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General Design Principles For Structural Design Formulae
General Design Principles For Structural Design Formulae
General Design Principles For Structural Design Formulae
21
Any load above FC will cause the column to buckle. according:
In equation form:
σy
2 E t I
FC =
l 2
In this formula, which is called the Euler Formula for σx
τxy
round ended columns:
Et = Tangent modulus at stress C τxy
I = moment of inertia of cross section. σx ϕ
23
It should be emphasized that structural design for impact Creep, defined as strain (%) over a period of time under
loading is usually a very complex and often empirical constant stress, can occur in tension, compression, flexure
exercice. Since there are specific formulations of or shear. It is shown on a typical stress-strain curve in
engineering materials available for impact applications, Fig. 4.01.
the designer should work around the properties of
these materials during the initial drawing stage, and
make a final selection via parts from a prototype tool initial apparant creep
which have been rigorously tested under actual end-use o o o o t
conditions.
where:
The stress required to deform a plastic material a fixed
L = change in length (mm) amount will decay with time due to the same creep
T = change in temperature (° C) phenomenon. This decay in stress with time is called
= thermal expansion coefficient (mm/mm° C) stress relaxation.
L = original length (mm) Stress relaxation is defined as the decrease, over a given
time period, of the stress (MPa) required to maintain
If the ends are constrained, the stress developed is: constant strain. Like creep, it can occur in tension,
= T × × E compression, flexure or shear. On a typical stress-strain
curve it is shown in Fig. 4.02.
where:
= compressive stress (MPa)
E = modulus (MPa) o oo
o
Long Term Loads Strain (), %
Plastic materials under load will undergo an initial Relaxation between time t and to = o – t. The relaxation modulus E R for
deformation the instant the load is applied and will design in relaxation applications (e.g., press fits) at time T is the slope of
the secant from the origin to the point (t o ).
continue to deform at a slower rate with continued
application of the load. This additional deformation
with time is called ‘‘creep’’. Fig. 4.02 Relaxation
24
Laboratory experiments with injection moulded specimens Actually, ZYTEL® 101 would be a good candidate for this
have shown that for stresses below about 1⁄3 of the ultimate application as it has high impact strength in the 50% RH
tensile strength of the material at any temperature, the stabilized condition and the highest yield strength of
secant moduli in creep and relaxation at any time of load- unreinforced nylons.
ing may be considered similar for engineering purposes.
Referring to the curve, we find a hoop stress level of
Furthermore, under these conditions, the secant moduli in
19 MPa at 10 years, and this can be used as the design
creep and relaxation in tension, compression and flexure
stress. The hoop stress formula for a pressure vessel is:
are approximately equal.
Pr
A typical problem using creep data found in the properties t = × F.S.
sections is shown below:
where:
Cylinder under Pressure
t = wall thickness, mm
Example 1: A Pressure Vessel Under Long Term Loading
P = internal pressure, MPa
As previously noted, it is essential for the designer r = inside diameter, mm
to itemise the end-use requirements and environment
= design hoop stress, MPa
of a part before attempting to determine its geometry.
This is particularly true of a pressure vessel, where F.S. = factor of safety = 3 (example)
safety is such a critical factor. In this example, we will (0,7) (9) (3)
t = = 1,0 mm
determine the side wall thickness of a gas container 19
which must meet these requirements:
The best shape to use for the ends of the cylinder is a
a) retain pressure of 0,7 MPa; hemisphere. Hemispherical ends present a design problem
b) for 10 years; if the cylinder is to stand upright. A flat end is unsatisfac-
c) at 65° C. tory, as it would buckle or rupture over a period of time.
The best solution, therefore, is to mould a hemispherical
The inside radius of the cylinder is 9 mm and the length end with an extension of the cylinder or skirt to provide
is 50 mm. Because the part will be under pressure for stability (Fig. 4.04).
a long period of time, one cannot safely use short-term
stress-strain data but should refer to creep data or, For plastic parts under long term loads, stresses, deflec-
preferably, longterm burst data from actual pressure tions, etc. are calculated using classical engineering
cylinder tests. Data typical of this sort for 66 nylons formula with data from the creep curves. The Elastic
is shown in Fig. 4.03 which plots hoop stress versus or Flexural Modulus is not used but rather the Creep
time to failure for various moisture contents at 65° C. Modulus, in equation form:
35
1 year
30
25
50% RH
Hoop Stress (MPa)
20
Saturated
15
10
0
1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000
Time (hours)
Fig. 4.03 Hoop stress vs. time to failure, ZYTEL® 101 at 50% RH and at saturation 65°C
25
Tensile Loads
Ec =
o + c Long Term – Examples
= stress under consideration (MPa) Determine the stress and elongation of the tubular part
o = initial strain (%/100) shown in Fig. 4.05 after 1000 hours.
