Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Paper: PHHT-412 Optics

Lesson: Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Author: Dr. Charu Goel

College/Department: Physics, Miranda House

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Table of Contents

1. Learning Objectives

2. Applications of Interferometers

3. Determination of Wavelength

4. Measurement of Refractive Index of Thin Film

5. Determination of Spectral Width of Light Source

6. Resolution of Two Composite Spectral Lines

7. Standardisation of Meter in Terms of Wavelength of Light

8. Summary

9. Exercises

9. References

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

1. Learning Objectives

 To discuss the use and application of Michelson Interferometer in determination

of wavelength of a quasi monochromatic source

 To study the effect of introduction of thin, transparent film in one of the arms of
the interferometer on the interference pattern produced, and to use the effect
to determine refractive index/thickness of the film

 To correlate spectral width of the optical source to the variation of visibility of

fringes with path difference in a Michelson Interferometer, and determine
coherence length of the source from this analysis

 To determine wavelength separation between two composite lines of an optical

source using visibility measurements

 To express a standard meter in terms of number of optical wavelengths

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

2. Applications of Interferometers

Michelson’s interferometer is a very precise instrument that can very accurately

record a change in position and visibility of interference fringes in response to external
factors like a modification in wavelength or wavelength spread of the source or optical
path differences due to change of index of refraction of the medium or geometrical path
length. As a result Michelson’s interferometer and its modifications are widely used in
the research as well as optical industry for testing optical surfaces for irregularities, for
detecting traces of gases to measuring diameters of starts and planets! Some of the
applications of Michelson Interferometer covered in this chapter are:

 Measurement of wavelength of an optical source

 Measurement of refractive index of a transparent medium

 Standardisation of meter in terms of optical wavelengths

 Measurement of wavelength spread of quasi-monochromatic source

 Determination of wavelength separation between two discreet spectral lines of an

optical source

3. Measurement of Wavelength

The interferometer is adjusted to produce circular fringes by aligning the two mirrors
M1 and M2 perpendicular to each other. If using a telescope to view the fringes, the
cross-wire is focussed on one of the fringes. If instead a laser source is used and fringes
are obtained on a screen, then a marker is placed onto the screen to point to a certain
fringe. Now if mirror M1 is moved slowly by a distance d, then each time d is increased
by λ/2, a new fringe emerges at the centre and the fringe system moves outward by one
fringe. It appears as if when d is increased by λ/2, one fringe gets shifted out. Similarly,
if d is decreased by λ/2, one fringe collapses at the centre and the entire fringe system
moves inward by one fringe. This is in accordance with the fact that the since the
interfering beams traverse the distance between the mirrors and the glass plate twice,
the total path difference between them is twice the geometrical path difference (d)
between the two beam paths (d1 & d2). Therefore if d is varied by λ/2, 2d gets varied by
λ, and therefore at a particular position on the screen, the same interference condition
(constructive or destructive) is satisfied as before but the order of fringes is
increased/decreased by one.

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

If the total displacement given to mirror M1 is d and the number of fringes shifting is
n, then

2d = nλ (1)

The screw at the back of mirror M1 generally has about one inch of movement and it
can be moved very precisely with a typical least count of about (0.1 – 1) μm. Measuring
n and d give a direct measurement of wavelength λ of source used as:

λ = 2d/n (2)

State of the art setups for Michelson Interferometer include sensitive photodiodes to
accurately record the position of interference fringes and automated translational stages
to control the motion of mirror M1. The accuracy in determination of λ can be
substantially increased by considering the movement of a large number of circular
fringes (large n, large d). The only limitation in this is caused by the coherence length of
the optical source used. Good visibility interference fringes will be obtained only till the
path difference between interfering beams (i.e. 2d) remains less than the coherence
length of the source. This will be discussed in further detail in section 4.

