……………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………..
……………………………
…………………………
 𝑛 𝑛

𝑥𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑟ℎ, 𝑈(𝑃, 𝑓) = ∑ 𝑥𝑟 (𝑥𝑟 – 𝑥𝑟−1 ) = ∑(𝑎 + 𝑟ℎ)ℎ

𝑟=1 𝑟=1

Put h = (b-a)/n;

……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………..

Let fn→ f pointwise and fn is monotonic over [a,b], with each fn continuous, and
f continuous. Then fn → f uniformly.
…………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………
if A is a 2 x 2 matrix  A1000 = combination of A1 and I

if A is a 3 x 3 matrix  A5000 = combination of A2 , A and I

………………………………..
…………………………………………………..

……………………………………..
………………………………….

………………………………….
……………………………………………….

……………………………
…………………………………..

……………………………………………..

……………………………………………..
………………………..
when a = 1/e; just apply second logarithmic test.

…………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

………………………………………………………………
………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
αβ = - a

α+β = -1;

……………………………………………………………………….

along z axis : 1st paraboloid : z =9; 2nd paraboloid ; z = -16;

1st paraboloid is above 2nd paraboloid;

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………….
…………………………………………….
dS = z ds, where s is arc length on the circle x2+y2=2ay. z lies on the sphere

another method :
………………………….

…………………………………
……………………………………..
let F(x) = f(x) – g(x); F(x) >= 0;

F is continuous at c;

F(c) > 0 as f(c) > g(c);

let ε = F(c)/2 > 0

as F is continuous at c  F(x) > F(c)/2 for all c – δ < x < c + δ;

/…………………………………………../

………………..
apply generalized mean value theorem;

…………………………………………….
x0 ϵ [a,b];
………

…………………………………………..
……………………………

………………………………..

an+1 > an if an < sqrt (2x)  <an> is monotonically increasing and bounded above.

and viceversa.

…………………..
………………………………….

……………………………………..

as an is bounded, bn is also bounded.

…………………………………………………
……………………………

* f ‘ (0)
f ‘ (0) = lim f(h)–f(0)/h as h0

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………….

…………………………..
…………………………

…………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………..

………………………………….
…………………………………..

…………………………

………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………..
f (x+h) = f(x) + h f ‘ (x) + h2 f “ (x + θh)/2

………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
…………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………
………………………………………

……………………………….

non-homogenous linear equations

…………………..

……………………………

dimension = n + (n-1) + (n-2) +…………………..+ 3 + 2 +1 = n(n+1)/2.

…………………….

Real Symmetric matrices are orthogonally diagonalizable.

if A is a real symmetric matrix, then there exists a orthogonal matrix

P such that P-1AP = D, where D is a diagonal matrix.
P is orthogonal i.e PTP = I or P-1=P
……………………………………………………………………..
rank of A is atleast 2.
rank of A is also even, as A is skew symmetric matric

………………………………………….

………………………………………..
………………..
Ker T = U;

(a,b) ϵ F2 , (a,b) = T (a-b + bx) = T (f)  T is onto  Im T = F2  dim (Im T) = 2;

n+1 = dim (Ker T) + dim (Im T);

dim (U) = n-1;

………………………………………………………..
……………………………

…………………………………………………………..
if [p q; r s] ϵ W1∩W2;

q = - p; r = - p

[p - p; - p s ]

there W1∩W2 = span { [1 -1; -1 0], [0 0; 0 1] }

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

as A is 2 x 2 matrix.

eigen values of A = -1, 5

A X = (-1) X ;

An X = (-1)n X

AY=5Y;

An Y = (5)n Y
Diagonalise A  Q-1 A Q = D = diag (-1, 5)

OR

eA = 1 + A + A2/2! +……..+ An/n! +……...

An = a I + b A; as A is 2 x 2 matrix.

A X = λ X  eA X = eλ X

………………………………………………..
\.........................................................................................................