c = creep strain (%/100) Material = ZYTEL® 101, 23° C, 50% RH
For the strains in the above equation, there often can be Tensile Loading = 1350 N
written: Outside Diameter = 25 mm
B
o + c = + At = (1 + AtB) Wall Thickness = 1,3 mm
Eo Eo Eo
Length = 152 mm
where:
Stress = F =
Eo = apparant modulus at design conditions (MPa) A
t = time (h) 4F (4) (1350)
A, B = material constants = = 14 MPa
(Do2 – Di2) (252 – 22,42)
From Fig. 4.06 at 14 MPa and 1000 hours, the strain is 3%.
Therefore, the elongation equals:
L × L = 152 × 0,03 = 4,57 mm.
20 mm (In this example there was assumed, that the creep in
tension is equal to creep in flexure, which is not always
correct.)
F=1350 N
1,0 mm
152 mm
1,3 mm
Fig. 4.04 Design for a pressure vessel under long terme loading 25 mm
14 MPa
3
Strain (%)
2
7 MPa
3,5 MPa
0
0,001 0,01 0,1 1,0 10 100 1000 10 000
Time (hours)
Fig. 4.06 Creep in flexure of ZYTEL® 101, 23°C, 50% RH; t = (1+ 0,65 t 0.2) / Eo ; (Eo = 1550 MPa)
26
Ribs and Strengthening Members By drawing a circle at the intersection of the rib and wall,
a means is obtained to compare section thickness. A rib
Ribs can be used to augment greatly the section stiffness of thickness (T) equal to the wall thickness, combined with a
simple beams. Often, thick sections can be replaced by sec- radius of 0,5 T, produces a circle with a diameter of 1,5 T
tions of smaller cross-sectional area (such as ‘‘T’’ beams) or 50 per cent greater thant the wall thickness. Increasing
with significant savings in material. However, checks the radius beyond 0,5 T would not significantly strength-
should be made to ensure that acceptable design stress en the corners, but would enlarge the inscribed circle,
levels for the material are observed. making the possibility of having voids in this area greater
The designer must take great care in using ribs in a moulded
part. Where they may provide the desired stiffness, it is
also possible that the ribbing will distort the part after
T
moulding. Therefore, they should be specified with T
1
1,0 1,00
27
than if the radius remained 0,5 T. However if the rib is The left hand ordinate shows values from 0,3 to 1,0 for
made thinner than the wall (dotted lines in Fig. 4.07) the the ratio of the ribbed wall thickness (tB) to the non-ribbed
radius in the corners can be in proper proportion to the wall thickness (tA). The right hand ordinate shows the
new rib thickness, T1, to prevent high stress concentration values from 1,0 to 2,2 for the ratio of the overall thickness
and voids at the juncture, without enlarging the diameter of the ribbed part (T) to the non-ribbed wall thickness (tA).
of the enclosed circle.
Ratios of the volume of the ribbed plate (VB) to the volume
Since ribbing is in such widespread use as a method to of the corresponding flat plate (VA) are shown along the
improve structure and to reduce cost and weight, simplified curve at spacings suitable for interpolation. For any one
methods have been developed to determine the rib size and combination of the variables T, tB, and N, these volume
spacing necessary to provide a specified degree of rigidity. ratios will specify the minimum volume of material
Most housings – tape cassettes, pressure containers, necessary to provide a structure equivalent to the original
meter shrouds, and just plain boxes – have one functional unribbed design, as shown in the following examples.
requirement in common: the need for rigidity when
a load is applied. Since rigidity is directly proportional
Example 1 – If there are no restrictions on the geometry
to the moment of inertia of the housing cross section, it is
of the new cross-ribbed wall design, the curve can
physically simple (though sometimes mathematically
be used to determine the dimension that will satisfy
complex) to replace a constant wall section part with a
a required cost reduction in part weight.
ribbed structure with the same rigidity but less weight.
Flat Plate Ribbed Structure
To simplify such analysis, the curve in Fig. 4.08 has
been developed to help determine the feasibility
of using a ribbed structure in a product (background,
see Table 4.01). Known: Present wall thickness (tA) = 4,5 mm
Bidirectional ribbing Required: Material reduction equals 40%
The curve in Fig. 4.08 describes the dimensional relationship
VB
between simple flat plates and cross-ribbed plates or = 0,60
VA
(Fig. 4.09) having identical values of moment of inertia.
