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Motor Control Solutions Guidebook
Motor Control Solutions Guidebook
Motor Control Solutions Guidebook
115
116 Control and Automation Solutions Guide
Overview
Introduction
Motor control design for industrial industries. Furthermore, electric motors savings will soon offset those initial
applications requires attention consume about 45% of the world’s expenses. The return-on-investment
to both superior performance electricity according to the International calculations are often straightforward.
and ruggedness. Maxim’s feature Energy Agency (IEA) report of May
integration and superior specifications 2011 on global energy consumption
Interfacing to the Motor
enhance motor controller equipment by electric motor driven systems. By Controller
precision while improving robustness comparison, lighting is a distant second A very important aspect of every
in harsh industrial environments. consuming 19%. With the cost of energy motor controller in the industrial
rising steadily, plant operators look for control and automation setting is the
Motor controllers either control variable communications interface between
ways to reduce energy consumption
power supplies to the motor or to the factory control system and the
while maintaining throughput.
electronic switches between the power individual motor controller. All the
Furthermore, with the availability of
supply and the motor. These switches block diagrams in the individual motor
reasonably priced and highly capable
are precisely timed to open and close to controller sections show a control panel
motor controllers for all types of motors,
make the motor rotate most effectively. that provides a direct user interface
plant engineers are free to choose motor
The timing is often governed by complex at the controller and a standard
types that are less expensive, more
mathematical equations based on motor separately wired communications
efficient, and require less maintenance.
architecture and electromagnetic theory. interface that connects to the fieldbus.
Depending on the application, a motor To put the energy savings opportunity The fieldbus ultimately runs back to a
controller can be as simple as a variable- in perspective, compare motor power PLC (programmable logic controller)
voltage generator, a pulsed-DC voltage consumption vs. speed when driving that sends commands to the motor
source, or a complex signal generator fans and centrifugal pumps. The torque controller such as motor start, motor
requiring sophisticated digital signal needed rises with speed, resulting in acceleration, speed adjustment, motor
processing algorithms to generate the power draw that is proportional to stop, etc. An additional option exists:
correct timing. For large motors, those in the cube of the speed! In other words, powerline communications (PLC, not to
the multihorsepower range with multiple reducing the speed to one-half of full be confused with programmable logic
power phases, precise control is essential. speed drops the power to one-eighth controller). This technology gives the
At a minimum, the wrong timing can of full power. Even dropping the speed option of sharing command and control
result in extreme power use. In the to 75% of full speed drops the power connections with power connections
worst case, wrong timing can destroy consumption to 42% of full power (0.75 between the PLC (programmable logic
the motor and the installation itself. cubed = 0.42). It is clear that significant controller) and the motor controller.
savings in energy use can be realized
Many electric motors have maximum
by even small reductions in speed. This Motor Types
torque at zero RPM, so these large
fact, in turn, justifies the use of VFDs in Brushed DC Motors (BDCs)
motors must be soft-started. To reduce
applications that can tolerate the speed Brushed DC (BDC) motors are among
maintenance to a minimum, the
reduction. Of course, speed reduction the first motor types put to practical
mechanical mechanisms (clutches)
equates to performing the work more use and they are still popular where low
that traditionally provided this soft-
slowly, which, in some cases, directly initial cost is required. These motors
start capability are rapidly being
impacts throughput. Nonetheless, have a wound rotor armature and either
replaced by electronic soft-starters or
there are numerous applications where a permanent magnet stator or field
variable frequency drives (VFDs). In
motors do not need to run at full speed wound stator. Brushes slide across the
some applications motors must supply
to accomplish the work quickly enough. segments of the commutator on the
both forward and reverse tension to
Pumping out a tank of fluid may not rotor to switch the DC power source to
the load; optimally, braking energy
need to be done as fast as possible. the appropriate windings on the rotor.
from overhauling loads is fed back
Venting a room may need a full-speed
into the AC line using regenerative BDC motors have their place for two
fan at first, but once the air is moving a
VFDs instead of being wasted as heat important reasons: low initial cost and
slower speed may suffice. The EIA report
in large braking resistors or in high- ruggedness, because no electronics are
(May 2011) states that it is feasible and
maintenance mechanical brakes. needed inside the motor. Because the
cost effective to save 20% to 30% of total
Motor control is a very significant portion motor power consumption worldwide. motors suffer from wear of the brushes,
of the Control and Automation market. brush springs, and commutators, they
Certainly adding variable-speed require high maintenance in intensive-
According to U.S. Department of Energy,
controllers adds cost to the installation; use applications. Sparking also occurs
motor driven equipment accounts for
however, the forecasted energy between the brushes and the commutator
64% of the electricity consumed by U.S.