…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………….
……………………………………………………….
do this as a normal assignment problem

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….
 𝑣 2 = ℎ12 𝑢12 + ℎ22 𝑢22 + ℎ32 𝑢32

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠: ℎ1 = 1, ℎ2 = 𝜌 , ℎ3 = 1

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠: ℎ1 = 1, ℎ2 = 𝑟 , ℎ3 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃

……………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………
…………………………………………..

1
𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠(𝑖. 𝑒 ) → 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝑛𝜋

………………………………………………………………………………………
He has directly given initial basic feasible solution;

no of allocation is m+n-1=6

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑗. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑗 . 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑗 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙

ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑗 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒. 𝑑23 = −12 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑒.

1)

2)

3)
4)

5)

……………………………………………………………………………..

Using cylindrical coordinates 𝑹, 𝜽 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛.

 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 . 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑅 2

𝑟2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2.

as R is constant.

…………………………………./////////////////////////////////
 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏+𝑎
𝑥= 𝑡+
2 2

𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1

𝑡: − 1 𝑡𝑜 1

𝑡+1
𝑥= .
2
………………………………………………………………………….

𝑒 𝑐 = −1 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 ∈ 𝑹

…………………….
……………………………………………………….

′ (𝑎)
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ′′
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑓 + 𝑓 (𝑐) ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥
2!

𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠

𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑥 = 0. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

𝑔 ∘ 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑅 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.

𝑔 ∘ 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.

1 g(x)

x=0 0

…………………………………………………………………………………….
a11=0 and a22=0, hence cannot interchange R1 and R2.

𝑅1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶1 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

1 5
𝑅2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠;
2 2

1 1 0
𝑷𝑻 = −1/2 1/2 0
−3 −2 1

𝑎 𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔, 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

[𝐴 | 𝐼 ] → [𝐷 | 𝑃𝑇 ]
[A|I]=

𝐼𝑛 𝑷𝑻 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(𝑨𝑩)𝜽 = 𝑩𝜽 𝑨𝜽 .
−1 −1
(𝐼 − 𝑈 𝜃 ) (𝐼 + 𝑈 𝜃 ) = (𝐼 + 𝑈 𝜃 )(𝐼 − 𝑈 𝜃 ) .

…………………………………………
2. 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑒 + 𝑉𝑜 ⊆ 𝑉.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑉,

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐺(𝑥) ∈ 𝑉𝑒 + 𝑉𝑜

∴ 𝑉 ⊆ 𝑉𝑒 + 𝑉𝑜 .

……………………………………….

̅;
𝐷 = 𝑃𝑇 𝐻 𝑷

𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒋𝒖𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

D=

………………………………………………………………………….
𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒

𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒆(𝑨𝑩 − 𝑩𝑨) = 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑨𝑩 − 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑩𝑨

= 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑨𝑩 − 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑩𝑨

= 𝟎 𝑎𝑠 𝑨𝑩 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑩𝑨 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠.

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑.

………………………………………………………………….

𝑔𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠

𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑔𝑛 (𝑥) > 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡
………………………………………………………………………………

𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⟹ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(0) = 0

……………………………………………………………………………..

1 𝑛−1 (𝑖+1)/𝑛

∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∑ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑖=0 𝑖/𝑛
……………………………………………..

…………………………………………….

ARZELÀ'S BOUNDED CONVERGENCE THEOREM

Let { 𝒇𝒏 } be a sequence of Riemann integrable functions,

let { 𝒇𝒏 } 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝒇 pointwise, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒇 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

|𝒇𝒏 (𝑥)| < 𝑀 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 { 𝒇𝒏 } 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑

lim ∫ 𝒇𝒏 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.

𝑛→∞

𝒇𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒕 { 𝒇𝒏 }𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑

𝒇𝒏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

…………………………………………………………..
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 ∴ < 𝑔𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔 → 𝑤𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚

𝑡𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 1) 𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2) < 𝑔𝑛 > 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑.