The base of the graph shows values from 0 to 0,2 for From Fig. 4.08
the product of the non-ribbed wall thickness (tA)
and the number of ribs per mm (N) divided by the width (tA) (N) 0,135 ×1
= 0,135, or N = = 0,03 ribs per mm
of the plate (W). The W value was taken as unity in W 4,5
or about 3 ribs per
the deveopment of the curve, thus it is always one (1). 100 mm
It should be noted that the rib thickness was equated to tB
= 0,44, or tB = (0,44) (4,5) = 2,0 mm
that of the adjoining wall (tB). However, if thinner ribs tA
are desired to minimize sinks, their number and dimen- T
sions can easily be obtained. For example, if the ribs were = 1,875, or T = (1,875) (4,5) = about 8,5 mm
tA
2,5 mm thick and spaced 25 mm apart, ribs which are
1,25 mm thick and spaced 12,5 mm apart would provide Example 2 – If moulding flow of the resin limits the
equivalent performance. redesigned wall thickness, part geometry can be calcu-
lated as follows:
tA
Known: Present wall thickness (tA) = 2,5 mm
T Required: Minimum wall thickness (tB) = 1,0 mm
tB
tB 1,0
or = = 0,4
tA 2,5
28
Thus, the 1,0 mm wall design has an overall height of The resulting design has an overall height of 7,0 mm,
5,0 mm, a rib spacing of 0,05 per mm (or 1 rib every a wall thickness of about 2,0 mm and a material saving of
20 mm) and provides a 45 per cent material saving. 32 per cent. (An alternate solution obtained with a VB / VA
value of 0,90 provides a material saving of only 10 per
Example 3 – If the overall wall thickness is the limitation cent. The choice depends on the suitability of wall thick-
because of internal or exterior size of the part, other nesses and overall height.)
dimensions can be found on the curve:
Unidirectional Ribbing
Curves have been developed which compare by means of
dimensionless ratios, the geometry of flat plates and uni-
Known: Present wall thickness (tA) = 6,5 mm directional ribbed structures of equal rigidity. The thick-
ness of the unribbed wall, typically, would be based on
Required: Maximum height of ribbed wall (T) = 10,8 mm the calculations an engineer might make in substituting
T 10,8 plastic for metal in a structure that must withstand a spec-
or = = 1,66 ified loading. When the wide, rectangular cross section
tA 6,5
of that wall is analyzed, its width is divided into smaller
From Fig. 4.08 equal sections and the moment of inertia for a single
(tA) (N) 0,175
1 section is calculated and compared with that of its
= 0,175, or N = = 0,027 ribs per mm ribbed equivalent. The sum of the small section moments
W 6,5
or 1 rib per 37 mm of inertia is equal to that of the original section.
tB
= 0,56, or tB = (0,56) (6,5) = 3,65 mm
tA The nomenclature for the cross-section are shown below:
VB t
= 0,76
VA
t = T–2H tan °
The ribbed design provides a material reduction of 24 per H
H (T + t)
cent, will use 0,027 ribs per mm (1 rib every 37 mm) and A (area) = BW +
2
will have a wall thickness of 3,65 mm. If thinner ribs are
desired for functional or appearance reasons, the same T
B
structure can be obtained by holding the product of the W
Wd = Thickness for deflection
number of ribs and the rib thickness constant. In this
example, if the rib wall thickness were cut in half to WS = Thickness for stress
Wd - Ws
1,8 mm, the number of ribs should be increased from
1 every 37 mm to 2 every 37 mm. B
Example 4 – If the number of ribs per cm is limited because To define one of the smaller sections of the whole struc-
of possible interference with internal components of the ture, the equivalent width BEQ is used.
product, or by the need to match rib spacing with an
total width of section B
adjoining structure or decorative elements, the designer BEQ = =
number of ribs N
can specify the number of ribs and then determine the other
dimensions which will provide a minimum volume. Based on the moment of inertia equations for these
sections, the thickness ratios were determined and plot-
ted. These calculations were based on a rib thickness
equal to 60 per cent of the wall thickness. The curves
Known: Present wall thickness (tA) = 4,0 mm in Figures 4.10 and 4.11 are given in terms of the wall
Required: Ribs per mm (N) = 0,04 ribs per mm or 4 ribs thickness ratio for deflection (Wd / W) or thickness ratio
per 100 mm for stress (WS / W).
Therefore, for a base (W) of unity: The abscissae are expressed in terms of the ratio of rib
(tA) (N) (4,0) (0,04) height to wall thickness (H/W). The following problems
= = 0,16
W 1 and their step by step solutions illustrate how use of the
From Fig. 4.08 curves can simplify deflection and stress calculations.
tB
= 0,5, or tB = 0,5 × 4,0 = 2,0 mm Problem 1
tA
T A 4 mm thick copper plate, fixed at one end and subject
= 1,75, or T = 1,75 × 4,0 = about 7,0 mm to a uniform loading of 320 N, is to be replaced by a plate
tA
moulded in DELRIN® acetal resin. Determine the equivalent
VB ribbed section for the new plate; dimensions, see sketch
= 0,68
VA next page.