Example1: Circular fringes are observed due to monochromatic light in a Michelson

Interferometer. A shift of 300 fringes is observed when the movable mirror is translated
by 0.073 mm. Determine the wavelength of the source used.

d = 0.073 mm

n=300

Using Eqn. 2, λ = (2 x 0.073 x 10-3)/300

= 4.87 x 10-4 mm

= 487 nm

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

4. Measurement of Refractive Index of Thin Film

If a thin film of refractive index μ and thickness t is inserted in the paths of one the
arms of the Michelson Interferometer, then the optical path of a beam of light through
the film is μt instead of just t (μ = 1 for air) in the absence of the film. Thus instead of
2d, the net path difference between the two interfering beams becomes:

= 2d – 2t + 2μt

= 2d + 2(μ-1)t

This change in optical path difference on the introduction of thin film causes the
interference pattern to change. The positions on the screen where constructive or
destructive interference conditions are met get modified. For example on the inclusion of
the thin film, a certain order of bright fringe suddenly jumps to its new position on the
screen. For example, if in the absence of the film, the interference condition for bright
fringe satisfied at a particular position in space is given by:

2d = m1 λ

In the presence of film, the condition gets modified to

2d + 2(μ-1)t = m2 λ

If one can measure the number of fringes (n = m2 – m1) shifting because of inclusion of
the thin film, then

2(μ-1)t = n λ (3)

With monochromatic light, all fringes are identical and the jump in the fringe potion is
sudden when the thin film is inserted; hence it is not possible to know how many fringes
have shifted. This difficulty is resolved by using localised fringes with white light as a
reference. We may recall that localised fringes are obtained in Michelson Interferometer
by giving a slight tilt to mirror M2. Fringes of equal thickness are formed because of the
wedge shaped air film formed between the two beam paths. The position of zero path
difference (d = 0) between the two beams is marked by the presence of a white band
formed at that position because all wavelengths simultaneously satisfy the interference
condition for maximum for d = 0. On insertion of thin film, the position of white band
shifts because now the white band corresponds to the position for which 2d + 2(μ-1)t =
0. The position of the screw V is noted when the white band is at the cross wire of the
telescope in the absence of the film. The white band gets displaced after insertion of the
thin film. The screw is moved until the white band comes back to the cross-wire. The
motion of the screw gives the amount of translation (d’) given to mirror M1, and

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

2d’ = 2(μ-1)t

d’ = (μ-1)t (4)

Knowing μ, one can determine t, and vice versa. Alternatively, one may superimpose the
white light pattern onto the interference pattern formed by a monochromatic source and
one may count the number n of monochromatic fringes between the two positions of the
white band. In that case, one can use Eq. 3 to determine μ or t.

For thicker plates, the optical path difference between the two beams may be large
and the white light fringes may not be formed rendering this method not useful. In that
case, two plates of identical thickness are inserted in the path of each beam. The
experiment is set for circular fringes with monochromatic source. One plate is turned
gradually about a vertical axis and the number of fringes shifted are counted
corresponding to a given angle of rotation. With increase in angle of rotation, the
effective thickness of the plate is increased, which in turn can be related to the number
of fringes shifting. Hence, the effective thickness of the plate for various angles can be
measured and from that, the actual thickness of the plate can be calculated.

This method is also applicable for measuring index of refraction of gases and transparent
liquids, wherein the gas or liquid is introduced in an evacuated tube in the paths of one
of the two interfering beams.

Example 2: A thin film of refractive index 1.5 is inserted in one of the arms of Michelson
Interferometer. If a shift of 10 fringes is observed using monochromatic source of
wavelength 589 nm, determine the thickness of the film.

Using Eqn. 3 2(μ-1)t = n λ

μ = 1.5
λ = 589 x 10-9 m
n = 10

t = (10 x 589 x 10-9)/(2 x 0.5)

t = 5.89 x 10-6 m

t = 5.89 μm

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Example 3: Michelson Interferometer is set for straight line fringes using white light and
the white band is focussed on the cross wire. A thin transparent sheet of thickness 0.005
cm is then introduced in front of mirror M2, which displaces the white band. To bring the
white band back to the crosswire, one has to move the movable mirror by 0.0025 cm.
Determine the refractive index of the film.

t = 0.005 cm

d’ = 0.0025 cm

Using Eqn 4, d’ = (μ-1)t

μ = 1 + (d’/t)

μ =1 + 0.0025/(0.005)

μ = 1.5

5. Determination of Spectral Width of Light Source

Even pure spectral line sources such as mercury and cadmium arcs are not highly
coherent and have a finite spectral width Δλ. The width of a spectral line Δλ is given by
the width of the wavelength versus intensity curve at half its maximum value—the so-
called full-width-at-half-maximum (FWHM). A finite Δλ symbolises that a range of
wavelengths are present in the source output. All these wavelengths form distinct
interference patterns with slightly different spacing between fringes. When path
difference between interfering beams is small, the interference patterns produced by
these different spectral components almost overlap each other and the visibility of the
overall pattern is high. As d is increased, the interference fringes formed by different
spectral lines cease to overlap completely and hence visibility reduces, the fringes
become indistinct and eventually disappear. A typical variation of visibility with distance
(d) moved by movable mirror is shown in Figure 1.