Motor Control 117
as a part of normal motor operation. Controllers for BDC Motors designers are abandoning linear voltage
This, in turn, creates EMI/RFI and small The only variable available to control regulation because of its inherently
amounts of ozone. Where system cost the speed of a BDC motor is the supply low efficiency. One way to realize a
is a priority, BDC motors are a low- voltage. The voltage can be varied variable-voltage power supply from
cost solution. While their efficiency or a fixed voltage can be pulsed with any switch-mode voltage regulator is to
is generally lower than brushless variable duty cycle. For high efficiency inject or extract current into or out of
DC (BLDC) motors, they approach in a variable voltage approach, a switch- its feedback node using a current sink/
equality under high-load conditions. mode power supply is required. Most source DAC. See Figure 1. When the
VDC
VARIABLE VOLTAGE TECHNIQUE
STOP SHDN FB
VCC
CURRENT-
MOTOR
SENSE AMP
FASTER SWITCH IOUT
DEBOUNCER DAC
MOTOR
ADC TEMPERATURE
SLOWER SPEED,
SENSOR
POSITION
µP SENSOR SENSOR
INTERFACE
VCC
DISPLAY
DISPLAY SUPERVISOR
DRIVER
UART ISOLATION TRANSCEIVER
FIELDBUS
VDC
PWM TECHNIQUE
VDC
STOP VCC
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
MOTOR
MOTOR
FASTER SWITCH GATE
DEBOUNCER DRIVER
VCC OP AMP
ADC
DISPLAY
DISPLAY SUPERVISOR
DRIVER
FIELDBUS
Figure 1. Two control techniques for BDC motors. The upper diagram shows a variable voltage technique that is high efficiency due to the switching power supply. The lower diagram
shows the PWM technique that can be lower cost if the motor is rated for the full supply voltage.
VDC
MOSFET H-BRIDGE
BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
VCC
BUCK
CURRENT-SENSE MOTOR
AMP x3 SPEED, TEMPERATURE
POSITION SENSOR
SENSOR
VCC
VCC
µP HALF-BRIDGE
TRANSCEIVER ISOLATION UART
DRIVER
SWITCH ADCs
SWITCHES
DEBOUNCER
KEYBOARD OP AMP
SCANNER
KEYBOARD
VDC
VDC VCC
VCC
BUCK
VDC
SUPERVISOR
STEPPER
BOOST
MOTOR
VCC
SHDN
GATE
DRIVER
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
GATE
FRONT PANEL DRIVER
DISPLAY
DISPLAY
DRIVER
µP
SWITCH
SWITCHES
DEBOUNCER
ADC
KEYBOARD OP AMP
SCANNER
KEYBOARD
FIELDBUS
Figure 6. Controller for stepper motor. The boost regulator and the current sense per phase allow current to ramp quickly in each pole of the motor. Motor response is fast. When the maximum current per
phase is reached, the boost regulator is shut down until the minimum current per phase is reached again. The cycle is repeated until the next step is made.
325V DC OR 650V DC
SWITCHED
RELUCTANCE
MOTOR
AC MAINS (3-PHASE)
230V AC OR 460V AC
VR OR
HALL-EFFECT TEMPERATURE
SENSOR SENSOR
AC-DC DC-DC
CONVERTER CONVERTER
VOLTAGE HIGH-SIDE
SUPERVISOR RESET
GATE DRIVER
FIELDBUS
SENSOR
INTERFACE
TRANSCEIVER ISOLATION UART µP
LOW-SIDE
GATE DRIVERS
KEYBOARD
SCANNER
KEYBOARD
ANALOG VOLTAGE/
AC MAINS (3-PHASE) CURRENT SENSORS
230V AC OR 460V AC
VR OR
HALL-EFFECT
SENSOR TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
AC-DC DC-DC
CONVERTER CONVERTER
VOLTAGE HIGH-SIDE
SUPERVISOR RESET
FIELDBUS GATE DRIVERS
KEYBOARD
SCANNER ADC
KEYBOARD
VOLTAGE-SENSE AMPS
ADC
ADC
ADC
Figure 10. Variable frequency drive for an AC induction motor.
SDA DC-DC
R0A
SCL CONVERTER
DS4432 OUT0 FB
OUT0
GND R0B
FS0 FS0
RFS0 RFS1
VCC VCC
VBATT
OUT
φ1A φ2B
MAX9918 A ADC
RSENSE
M MAX9920 R2
RS+ FB μC
INPUT-STAGE
LEVEL SHIFTER R1
RS-
REFIN
REF
ADJUSTABLE GAIN
φ2B φ1B GND
SHDN GND
The MAX9918/MAX9920 current-sense amplifiers provide precise uni/bidirectional current sensing in very harsh environments.