29
Flex modulus for copper: Maximum stress at the fixed end:
EC = 105 000 MPa
FL 320 × 250
max = = = 35,4 MPa
Flex modulus for DELRIN® acetal resin 2Z 2 × 1130
ED = 3000 MPa
Since DELRIN® acetal resin has a tensile strength value
of 69 MPa a safety factor of 2 is obtained.
Problem 2
320 N Determine deflection and stress for a structure as shown
4 mm
made of RYNITE® 530 thermoplastic polyester resin;
supported at both ends.
250 mm
100 mm 667,2 N 60
3 mm
1,8 mm
W
H
H = 5,7 × 3 = 17,1 mm
I = BWd = 60 ×10,8 = 6300 mm4
= 5,7 3 3
W
12 12
From the stress graph (Fig. 4.11) for H = 5,7 and
Z = BWs = 60 × 6,75 = 455 mm3
2 2
W
6 6
BEQ
= 3,7 we obtain:
max = 5 × FL = 5 × 667,2 × 508 = 20 mm
W 3 3
W
Determine the moment of inertia and section modulus for 8Z 8 × 455
the ribbed area, equal to that of the solid plastic plate: Since RYNITE® 530 has a tensile strength value of 158 MPa,
W 3 100 × 133
D
there will be a safety factor of approximately 1,7, assuming
I=B = = 18 300 mm4 the gate position is such, that can be counted on “in-flow”
12 12
properties.
BW 2S 100 × 8,25 2
Z= = = 1130 mm 3
6 6
Maximum deflection at the free end: Remark: Ribs having a height exceeding 5 times their
FL3 320 × 250 3 thickness and subject to higher compression stresses,
max = = = 11,4 mm
8 EI 8 × 3000 × 18 300 should be checked on danger for buckling (instability).
30
10
0,62
9
1,0
8 1,25
1,87
7 2,5
3,75
Wall thickness ratio
6 5,0
6,25
7,5
BEQ
5
W
10,0
12,5
15,0
20,0
Wd
4
W
25
37,5
50
3
75
150
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H
Height of rib ratio
W
1° R
0,03R H
0,6 W
B
Wd
31
10
0,62
8
7 1,0
1,25
Wall thickness ratio
1,87
BEQ
5
W
2,5
Ws
4
W
3,75
5,0
6,25
3 7,5
10,0
12,5
2 15,0
20,0
25
37
50
1 75
150
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H
Height of rib ratio
W
1° R
0,03R H
0,6 W
B
Ws
32
Structural Design Formulae
Table 4.01 Properties of Sections
Form of section Area A Distance from Moments of inertia I1 and I2 Radii of gyration r1 and r2
centroid to extremities about principal about principal
of section y1, y2 central axis 1 and 2 central axes
b
y1 A = bh y1 = y2 = h cos + b sin I1 = bh (h2 cos2 + b2 sin2 ) r1 = (h2 cos2 + b2 sin2 )
2 12 12
y2
h
2 3
b B b A = BH + bh y1 = y2 = H I1 = BH + bh r1 = BH3 + bh3
2 2 2 12 12 (BH + bh)
H
h
B B
B 2 2
b b y1
H
H
h
y2
h
3 3
B A = BH – bh y1 = y2 = H I1 = BH – bh r1 = BH3 – bh3
2 12 12 (BH – bh)
h
y1
b
h
h
H
b 2 b
2 y2
B B
b
A = bd1 + Bd y1 = H – y2 I1 = 1
(By23 – B1h3 + by31 – b1h31) r1 =
I
h h 1 d1
y1 3
B1
b + a(H – d – d1) y2 = (Bd + bd1) + a(h + h1)
2
H
2
y2 1 aH2 + B1d2 + b1d1 (2H – d1)
2 aH + B1d + b1d1
d
B B1
2
a
A=
Bh – b(H – d)
y1 = H – y2
2
y2 = aH + bd
2
I1 = 1
3 (By23 – bh3 + ay31 ) r1 =
I
Bd + a(H – d)
y1 b b 2(aH + bd)
h
2 2
y2
d
B
a a
a 2 2
y
b b
H
H
h
y
d
B B
a A = a2 y1 = y2 = 21 a 1
I1 = I2 = I3 = 12 a4 r1 = r2 = r3 = 0.289a
y1
a 1 1
y2
y1
A = bd y1 = y2 = 21 d I1 = 1 bd3 r1 0.289d
d 1 1 12
y2
33