Visibility of Fringes

Distance (d) moved by M1

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Figure 1: Variation of Visibility of fringes with path difference
 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

The path length di at which the fringes produced by a partially monochromatic source
disappear can be related to coherence length of the source. If we represent this spectral
width of a source in terms of frequency by Δ, then its coherence length LC is given by

LC = c/ Δ (5)

where c is the speed of light in vacuum given by 3 x 108 m/s.

One can think of the coherence length of a light source as the length of
the uninterrupted wave train of light (or wave packets) that it produces. An ideal
monochromatic source would produce infinite long train of uninterrupted oscillations of
light. Hence its coherence length is infinity and since an ideal monochromatic source is
strictly single frequency (or wavelength), its spectral width Δ (or Δλ) is equal to zero.
Instead, a source that gives off short bursts of light (or wave packets) interrupted by
random phase changes, will produce short wave trains of light and, will be characterized
by a short coherence length. Typically, lasers have coherence lengths of the order of
tens of meters and longer, while white-light sources have a coherence length as short as
a micrometer! A spectral line of mercury source (white light source) has a coherence
length of the order of tens of millimetre. One the other hand, a pure spectral line source
such as the red line of cadmium can have a coherence length as long as 40 centimetres.
The interference fringes produced by quasi-monochromatic source in Michelson
Interferometer disappear when the path difference di between the two beams become
equal to the coherence length Lc. Hence Michelson’s Interferometer gives a direct
measurement of coherence length of a source or alternatively its spectral width Δ or Δλ.

di = Lc (6)

Example 4: Visibility of fringes obtained with a partially monochromatic source (central

wavelength 600 nm) in Michelson Interferometer experiment drop to zero for difference
of 6 mm between the two arms of the interferometer. Determine the wavelength spread
(Δλ) of the source.

di = 6 mm
λ = 600 x 10-9 m
Using Eqn. 6, coherence length of source Lc = 6 mm

Using Eqn. 5 Δ = c / Lc

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

= 3 x 108/6 x 10-3

Δ = 5 x 1010 Hz

 = c /λ

Δ = -c Δ λ /λ2

Δ λ = λ2Δ/c

= [(450 x 10-9 m)2 x 5 x 1010]/ 3 x 108

Δ λ = 6 x 10-13 m

6. Resolution of Two Composite Spectral Lines

Michelson Interferometer also finds application in resolving composite (close) spectral

lines of a source, for example D1 and D2 lines of sodium. Each wavelength forms its own
set of circular fringes according to the interference condition:

2d cosm = m λ

At a certain mirror position, the two sets of fringes may overlap (i.e. bright and dark
fringes corresponding to the two wavelengths coincide each other) and hence the overall
visibility of fringes will be high. If the path difference between the two arms of
interferometer is now gradually increased, the two sets of fringes will start getting out of
step and the visibility will eventually be very low. Again at a certain mirror position, the
two sets will overlap and the visibility will increase. Therefore, for an optical source
containing two discreet spectral lines, the visibility shows modulated behaviour with
increase in path difference. The overall visibility also keeps decreasing because of finite
spectral width of each line, in accordance with Figure 1. Figure 2 shows the characteristic
visibility curve for a source containing two discreet spectral components.