SLEEP-MODE SLEEP
CONTROL
BAT
100kΩ
AOUT1
ADC
5kΩ
DOUT1
ECUCONNECTOR
IN1 FILTER
REF
N 0.01μF MICROPROCESSOR
S
BAT
INPUT
REMOTE
GROUND
SHORT
DETECTION
MAX9621
AOUT2
ADC
5kΩ
IN2
N DOUT2
0.01μF
S
FILTER
REF
REMOTE
GROUND
GND
MOTOR BLOCK
MAX9924
DIFFERENTIAL
VR SENSOR
AMPLIFIER
μC
ADAPTIVE/MINIMUM
AND
ZERO-CROSSING
THRESHOLDS
INTERNAL/EXTERNAL
BIAS VOLTAGE
16-BIT
ADC
16-BIT
ADC
16-BIT
ADC
IPHASE1
IPHASE3
IPHASE2
POSITION
ENCODER
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134 Control and Automation Solutions Guide
The goal of calibration is to maintain a
piece of equipment in its most accurate
Calibration goods must either design with
high-precision components or
state. The goal of automated calibration Calibration usually addresses accuracy use some form of calibration.
is to improve efficiency and consistency and less often precision. From the above
discussion it is evident that calibration All electronic products must pass at
of the calibration process, while
may not have any effect on precision, least minimal signal testing prior to
minimizing the down time required
because other circuit parameters such shipping to ensure that the product
to verify equipment performance.
as noise may have an influence on works out of the box. A rigorous
Accuracy vs. Precision precision and no amount of calibration test and calibration process also
reduces liability from performance
The terms accuracy and precision are will reduce the spread of values. This is
of course not always the case, such as errors and provides a paper trail that
often used synonymously, but they are
in light beam focusing. When a beam is shows that industry and regulatory
not the same thing. Both are, however,
correctly focused, its spread is reduced. requirements have been followed.
needed to achieve the best results. We
can illustrate the differences between This is, of course, not always the case. Although new products may meet
these two terms through the following For complete basic calibration, it is often strenuous requirements for calibration,
example. To measure the performance required to correct for both offset and due to the effects of use, wear, and
of a particular system, one can plot the span (gain). This requires calibration environmental conditions, over
results of a large number of samples over at more than one point. If a system is time products may no longer meet
time on a graph and note the differences linear, calibration at two points will specifications. For some products the
between the actual results and the suffice since two points define a line effect is easily seen: a cell phone that no
desired result (Figure 1). Accuracy is the (Figure 2). If a system is nonlinear, longer receives calls, or a hard drive that
measure of how close the mean of the more calibration points are needed. loses data. For others, e.g., a voltmeter
total set of results is to the desired result. with a small drift, the effect cannot
Precision is a measure of the spread RESPONSE GAIN ERROR, CALIBRATED: be easily seen, but the impact may be
of these results relative to this mean. NO OFFSET ERROR NO GAIN OR
OFFSET ERROR
costly. Or, in the case of an insulin pump,
Precision only addresses how dispersed OFFSET ERROR,
the impact may be even dangerous. For
the results are, not how far they are NO GAIN ERROR many types of industrial (and medical)
from the average of the desired value. electronic equipment, calibration is
an on-going process and is the reason
why many products are now being
NUMBER OF
OCCURRENCES designed with self-calibration circuitry.
For control devices used in a production
ACCURACY
environment, a proper calibration
STIMULUS
process uses test equipment that has
been certified to standards traceable
to a government agency. In the U.S.
this agency is the National Institute of
Figure 2. For proper basic calibration, the system response to
MEASURED Standards and Technology (NIST). This
VALUES stimuli must be corrected for both offset and gain errors. Offset
errors do not produce a zero output for a zero input. Gain errors type of certified calibration requires
PRECISION
(when no offset error remains) show more deviation from the the services of a certified metrology
Figure 1. Accuracy and precision are two very different things. expected results at larger input stimuli. lab. The lab will not only calibrate the
equipment based upon recognized
standards, but will also provide reports
Calibration is the process of adjusting as part of their service. These reports
circuit parameters, such as offsets prove that the equipment has been
and gains, to make equipment meet measured and adjusted relative to a
specifications or a standard. All chain of standards traceable back to
organizations producing electronic the government’s master standards.
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142 Control and Automation Solutions Guide
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