Form of section Area A Distance from Moments of inertia I1 and I2 Radii of gyration r1 and r2
centroid to extremities about principal about principal
of section y1, y2 central axis 1 and 2 central axes
y1 = 2 d I1 = 1 bd 3 r1 = 0.2358d
y1 A = 1 bd
d 2 3 36
1 1
y2
y2 = 1 d
b 3
b 3 2 2
A = 1 (B + b)d y1 = d 2B + b I1 = d (B + 4Bb + b ) r1 =
3(B + b) 36(B + b)
y1 2 d
d 2(B 2 + 4Bb + b 2)
y2 = d B + 2b 6(B + b)
1 1
y2
3(B + b)
B
A = R2 y1 = y2 = R I = 1 R4 r= 1 R
R 4 2
R
R R0
2
A = (R 2 – R 0 ) y1 = y2 – R I = 14 (R 4 – R 40 ) r=
1
4
(R 2 + R 20)
1 1
R R0
2
A = R2
y1 = R 1 – 2 sin
3
I1 = 1 R4 + sin cos
4
r1 =
R 1
1
y1
y2 y2 = 2R sin
3
– 16 sin2
9
1R
2
1 + sin cos
16 sin2
92
1 – sin cos
2
I2 = 1 R 4 – sin cos r2 = 1 R
4 2
(1)
4 sin3
1 + 2 sin cos
4 3
2 A = 1 R 2 (2 y1 = R 1 – I1 = R + sin cos r2 = 1 R
y1
2 6 – 3 sin 2 4 2 – sin cos
1 1
– sin 2)
R y2 + 2 sin3 cos 64 sin6
–
2
y2 = R 4 sin3 – cos
6 – 3 sin 2 – 16 sin6
9( – sin cos
9(2 – sin 2)2
4
I2 = R 3 – 3 sin cos
r2 = 1 R
2
1– 2 sin3 cos
3( – sin cos )
12
– 2 sin3 cos
(2)
A = 2 Rt y1 = y2 = R I = R3 t r = 0.707R
R
R
t
R
– 2 sin2
+ Rt6 + sin cos – 2 sin2 /
y2 3
R
2
y2 = 2R sin – cos + t cos
2
2
34
Table 4.02 Shear, Moment, and Deflection Formulae for Beams; Reaction Formulae for Rigid Frames
Notation: W = load (N); w = unit load (N/linear mm); M is positive when clockwise; V is positive when upward; y is positive when upward.
Constraining moments, applied couples, loads, and reactions are positive when acting as shown. All forces are in N, all moments in N · mm;
all deflections and dimensions in mm. is in radians, I = moment of inertia of beam cross section (mm4).
Loading, support Reactions R1 and R2, Bending moment M Deflection y, maximum deflection,
and reference vertical shear V and maximum bending and end slope
number moment
(A to B) M = 0
Cantilever, R2 = + W (A to B) y = – 1 W (–a 3 + 3a 2l – 3a 2x)
intermediate load (B to C) M = –W(x – b) 6 El
(A to B) V=0
(B to C) V=–W Max M = –Wa at C
(B to C) y=– 1 W (x – b) 3 – 3a 2 (x – b) + 2a 3
b a 6 El
Y W
O
B
C
X
Max y = – 1 W (3a 2l – a3)
A 6 El
l
2
= + 1 Wa (A to B)
2 El
Cantilever, y = – 1 W (x 4 – 4l
R2 = + W M = – 1 W x2 3
x + 3l 4)
uniform load 2 l 24 Ell
V=–W x
l
Max M = – 1 Wl at B 3
Y W = wl
2 Max y = – 1 Wl
8 El
O
X
B 2
A
l = + 1 Wl at A
6 El
Cantilever, R2 = 0 M = M0 y = 1 M0 (l 2
– 2l x + x 2)
end couple V=0 Max M = M0 (A to B) 2 El
2
Y M0 Max y = + 1 M0 l at A
A 2 El
B
O X
=– M 0l
at A
l El
Cantilever, R2 = 0 (A to B) M=0 (A to B)
intermediate couple
l – 21 a – x
V=0 (B to C) M = M0
y = M0a
a
Max M = M0 (B to C) El
Y
A M0
B C
O X (B to C)
l
y = 1 M0 (x – l + a)2 – 2a (x – l + a) + a 2
2 El
El
Max y = M0a l – 1 a
2 at A
= – M0a (A to B)
El
R1 = + 1 W (A to B) M = + 1 Wx
End supports, 2 2 (A to B) y = – 1 W (3l 2
x – 4x3)
center load 48 El
R2 = + 1 W (B to C) M = + 1 W (l – x) 3
2
Y l 2 Max y = – 1 Wl at B
A W 2 C 48 El
O
(A to B) V=+1 W Max M = + 1 Wl at B
X 2 4 2
l B