……………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
 1 1 1 1
< 𝑥𝑛 < 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑥𝑛+1 < < 𝑥𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛+2 𝑛+1

∴ 𝑥𝑛+1 < 𝑥𝑛 ∀ 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚 𝑥𝑛 → 0

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

1 𝑝
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑞 𝑞
∗
𝟎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝟎

𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

each 𝑓𝑛 is discontinuous whereas < 𝑓𝑛 > converges uniformly to a continuous function 𝑓.

𝒇 be Dirichlet ′ s function which is discontinuous everywhere

𝒇
𝑓𝑛 = , then 𝑓𝑛 is discontinuous everywhere
𝑛

𝑓𝑛 → 0 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑀𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.

………………………………………………………………………..
 2
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝑛 𝑥 ;

𝑓𝑛 → 0 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡.

< 𝑓𝑛 > is not uniformly convergent by 𝑀𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡.

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚

0 ≤ 𝑓𝑛 ≤ 1, 𝑠𝑜 < 𝑓𝑛 > 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑

𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑

lim ∫ 𝒇𝒏 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.

𝑛→∞

………………………………………………………………

∫ 𝑓𝑛′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑓𝑛 (𝑎) 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑛′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝑎
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑖𝑏𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑧 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙.

………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 = 𝟎

𝒙 ∈ (𝒂, 𝝅) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 > 0

𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 0 × 𝑘, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1

𝑛→∞

| sin 𝑛𝑥| 1 1
|𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)| = ≤ ≤ = 𝑀𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑎

𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 = 𝟎
………………………………………………………………………

𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑖. 𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑓𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝒇 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝒇 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

2
𝟏 1
𝑥 2 ≤ 𝒇𝟐𝒏 (𝒙) = + 𝒙𝟐
≤ ( + |𝑥| ) 𝑎𝑠 𝒙 ∈ [−𝟏, 𝟏]
𝒏𝟐 𝑛
1
|𝑥| ≤ 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙) ≤ + |𝑥|
𝑛

𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡, 𝑓𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦.

………………………………………………………………………..

sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = , 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
√𝑛
sin 𝑛𝑥 1
𝑀𝑛 = sup { | | ∶ 𝑥 ∈ [0, 2𝜋]} = → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
√𝑛 √𝑛

∴ < 𝑓𝑛 > converges uniformly to 0

But 𝑓𝑛′ does not converge pointwise at 0 → it cannot converge uniformly.

𝑓𝑛′ (𝑥) = √𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥

| 𝑓𝑛′ (0) − 𝑓 ′ (0)| = √𝑛 → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞ ∴ 𝑓𝑛′ doesnot converge pointwise to 𝑓′.

…………………………………………………………

< 𝑓𝑛′ > converges uniformly and 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥0 ) converges pointwise,

then < 𝑓𝑛 > converges uniformly to a differentiable function f

……………………………………………………………………….

∑ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝒇;

𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝒇 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

………………………………………………………………….
< 𝑓𝑛′ (𝑥) > should be uniformly convergent.

………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑑 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 → 2 sin2 𝜃 = 1 − cos 𝟐𝜽

2𝜋 𝑎 𝑑𝜃
𝐼 = ∫0 ; 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝟐𝜽 = 𝝋..
2𝑎2 +1−cos 𝟐𝜽

……………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..

𝟏
𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑧 = 0, 𝑹𝒆𝒔 (𝒛 = 𝟎) 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇
𝒛
𝑛
1 𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 (𝑧 + ) 𝑖𝑠 (𝑪
𝑛)
𝑧
2
𝑛 𝑛!
( )=
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = −𝑎 → 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

 1 sin2 𝑥 1 1 − cos 2𝑥
sin2 𝑥 = (1 − cos 2𝑥 ) → =
2 𝑥2 2 𝑥2

∫ 𝒇(𝒛) 𝑑𝑧

1 − 𝒆𝑖 2𝑧
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒇(𝒛) = ; 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑓(𝑧) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝒛 = 𝟎, ∴ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0
𝑧2

………………………………………

𝑒 𝑖𝑧
𝑓(𝑧) = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑧
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝛾 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟.