Visibility of Fringes

Distance (d) moved by M1

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Figure 2: Variation of Visibility of fringes with path difference
10
for a source containing two composite spectral lines
 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

If we are looking at fringes close to the centre, then cos m ~ 1. Let d1 be the path
difference between two arms of interferometer at one such coincidence when the two
sets of fringes overlap each other. Their respective orders (m 1 and m2) of interference
will be related by:

m1 = m 2 + N

where N must be an integer

Using Eqn 1,

2d1/ λ1 = 2d1/ λ2 + N (2)

Let the optical path difference between the two arms be increased to d2 for the
next such position where the two interference pattern overlap each other. This situation
will correspond to the value of integer N incremented by 1. That is:

2d2/ λ1 = 2d2/ λ2 + N + 1 (3)

Subtracting Eqn 2 from 3, we obtain:

2(d2 – d1)(1/ λ1 - 1/ λ2)= 1

λ2 – λ1 = λ1 λ2/(2d) (4)

where d = d2 – d1 i.e. the separation between two mirror positions corresponding to

two consecutive positions of high visibility of fringes. Since λ1 and λ2 are very close to
each other, the above relation can be approximated to:

 λ = λ2/(2d) (5)

where λ is the mean wavelength of the two spectral lines and  λ is the wavelength
separation between the two.

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Example 5: In an experiment with Michelson Interferometer done with sodium light, the
mirror positions for maximum visibility are found to be 0.6737 mm and 0.9686 mm. If
the mean sodium wavelength is 5893 Å, determine the wavelength separation between
the sodium doublet.

λ=?

λ = 5893 Å

d1 = 0.6737 mm

d2 = 0.9686 mm

d = d 2 – d 1

= (0.9686 - 0.6737) mm

= 0.2949 mm

Using Eqn. 5,

 λ = (5893 x 10-10)2/(2 x 0.2949 x 10-3)

= 5.888 x 10-10 m

λ~6Å

7. Standardisation of Meter in Terms of Wavelength of

Light

Atomic wavelengths are very stable components and hence a standard length (one
meter) can be defined in terms of a stable and sharp spectral line like red line of
Cadmium. Ideally, it is straightforward to express a length (in terms of path difference)

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

in terms of wavelength of spectral line by counting the number (n) of fringes that are
displaced by adding a path difference d between the two arms of interferometer.

2d= nλ

However it is physically impossible to count the huge number of fringes that would
be shifting when the mirror is moved from one end of standard meter to the other.
Hence Michelson modified the interferometer and devised a set of nine sub-standards of
length known as etalons. Each etalon is twice the length of the preceding one. The
longest etalon was 10 cm and that of the smallest one was 10/2 8 = 0.039 cm.

Construction of an etalon

An etalon consists of a bronze bar B on which two front silvered mirrors M1 and M2
are fixed. The mirrors are aligned vertical and exactly parallel to each other with the help
of screws attached to their rear surfaces. The length of an etalon is measured as the
distance between the faces of the two mirrors. Since each etalon is twice the size of the
preceding one, the etalons measure 10/28, 10/27, 10/26, 10/25, 10/24, 10/23, 10/22,
10/21 and 10/20 = 10 cm respectively. Figure 3 shows the schematic of an etalon.

d M2

M1

Figure 3: Construction of an etalon

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Modified Setup of Michelson Interferometer

The design of the Michelson Interferometer is altered to standardise a meter in terms

of spectral line wavelengths. Two etalons replace one of the mirrors in the standard
Michelson interferometer setup. An additional mirror A, is kept parallel to beam splitting
glass plate G1. This makes the two interfering beams parallel to each other instead of
being perpendicular to each other, as in the original setup. Now the etalons and the
movable mirror M can all be moved parallel to each other. The field of view of the
interferometer essentially covers all the four mirrors in the two etalons (i.e. M 1, M2, M3
and M4) and shows their interfernce with the light coming from mirror M. Figure 4 shows
the modified setup of Michelson Interferometer.

The principle behind the standardisation of meter is as follows:

a) The length of the shortest etalon is first standardised in terms of wavelength of

an optical source by counting the exact number of fringes shifting because of
this path length
b) The shortest etalon is then compared with the next higher order etalon (which
is roughly twice its length) and the length of the second etalon is also
characterised in terms of standard optical wavelength.
c) This way each etalon is compared with its next higher order etalon and finally
the longest one (10 cm) is characterised in terms of standard wavelength of an
optical source.
d) Longest etalon is compared with a standard meter rod and thus standard
meter is also characterised in terms of standard wavelength of light.