= – 1 Wl at A,
(B to C) V=– 1 W 16 El
2
2
= + 1 Wl at C
16 El
35
Loading, support Reactions R1 and R2, Bending moment M Deflection y, maximum deflection,
and reference vertical shear V and maximum bending and end slope
number moment
2
End supports, R1 = + 1 W M=1 W x– x y = – 1 Wx (l 3
– 2l x 2 + x 3)
uniform load 2 2 l 24 Ell
3
Y
w
W=wl R2 = + 1 W Max M = + 1 Wl Max y = – 5 Wl at x = 1 l
A B 2 8 384 El 2
at x = 1 l
X
O
2
l 2 2
V = 1 W 1 – 2x = – 1 Wl at A; = + 1 Wl at B
2 l 24 El 24 El
End supports,
R1 = + W b (A to B) M = + W b x (A to B) y = – Wbx 2l (l – x) – b2 – (l – x)2
intermediate load l l 6Ell
R2 = + W a
l (B to C) M = + W a (l – x) (B to C) y = – Wa (l – x) 2l b – b2 – (l – x)2
Y a b l 6Ell
W (A to B) V = + W b
A C l
O B
X
(B to C) V = – W a
Max M = + W ab at B Max y = – Wab (a + 2b)
27Ell
3a (a + 2b)
l l
l
at x =
1 a (a + 2b) when a > b
3
3
= – 1 W bl – b at A;
6 El l
3
= + 1 W 2bl + b – 3b2 at C;
6 El l
3x
3
End supports, R1 = – M0 M = M0 + R1x y = – 1 M0 2
– x – 2l x
end couple l Max M = M0 at A 6 El l
R1 = + M0
Y l
2
Max y = 0.0642 M0 l
M0
A B V = R1 at x = 0.422l
X El
O
l
= – 1 M0 l at A; = + 1 M0 l at B
3 El 6 El
(B to C) V = – 11 W Max –M = – 3 Wl at C = – 1 Wl at A
16 16 32 El
3a ll – a
2 3
One end fixed, R1 = 1 W 3
(A to B) M = R1x
(A to B) y = 1 R1 (x3 – 3l 2x) + 3Wa2x
one end supported. 2 (B to C) 6El
Intermediate load R2 = W – R1 (B to C)
M = R1x – W(x – l + a)
y = 1 R1 (x3 – 3l 2x) + W 3a2x – (x – b)3
(4)
Y b W a
M2 = 1 W a3 + 2al 2 – 3a2l Max + M = R1(l – a) at B; 6El
A C M2
X
2 l 2 Max. possible value
O B
(A to B) V = + R1 if a < 0.586l, max y is between A and B at:
l = 0.174 Wl
(B to C) V = R1 – W when a = 0.634l
Max – M = – M2 at C;
x=l
1– 2l
3l – a
Max. possible value 2
+ b2)
if a > 0.586l, max is at: x = l (l 2
= – 0.1927Wl 3l – b2
3
when a = 0.4227l if a > 0.586l, max y is at B and x = – 0.0098 Wl ,
El
max possible deflection
al
3
= 1 W – a2 at A
4 El
36
Loading, support Reactions R1 and R2, Bending moment M and Deflection y, maximum deflection,
and reference constraining moments maximum positive and negative and end slope
number M1 and M2 bending moment
and vertical shear V
38 x – 21 xl
2
One end fixed, R1 = 3 W M=W y = – 1 W (3l x 3 – 2x 4 + l 3x)
one end supported. 8 48 Ell
Uniform load. 3
R2 = 5 W Max + M = 9 Wl at x = 3 l Max y = – 0.0054 Wl at x = 0.4215l
8 128 8 El
Y W = wl 2
1 Wl
w
A B M2 = 1 Wl Max – M = – at B = – 1 Wl at A
X 8 8 24 El
O M2
l V=W 3–x
8 l
3
One end fixed, R1 = – 3 M0 M = 1 M0 2 – 3 x y = 1 M0 2x 2 – x – x l
one end supported. 2 l 2 l 4 El l
End couple. 2
R2 = + 3 M0 Max + M = M0 at A Max y = – 1 M0 l at x = 1 l
Y 2 l 27 El 3
M0 M2
A B
X M2 = 1 M0 Max – M = 1 M0 at B = – 1 M0 l at A
O 2 2 4 El
l
V = – 3 M0
2 l
2 – a2
R1 = – 3 M0 l 2 (A to B) M = R1x (A to B)
One end fixed, 2 l 2 2
one end supported.
l (B to C) M = R1x + M0 y = M0 l –3a (3l 2x – x3) – (l – a)x
El 4l
2 – a2
R2 = + 3 M0 l 2
Intermediate couple.