…………………………………………………
………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………..

Rank(AB) ≤ min( Rank(A), Rank(B) )

…………………………………….

rank =3.
,……………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

|𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 | ≤ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 ≥ 1

𝑥2 − 𝑦2
| | ≤ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 𝜖.
1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

…………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
𝒅𝑺 = 2 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑧

𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 2 sin 𝜑

…………………………………………………………………………………………..
𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 16

𝑓𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑦 = 0

𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 (1,0)

𝑶𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16

𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐿𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑠

2𝑥 − 2 + 𝜆𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(3 + 𝜆) = 0

𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = −3

𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 0 → 𝑥 = ±4

𝑖𝑓 𝜆 = −3, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = ±2√3

(1,0) → 𝑓 = −7 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)

(4,0) → 𝑓 = 11

(−4,0) → 𝑓 = 43

(−2, ±2√3) → 𝑓 = 47 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎) .

………………………………………………………………………………….
𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1

𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟

𝑥(3𝑥 + 𝜆) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(2𝑦 2 + 𝜆) = 0

𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 = ±1

𝑦 = 0 → 𝑥 = ±1

1 √3
𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 3𝑥 = 2𝑦 2 → ( , ± )
2 2

(0,0) → 𝑓 = 0

(0, ±1) → 𝑓 = 1

(1,0) → 𝑓 = 2 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎)

(−1,0) → 𝑓 = −2 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)

1 √3 13
( ,± ) → 𝑓 =
2 2 16

………………………………………………
……………

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥𝑛 < 𝑥𝑛−1 → 𝑥𝑛+1 < 𝑥𝑛

𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑥1 > 1

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥𝑛 > 1 → 𝑥𝑛+1 > 1.

…………………………………………………………………

AM > GM→ 𝑎𝑛+1 > 𝑏𝑛+1

……………………………………………………………

Dirichlet’s function is dicontinuous everywhere in [0, 1]

1, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑓(𝑥) = {
0, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

1. If f is integrable, then f admits primitive : FALSE

by Darboux’s theorem, if F is derivable then F‘ would satisfy intermediate value theorem.

𝑖. 𝑒 𝑓(−1) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(1) = 1

1 1
𝑓(−1) < < 𝑓(1) → ∃ 𝑐 ∈ [−1,1] 𝑠. 𝑡 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒.
2 2
OR
𝑓 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑓(0 +) = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(0 −) = 0 → 𝐿𝐻𝐿 ≠ 𝑅𝐻𝐿.

OR Thomae function is integrable but doesnot have admit any primitive

……………………………………………………………………………………….

If f admits primitive, then f is integrable: FALSE

…………………………………………………………………………………………

Pointwise limit of a bounded function need not be bounded

𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑥 ∀ 𝑛 ≥ |𝑥|

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑚 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 |𝑥|

|𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑥| = 0 < 𝜖 ∀ 𝑛 ≥ 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑥

𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) → 𝑥 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 < 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) >.

 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (0) = lim = lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0

show that < 𝑥𝑛 > → 0 and < 𝑦𝑛 > → 0 but the sequences < 𝑔(𝑥𝑛 ) > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑔(𝑦𝑛 ) >

do not converge to the same limit

lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡

𝑥→0

𝑓 ′ (0) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.

………………………………………………………………………………………………..

