thin-walled
structures with rapid thermal response (cooling) and cross-
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ventilation (avoid back-to-back rooms and central corridors
– circulation can be via perimeter verandahs); habitable
verandahs, some fly-screened; main axis east-west;
windows face north and south; use clerestory windows,
vented ridges and wind towers to improve ventilation;
shade trees should have canopy but not block ventilation
below the eaves; position structures to catch the breeze;
anticipate damp and mould, insects and vermin.
Urban development Buildings should be positioned to obtain maximum
ventilation; line buildings with verandahs, colonnades and
covered walkways.
Landscaping Dramatic landscaping is possible, but beware of wind rock
in trees close to buildings.
Table 6.8: Climate responsive design strategies – composite or monsoon climates (New
Delhi, Kano).
Source: Modified from Littlefield (Ed. 2008, p.35.14).
Indicators Measurements Design response
In large continental Latitude, altitude Distance from equator
landmasses, close to the results in seasonal variation
o
Tropics (23.5 N and S) and compromises in design
High daytime temperatures Maximum and minimum Design for different lifestyle,
(up to 50oC), and cold nights temperatures adjusted to suit climate;
(clear skies permit re- ensure daytime shade,
radiation of daytime solar night-time heat retention
gain)
High diurnal range
Dry season humidity 20 – Average monthly relative If high humidity is short-
55%; wet season humidity humidity (RH) lived, prioritize longer-term
55 – 95% conditions, and use
mechanical fans, etc.
5
The composite climate: different regions have different solutions depending on climate variables – e.g. in
Malawi at altitude of 1000 m, these houses are provided with an open fire in the sitting room; cooler blocks
are fired clay U-profile blocks loose-laid over profiled aluminium metal sheeting; they keep the worst of the
solar radiation off the aluminium and create a ventilated space between the block and the roof-covering;
o
pitch is usually no more than 27.5 (Littlefield Ed., 2008, p.35.15).
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Seasonal rainfall (monsoon) Annual rainfall (range 500 – Pitched roofs with
can be heavy and prolonged 1300 mm) overhangs
– up to 38 mm/h
Two seasons – hot dry and Monthly mean maximum Include adjustable building
warm-humid (21 – 43oC); and minimum elements; different spaces
further from equator, third to suit different conditions;
season – cool-dry (4 – 27oC). create micro-climate
Diurnal range up to 22oC
Sky overcast during rains, Solar radiation, luminance, Placement of windows;
clear deep blue during dry cloud cover, sunshine days screening of windows
season, becoming dust-
laden and hazy towards end
of dry season
Monsoon winds strong and Variable features; shutters
may come from different and screens
direction than winds at
other times of the year;
winds carry dust in dry
season
Landscape changes Rainfall Use drought-resistant
appearance seasonally – lust species or irrigation
in rains, becoming parched
in dry season
Termites are common Anthills, nests Use barriers, poison,
appropriate design
measures; expect high
wastage.
Variation – Tropical upland climate (Bogota, Nairobi)
Upland zones Altitude 900 – 1200 m
Distance from the equator Latitude Design will need to meet
increases seasonal variation winter conditions, as well as
summer.
Temperature reduces with Weather data Open fires, winter solar gain
altitude; diurnal range large,
ground frost may occur
Rainfall often heavy – up to Precipitation + 1000 mm Pitched roofs, deep
80 mm/h overhangs, storm drains
Heavy dew at night; Weather data Lightning protection,
radiation heat loss at night thermal insulation
may cause radiation fog;
hail; thunder and lightning
Design solutions
Individual buildings Design depends on winter temperatures, duration of high
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humidity and duration of rains.
Urban development Colonnades and arcades provide shelter from rain.
Landscaping Many species will tolerate these climates, but may need
irrigation unless resistant to seasonal drought. Risk of frost
needs to be determined. Termite damage can be
considerable.
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cited references.