2 2
2 l l Max + M = M0 1 – 3a(l 3 – a )
2l (B to C)
1 – 3 l
Y
M2 = 1 M0 a2
a at B (to right) 2 2
A
M0
C
M2
2 2 y = M0 l –3a (3l 2x – x3) – l x + 1 (x 2 + a 2)
O
X
Max – M = –M2 at C El 4l 2
B
(A to B) V = R1
l (when a < 0.275 l )
2
(B to C) V = R1
Max – M = R1a at B (to left) = M0 a – 1 l – 3 a at A
El 4 4 l
(when a > 0.275 l )
37
Loading, support Reactions R1 and R2, Bending moment M and Deflection y, maximum deflection,
and reference constraining moments maximum positive and negative and end slope
number M1 and M2 bending moment
and vertical shear V
2
Both ends fixed. R1 = Wb3 (3a + b) (A to B)
2
(A to B)
Intermediate couple. l M = – W ab2 + R1x 2 2
2 l y = 1 Wb x3 (3ax + bx – 3a l )
6 Ell
R2 = Wa3 (3b + a)
l (B to C)
2 (B to C)
M = – W ab2 + R1x – W (x – a)
Y a b 2
M1 = W ab2
2 2
M1 A W C M2
l l y = 1 Wa (l –3 x) (3b + a) (l – x) – 3bl
O
X 6 Ell
B 2 2
l M2 = W a b Max + M = – W ab2 + R1 at B;
l 2 l
Max y = – 2 W a 3b 2
3 El (3a + b)2
(A to B) V = R1 max possible value = 1 Wl
8
(B to C) V = R1 – W
when a = 1 l at x = 2a l if a > b
2 3a + b
Max – M = – M1 when a < b;
max possible value = –0.1481 Wl
when a = 1 l Max y = – 2 W a 2b 3
3 3 El (3b + a)2
Max – M = – M2 when a > b;
max possible value = –0.1481 Wl
2bl
when a = 2 l at x = l – if a < b
3 3b + a
x – xl
2 2
Both ends fixed. R1 = 1 W M=1 W –1l y = 1 Wx (2l x – l 2
– x 2)
Uniform load. 2 2 6 24 Ell
3
R2 = 1 W Max + M = 1 Wl at x = 1 l Max y = – 1 Wl at x = 1 l
2 384 EI 2
Y W = wl 24 2
M1 M2 M1 = 1 Wl
X 12 Max – M = – 1 Wl at A and B
O A B 12
l M2 = 1 Wl
12
V = 1 W 1 – 2x
2 l
Both ends fixed. M0 (A to B) M = – M1 + R1x (A to B)
R1 = – 6 (al – a2)
Intermediate couple. l 3 (B to C) M = – M1 + R1x + M0 y = – 1 (3M1x 2 – R1x 3)
M0 6El
R2 = 6 (al – a2)
2 3
l 3 Max + M = M0 4 a – 9 a 2 + 6 a 3 – 1 (B to C)
Y a
M1 A M0 C M2
M l l l
X
M1 = – 20 (4l a – 3a2 – l 2)
l y = 1 (M0 – M1) (3x 2 – 6l x + 3l 2)
O B 6El
M just right of B – R1 (3l 2x – x 3 – 2l 3)
l M2 = 20 (2l a – 3a2)
l
V = R1 2M1 1
2 3
Max + M = M0 4 a – 9 a 2 + 6 a 3 Max – y at x =
R1
if a >
3
l
l l l
2M2 2
just left of B Max – y at x = l – if a < l
R2 3
38
Table 4.03 Formulae for Torsional Deformation and Stress
ML M
General formulae: = T , = T , where = angle of twist (rad); MT = twisting moment (N · mm);
KG Q
l = length (mm); = unit shear stress (MPa); G = shear modulus (MPa); K (mm4) is a function of the cross section.
MT l
Form an dimensions of cross sections Formula for K in = Formula for shear stress
KG
2r
2a
(b ≥ a)
b
r1
r0
39
Table 4.04 Formulae for Stresses and Deformations in Pressure Vessels
Notation for thin vessels: p = unit pressure (MPa); σ1 = meridional membrane stress, positive when tensile (MPa); σ2 = hoop membrane stress,
positive when tensile (MPa); τs = shear stress (MPa); R = mean radius of circumference (mm); t = wall thickness (mm); E = modulus of elasticity
(MPa); v = Poisson's ratio.