II
I
3 M4

2 M2
M M1
1 M3

G2

A
G1

Extended White
Light Source Eye
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Figure 4: Comparison of etalons by modified setup of Michelson Interferometer

 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Comparison of Etalons

The two shortest etalons are first mounted on one of the arms of the Michelson
Interferometer, as shown in Figure 4. White light source is used and the mirrors
orientation and distances are so adjusted that white bands are seen in the field of view
of M1 and M3. This ensures that the optical paths from M, M1 and M3 to the G1 are all
equal, and that all the three mirrors are coplanar.

White light source is then replaced by monochromatic source like red line of
cadmium and mirror M is gradually moved backward. As the mirror M moves from
position 1 to position 2, the path difference between G1M1 and G1M increases and circular
fringes move out. At position 2, mirror M is coplanar with M2 and the optical paths G1M2
and G1M are equal. Just like position 1 is characterised by the presence of white band
(while using white light source) at the cross wire corresponding to the field position of
mirror M1, position 2 is characterised by reappearance of the white band at the cross-
wire, at the field of view corresponding to mirror M2.
If one counts the number of fringes n shifting in moving from position 1 to position
2, then the length d1 of first etalon can be expressed as:

d1 = n/2

Fraction of a fringe can be is estimated by rotating the compensating plate G2.

Rotation of compensating plate changes its effective thickness for the ray path and
hence alters the path. This rotation is pre-calibrated as to how much rotation causes one
fringe to shift through the field of view. Therefore measuring the angle of rotation
required to shift the fractional fringe, one can easily calculate the fraction of fringe within
0.05 of a fringe width.

Etalon I is then moved back by its own length till white light fringes reappear in its
first mirror M1. Let this shifted positions of the two mirrors of the I etalon be
characterised by primed co-ordinates (i.e. M’1 and M’2) In this position, M is coplanar
with M’1 as well as M3 again. Mirror M is now moved back to position 3 so that white light
fringes appear in the second mirror M2 (which is now at position M’2). If the II etalon is
exactly double the length of I etalon, white light fringes should be simultaneously visible
in mirror M4 as well. This is generally not the case and therefore one has to switch back
again to monochromatic source, and count the number of fringes m shifted in moving
the mirror M from being coplanar with M’2 to being coplanar with M4. This procedure

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

gives the exact length of second etalon in terms of wavelength of monochromatic source
as:

d2 = 2d1 + m/2

d2 = (n + m/2) 

One can then compare each etalon with its next higher order one and subsequently
express the length of tenth etalon in terms of wavelength of a monochromatic source.

Did you know?

Albert A. Michelson was awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in the year 1907 for his
precise measurements using Interferometer, including that of standard metre in
terms of red spectral line of Cadmium. It was later found out that Cadmium red
line is not a very pure line and is actually a cluster of closely spaced spectral lines
because of the existence of eight isotopes of Cadmium. Krypton orange line was
found to be sharper, mono-isotopic and more stable. Hence, in the year 1960, a
new definition for standard metre was recognised as 1, 650, 763.73 wavelengths
in vacuum of orange radiation of Krypton-86.
Current definition of standard meter is in terms of speed of light in vacuum, which
is an accepted universal constant.

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Comparison of tenth etalon with standard meter

To express the length of a standard meter in terms of wavelength of light, the 10

cm long etalon was compared with a replica of the standard meter rod (Figure 5). The
replica meter rod has two diamond scratches P and Q. The 10 cm etalon is designed to
have a similar diamond scratch X. The meter rod is placed parallel to the etalon. With
the help of a high resolution microscope, the marker X on the etalon is aligned exactly
with marker P on the rod. In this position, the movable mirror is moved to be coplanar
with second mirror M2 of the etalon. This is ensured by locating white light fringe on the
cross wire in the field of view corresponding to mirror M2. The etalon is then moved
through its length so that in this position of M, white light fringes appear in mirror M1.
Mirror M is moved again so that white light fringes appear in mirror M2 now.
Q

10 cm Etalon
3

M2 X
2
M M1 P
1

G2

A
G1

Extended White
Light Source Eye

Figure 5: Comparison of 10 cm etalon with Standard Meter Rod

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

This way the cycle is repeated ten times by alternately locating the white light
fringes in the two mirrors of the etalon. After ten such displacements, the marker on the
etalon X will be very close to marker Q on the meter rod. Marker Q is again focussed
under a microscope and white light source is replaced again with the monochromatic
source. The etalon is moved so that X coincides exactly with Q. Mirror M is now moved
backwards and the fringes shifted is counted till the mirror M coincides again with M1.
Any fractional fringe can be measured by rotating the compensating plate as discussed
previously.