(−ℎ)2 ′′
𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥 + (−ℎ)) = 𝑓(𝑥) + (−ℎ)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 (𝑑ℎ ).
2!
……………………….
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥, then f and g are uniformly continuous

𝑓𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is not uniformly continous

𝛿
choose 𝑥 = 𝑛𝛿 and 𝑦 = 𝑛𝛿 +
2

by archimedes principle → 𝒏𝜹𝟐 > 𝜺

|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑦)| > 𝜀 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑥 − 𝑦| < 𝛿

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 < 𝑥𝑛 > → 0, < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > → 𝑓(0)

1
𝑓(0) = lim 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑥𝑛 = .
𝑛→0 𝑛

…………………………………………………………………………….
𝒄 ≠ 1.

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 < 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 < 𝑦𝑛 >

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝒄,

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝑖𝑛 𝑅

< 𝑥𝑛 > → 𝒄 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑦𝑛 > → 𝒄

𝑏𝑢𝑡 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑓(𝑦𝑛 ) > 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝒄.

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

|𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(1)| = |𝑥 2 − 1| = |𝑥 − 1||𝑥 + 1| < 2|𝑥 − 1| < 𝜀 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 |𝑥 + 1| < 2

𝜀
𝑖𝑓 |𝑥 − 1| < =𝛿.
2
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

𝐻𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠, 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒.

……………………………………………………………….

1
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 sin ( ) = 0.
𝑥
1 1 1 1
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 0, , , , , … … ..
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑧 0.

…………………………………………………………………..
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏
𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎) 𝑔′ (𝑐)

…………………………..

𝑓(0) = 0 𝑎𝑠 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝑓(𝑥) 𝟎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙

lim ={ |𝑥|𝑎
𝑥→0 𝑥 lim 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑥→0 𝑥

|𝑥|𝑎
lim = 0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎 > 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝒄 ≠ 1.
Consider a sequence of 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 < 𝑥𝑛 > and a sequence of 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 < 𝑦𝑛 >

converging to the same limit 𝒄,

which is possible because both the rational and irrational numbers are 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐞 in R

< 𝑥𝑛 > → 𝒄 and < 𝑦𝑛 > → 𝒄

but < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > and < 𝑓(𝑦𝑛 ) > does not converge to the same limit

𝑓 is not continuous at 𝒄 ≠ 1.

……………………
……………………………………………………………..

𝑀𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
 𝟏
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ [𝟎, ∞), we can take 𝒙 = where 𝑛 is an interger
𝒏
𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡

sin 1 1
|𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)| = |𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)| = > =𝜀
2 4
∴ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) cannot be uniformly convergent in any interval containing zero.

…………………………………………………………………………

DINI’s Theorem:

 𝑓𝑛 → 𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
 < 𝑓𝑛 > 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑛 → 𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦.

…………………………………….

constraint coefficients are either negative or zero

objective coefficient must be negative, so that it becomes an entering variable.

then, there is no least non-negative ratio. Hence unbounded solution.

………………………………..

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝒄, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) >

𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑳

………………………………………………………………………………..

< 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝒄, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙.

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡.

𝑥→0

………………..

1
𝑥𝑛 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 < 𝑥𝑛 > → 0
𝑛
𝑏𝑢𝑡 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > = < 𝑛 > → ∞ 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒.

………………
doesn’t exists

𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎

1
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑥
𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎

∴ 𝒉 ∘ 𝒈 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎

1 1
(𝒉 ∘ 𝒈)(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑔(𝑥)) = ℎ ( ) = sin .
𝑥 𝑥

……………………..

𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑓𝑓 ∑ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡

……………………………………………..

𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝒄 𝑖𝑓𝑓

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝒄 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) >

𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓(𝑐).

……………………………………………………………..
𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐 ∈ ℝ

……………………………………………..

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝒙𝟐 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 [0, 1] 𝑎𝑠 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑡

ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝒙𝟐 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 ℝ.

…………………
……………….

….

……………………

………………………..
then there exist a < c < b s.t f(c) = d.

𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑛→∞

𝑓𝑛 converges to 𝑓 pointwise

both 𝑓 and 𝑓𝑛 are continuous

to show that 𝑓𝑛 is monotonic.