Notation for thick vessels: σ1 = meridional wall stress, positive when acting as shown (MPa); σ2 = hoop wall stress, positive when acting as
shown (MPa); σ3 = radial wall stress, positive when acting as shown (MPa); a = inner radius of vessel (mm); b = outer radius of vessel (mm);
r = radius from axis to point where stress is to be found (mm); ∆a = change in inner radius due to pressure, positive when representing an
increase (mm); ∆b = change in outer radius due to pressure, positive when representing an increase (mm). Other notation same as that used
for thin vessels.
t y
External collapsing pressure p =
R y R 2
1+4
E t
r a b
under uniform internal
pressure p, MPa
1 =
pb
t 1 2r+ a
O
Max 1 =
pb
t 2a2a––2bb at 0
1
pR
t
2 = (uniform throughout)
2t
40
Form of vessel Manner of loding Formulas
b2
Max = p at inner surface
b2 – a2
bb +– aa
2 2
a = p a 2 2
+v ;
E
b 2a– a
2
b = p b 2 2
E
1
Max = max 2 at inner surface
2
b 2b– a ;
2
a = – p a 2 2
E
2 2
b = – p b a 2 + b2 – v
E b –a
b a– a ;
2 2 2
a = p a b 2 + a2 – v 2 2
–1
E b –a
b a– a
2
b
b = p 2 2
(2 – v)
E
3b 3
Max = p at inner surface
4 (b 3 – a 3)
2 (b3a– a ) (1 – v )
3
b = p b 3 3
E
1 – ba
3
2y
Yield pressure py = 3
3
b 3 (r 3 – a 3)
3 = – p • Max 3 = – p at outer surface;
r 3 (b 3 – a 3)
2 (b3b– a ) (1 – v );
3
a = – p a 3 3
E
41
Table 4.05 Buckling of Columns, Rings and Arches
E = modulus of elasticity, I = moment of inertia of cross section about central axis perpendicular to plane of buckling. All dimensions are in mm,
all forces in N, all angles in radians.
Form of bar;
Formulas for critical load Fc , or critical unit load qc
manner of loading and support
Fc = El
Uniform straight bar under end load 2
l l
Fc = 2El
Uniform straight bar under end load 2
l l
Fc = El 2
Uniform straight bar under end load 2
0,70.7l
l
0,30.3l
l
– 1
Uniform circular arch under uniform radial 2
qc = El3 2
pressure q. Mean radius r. r
Ends hinged
42
Table 4.06 Formulae for Flat Plates
Notation: W = total applied load (N); p = unit applied load (MPa); t = thickness of plate (mm); = unit stress at surface of plate (MPa); y = vertical
deflection of plate from original position (mm); = slope of plate measured from horizontal (rad); E = modulus of elasticity; = Poisson’s ratio;
r denotes the distance from the center of a circular plate. Other dimensions and corresponding symbols are indicated on figures.
Positive sign for indicates tension at upper surface and equal compression at lower surface; negative sign indicates reverse condition.
Positive sign for y indicates upward deflection, negative sign downward deflection. Subscripts r, t, a, and b used with denote respectively radial
direction, tangential direction, direction of dimension a, and direction of dimension b.
All dimensions are in mm.
Manner of loading and Case No. Formulas for stress and deflection
Edges supported
Uniform load over Circular and solid
entire surface
a
W = p a2 (0 ≤ r ≤ a)
r1
Y
(3 + ) 1 – ar
2
(At r) r = – 3W2 2
8 t
(3 + ) – (1 + 3) ar
2
t = – 3W2 2
8 t
Edges fixed
(3 + ) ar – (1 + )
2
(At r) r = 3W
Uniform load over 8 t 2 2
(3 + ) ar – (1 + )
entire surface 2
t = 3W2 2
8 t
W = p a2
(At edge) Max r = 3W ; t = 3W2
4 t 2 4 t
l
(At center) r = r = – 3W (1 2+ )
8 t
3W (1 – 2) a 2
Max y = –
16 Et 3
4 4
0.142 a p 0.0284 a p
Max y
(b ≥ a) Et 3 a3
1+2.21 3
b
Et 3 1+1.056
a5
b5
43
Manner of loading and Case No. Formulas for stress and deflection
1/3a a
OO
pa 2
y Max x = 0.1488 at y = 0, x = – 0.062a
t2
pa 2
Max y = 0.1554 2 at y = 0, x = 0.129a (values for = 0.3)
t
pa 4 (1 – 2)
Max y = at centre O.
81Et 3
a
pa 2 pa 2 pa 4
Max r = ß Max 1 = ß1 Max y =
t2 t2 Et 2
44