The final result for standard meter in terms of Cadmium lines is given in Table 1.
The precision of this result is one part in million and is one of the most precise physical
measurements made.

Table 1

Spectral Line of Cd Wavelength (Å) Standard Meter

Red line 6438.4722 1, 553,163.5 

Green Line 5085.8240 1, 966, 249.7 

Blue Line 4799.9107 2, 083, 372.1 

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Summary

 Interferometers are very precise instruments based on the phenomenon of

interference. Minute changes in factors like wavelength, wavelength spread of
source and optical path lengths can influence the interference patterns
produced. Hence a measurement of the changes in the interference pattern can
give very precise measurements for the physical quantity responsible for the
change.

 As one changes the path difference between the two arms of the interferometer
by motion of the movable mirror, interference fringes move outwards or
inwards. The number of fringes shifting in correlation with the path difference
introduced gives a direct measurement of the wavelength of the source used.

 Introduction of a thin transparent film in the path of one of the interfering

beams of the interferometer introduces a sudden additional optical path
difference. As a result, the interference pattern shifts from its position in the
absence of the film. If we know the thickness of the film, then a measurement
of this shift directly gives the value of the refractive index of the film, and vice-
versa.

 Optical wavelengths are found to be very stable physical constants. The design
of Michelson Interferometer can be modified to express the standard of length
meter in terms of wavelength of an optical source.

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

Exercises

Short Answer Questions

1) Discuss how Michelson Interferometer can be used to determine wavelength of

monochromatic source.

2) Why do you need white light source in the experiment to determine refractive
index of a thin film using Michelson Interferometer?

3) Why does visibility of fringes decrease with path difference between two arms of
a Michelson Interferometer while using a quasi-monochromatic source? How
would the behaviour change if one could use an ideal monochromatic source
instead?

Essay Type Questions

4) Discuss how does visibility of fringes vary with path difference between two arms
of a Michelson Interferometer when an optical source containing two close-by
spectral lines is used.

5) Explain how Michelson Interferometer be used to express standard meter in

terms of optical wavelength.

Problems

6) Localised interference fringes are observed in Michelson Interferometer using

sodium lines (5890 Å and 5896 Å). The path difference between the two arms of
the interferometer is adjusted to be equal to zero. By how much should the path
difference be increased so that a bright fringe corresponding to 5896 Å coincides
with a dark fringe corresponding to 5890 Å.

Ans.

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

7) In an experiment performed with Michelson Interferometer using sodium doublet,

the distance between mirror positions for maximum visibility of fringes is 0.2945
mm. If the mean sodium wavelength is 5893 Å, determine the wavelength
separation between the two spectral lines.

Ans. 5.89 Å

8) Michelson Interferometer is adjusted to obtain straight line fringes using a white

light source and the central white band is set to be at cross wires. A mica sheet is
then introduced in one of the arms of the interferometer and the fringes shift
from their original position. To bring the white band back at the cross wires, the
movable mirror is moved by 0.0025 cm. Determine the refractive index of the
mica sheet.

Ans. 1.50

9) 100 circular fringes cross the field of view in a Michelson Interferometer

experiment, when the movable mirror is moved by a distance 0.02948 mm.
Determine the wavelength of the optical source used.

Ans. 5896 Å

10) Ten interference fringes get shifted when a thin plate of refractive index 1.50 is
introduced in one of the arms of the Michelson Interferometer. Find the thickness
of the plate if the wavelength of monochromatic source used is 6000 Å.

Ans. 6 m

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 Applications of Michelson Interferometer

References

1. Fundamentals of Optics By Francis Arthur Jenkins and Harvey Elliott White

(McGraw-Hill, 1976)

2. Optics By Eugene Hecht and A R Ganesan (Pearson Education, 2002)

3. Optics By Ajoy Ghatak (Tata McGraw Hill, 2008)

4. Introduction to Optics By Frank L. Pedrotti, Leno M. Pedrotti and Leno S.

Pedrotti (Pearson Education, 2007)

5. Fundamentals of optics By D. R. Khanna and H. R. Gulati (R. Chand & Co.,

1998)

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