………

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ [1, 2], 𝑒 −𝑛𝑥 < 𝑒 −𝑛 → 𝒏𝒆−𝒏𝒙 < 𝑛𝑒 −𝑛 = 𝒖𝒏

 𝑢𝑛
lim = 𝑒 > 1 → ∑ 𝒖𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 → ∑ 𝒇𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡.
𝑛→∞ 𝑢𝑛+1

……………………………………………

𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝒇𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.

𝒇 = lim 𝑓𝑛 = 0

1
𝑀𝑛 = sup {|𝑓𝑛 − 𝑓|} = sup {| 𝑓𝑛 |} = → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑛
∴ 𝑓𝑛 → 𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦

𝑓 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.

………………………………….
if a = 0

𝑥 ∈ [0, 𝜋] → lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 1, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1, 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑓𝑛 (0) = 1

𝑥→0

𝑓𝑛 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = { , clearly f is Reimann integrable
𝑛→∞ 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 => 𝒇𝒏 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝒇 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦

𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 < 𝑓𝑛 > 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 |𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)| ≤ 1.

………………………………………………..

Reimann integrable  bounded

if f is not bounded  f cannot be R-integrable

………………………………………….

Not every bounded function is integrable. For example the function

f(x) = 1 if x is rational and 0 otherwise

is not integrable over any interval [a, b]

𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [𝑥𝑟−1 , 𝑥𝑟 ] 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠

→ 𝑀𝑟 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑟 = 0

𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙.

………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………..

………………………………..

…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
 1 2 𝑟 𝑛
𝑃 = {𝑥0 = 0, , , … … , 𝑥𝑟 = , … . , = 1 = 𝑥𝑛 }
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑟
𝜹𝒓 = 𝑥𝑟 − 𝑥𝑟−1 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒓 = 𝑛.

𝑰𝒓 = [𝑥𝑟−1 , 𝑥𝑟 ]

𝑴𝒓 = sup{ 𝑓(𝑥) | 𝑥 ∈ [𝑥𝑟−1 , 𝑥𝑟 ] } = 𝑓(𝑥𝑟 ) = 𝑥𝑟

𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙, 𝒙𝒓 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙.

𝑟1 1 1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑈(𝑃, 𝑓) = ∑ 𝑀𝑟 𝛿𝑟 = ∑ = 2∑𝑟 = 2
𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 2
 −1
1
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝑈(𝑃, 𝑓) = .
𝑛→∞ 2
0

𝐿(𝑃, 𝑓) = 0, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 = 0.

Hence f(x) is not R-integrable.

…………………………………………………………………………………

Dirichlet’s function is not R-integrable

1, 𝑥∈ℚ
𝑓(𝑥) = {
0, 𝑥∉ℚ
𝑚𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑟 = 1

………………………………………………………………………………

𝒇𝟐 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 → 𝒇 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝒇𝟑 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 → 𝒇 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) ∶ 𝑚𝑟 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑟 = 1 → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 2 (𝑥) = (𝑓(𝑥)) = 1, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝑓𝒄 ∘ 𝑓𝑰 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑥 1⁄3 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠

𝑓 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

𝜑 ∘ 𝑓 3 (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.

…………………………………..

𝑎𝑠 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 → 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠

lim 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥)

ℎ→0
…………………………..

𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 3𝑥 2 < 1
lim |𝑢𝑛 |1⁄𝑛 = 3𝑥 2 {
𝑛→∞ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 3𝑥 2 > 1

1
𝑖𝑓 3𝑥 2 = 1 → 𝑢𝑛 = , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∑ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠.
𝑛
for x < 0

𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑥)
𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = =
𝑛|𝑥| √1⁄(𝑛2 𝑥 2 ) + 1 √1⁄(𝑛2 𝑥 2 ) + 1

f(x) = x
 1
𝑀𝑛 = → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑛

…………………

Consider a bounded interval [- R, R].

𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 [– 𝑅, 𝑅]

𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝒙, 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 [– 𝑅, 𝑅] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑅

𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.