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UPSC Important Question
UPSC Important Question
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𝑛 𝑛
Put h = (b-a)/n;
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Let fn→ f pointwise and fn is monotonic over [a,b], with each fn continuous, and
f continuous. Then fn → f uniformly.
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if A is a 2 x 2 matrix A1000 = combination of A1 and I
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when a = 1/e; just apply second logarithmic test.
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αβ = - a
α+β = -1;
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dS = z ds, where s is arc length on the circle x2+y2=2ay. z lies on the sphere
another method :
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let F(x) = f(x) – g(x); F(x) >= 0;
F is continuous at c;
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apply generalized mean value theorem;
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x0 ϵ [a,b];
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an+1 > an if an < sqrt (2x) <an> is monotonically increasing and bounded above.
and viceversa.
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* f ‘ (0)
f ‘ (0) = lim f(h)–f(0)/h as h0
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f (x+h) = f(x) + h f ‘ (x) + h2 f “ (x + θh)/2
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Ker T = U;
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if [p q; r s] ϵ W1∩W2;
q = - p; r = - p
[p - p; - p s ]
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as A is 2 x 2 matrix.
A X = (-1) X ;
An X = (-1)n X
AY=5Y;
An Y = (5)n Y
Diagonalise A Q-1 A Q = D = diag (-1, 5)
OR
An = a I + b A; as A is 2 x 2 matrix.
A X = λ X eA X = eλ X
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do this as a normal assignment problem
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𝑣 2 = ℎ12 𝑢12 + ℎ22 𝑢22 + ℎ32 𝑢32
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1
𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠(𝑖. 𝑒 ) → 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦.
𝑛𝜋
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He has directly given initial basic feasible solution;
no of allocation is m+n-1=6
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑗. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑗 . 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑗 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙
ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑗 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒. 𝑑23 = −12 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑒.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
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𝑟2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2.
as R is constant.
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𝑏−𝑎 𝑏+𝑎
𝑥= 𝑡+
2 2
𝑥: 0 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑡: − 1 𝑡𝑜 1
𝑡+1
𝑥= .
2
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𝑒 𝑐 = −1 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 ∈ 𝑹
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′ (𝑎)
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ′′
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑓 + 𝑓 (𝑐) ; 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥
2!
𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 1.
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𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑥 = 0. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
1 g(x)
x=0 0
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a11=0 and a22=0, hence cannot interchange R1 and R2.
𝑅1 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶1 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
1 5
𝑅2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 = 𝑅3 − 𝑅1 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠;
2 2
1 1 0
𝑷𝑻 = −1/2 1/2 0
−3 −2 1
[𝐴 | 𝐼 ] → [𝐷 | 𝑃𝑇 ]
[A|I]=
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(𝑨𝑩)𝜽 = 𝑩𝜽 𝑨𝜽 .
−1 −1
(𝐼 − 𝑈 𝜃 ) (𝐼 + 𝑈 𝜃 ) = (𝐼 + 𝑈 𝜃 )(𝐼 − 𝑈 𝜃 ) .
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2. 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑉𝑒 + 𝑉𝑜 ⊆ 𝑉.
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑉,
∴ 𝑉 ⊆ 𝑉𝑒 + 𝑉𝑜 .
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̅;
𝐷 = 𝑃𝑇 𝐻 𝑷
D=
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𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐴 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒
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𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑.
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𝑔𝑛 (𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑔𝑛 (𝑥) > 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡
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1 𝑛−1 (𝑖+1)/𝑛
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∑ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑖=0 𝑖/𝑛
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𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 ∴ < 𝑔𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔 → 𝑤𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝐵𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚
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1 1 1 1
< 𝑥𝑛 < 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑥𝑛+1 < < 𝑥𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛 𝑛+2 𝑛+1
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𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒆′ 𝒔 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
1 𝑝
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑞 𝑞
∗
𝟎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝟎
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𝒇
𝑓𝑛 = , then 𝑓𝑛 is discontinuous everywhere
𝑛
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2
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑒 −𝑛 𝑥 ;
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𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 = 𝟎
| sin 𝑛𝑥| 1 1
|𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)| = ≤ ≤ = 𝑀𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑥 𝑛𝑎
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 = 𝟎
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𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑓𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑓𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝒇 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝒇 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒.
2
𝟏 1
𝑥 2 ≤ 𝒇𝟐𝒏 (𝒙) = + 𝒙𝟐
≤ ( + |𝑥| ) 𝑎𝑠 𝒙 ∈ [−𝟏, 𝟏]
𝒏𝟐 𝑛
1
|𝑥| ≤ 𝒇𝒏 (𝒙) ≤ + |𝑥|
𝑛
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sin 𝑛𝑥
𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = , 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
√𝑛
sin 𝑛𝑥 1
𝑀𝑛 = sup { | | ∶ 𝑥 ∈ [0, 2𝜋]} = → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
√𝑛 √𝑛
∑ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝒇;
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𝟏
𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑧 = 0, 𝑹𝒆𝒔 (𝒛 = 𝟎) 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇
𝒛
𝑛
1 𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 (𝑧 + ) 𝑖𝑠 (𝑪
𝑛)
𝑧
2
𝑛 𝑛!
( )=
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!
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𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 ∫ 𝑓(𝑧) 𝑑𝑧
∫ 𝒇(𝒛) 𝑑𝑧
1 − 𝒆𝑖 2𝑧
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝒇(𝒛) = ; 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑓(𝑧) ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝒛 = 𝟎, ∴ 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0
𝑧2
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𝑒 𝑖𝑧
𝑓(𝑧) = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑧
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑧 = 0 𝑏𝑦 𝑎 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝛾 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟.
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rank =3.
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|𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 | ≤ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 ≥ 1
𝑥2 − 𝑦2
| | ≤ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 𝜖.
1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
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𝒅𝑺 = 2 𝑑𝜑 𝑑𝑧
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𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 16
𝑓𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑦 = 0
𝑥 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0
𝑶𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16
2𝑥 − 2 + 𝜆𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦(3 + 𝜆) = 0
𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑦 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝜆 = −3
𝑖𝑓 𝑦 = 0 → 𝑥 = ±4
(1,0) → 𝑓 = −7 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)
(4,0) → 𝑓 = 11
(−4,0) → 𝑓 = 43
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𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 1
𝑥 = 0 → 𝑦 = ±1
𝑦 = 0 → 𝑥 = ±1
1 √3
𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 3𝑥 = 2𝑦 2 → ( , ± )
2 2
(0,0) → 𝑓 = 0
(0, ±1) → 𝑓 = 1
(1,0) → 𝑓 = 2 (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎)
(−1,0) → 𝑓 = −2 (𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎)
1 √3 13
( ,± ) → 𝑓 =
2 2 16
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𝑥1 > 1
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1, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑓(𝑥) = {
0, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
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1 1
𝑓(−1) < < 𝑓(1) → ∃ 𝑐 ∈ [−1,1] 𝑠. 𝑡 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒.
2 2
OR
𝑓 = 𝐹 ′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦
……………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………
show that < 𝑥𝑛 > → 0 and < 𝑦𝑛 > → 0 but the sequences < 𝑔(𝑥𝑛 ) > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑔(𝑦𝑛 ) >
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
(−ℎ)2 ′′
𝑓(𝑥 − ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑥 + (−ℎ)) = 𝑓(𝑥) + (−ℎ)𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 (𝑑ℎ ).
2!
……………………….
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥, then f and g are uniformly continuous
𝛿
choose 𝑥 = 𝑛𝛿 and 𝑦 = 𝑛𝛿 +
2
1
𝑓(0) = lim 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑥𝑛 = .
𝑛→0 𝑛
…………………………………………………………………………….
𝒄 ≠ 1.
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 < 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 < 𝑦𝑛 >
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝑖𝑛 𝑅
𝑏𝑢𝑡 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 𝑓(𝑦𝑛 ) > 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝒄.
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑥 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
……………………………………………………………….
1
𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 sin ( ) = 0.
𝑥
1 1 1 1
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 0, , , , , … … ..
𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑖𝑧 0.
…………………………………………………………………..
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎) 𝑓 ′ (𝑐)
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏
𝑔(𝑏) − 𝑔(𝑎) 𝑔′ (𝑐)
…………………………..
𝑓(0) = 0 𝑎𝑠 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙
|𝑥|𝑎
lim = 0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎 > 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝒄 ≠ 1.
Consider a sequence of 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 < 𝑥𝑛 > and a sequence of 𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 < 𝑦𝑛 >
which is possible because both the rational and irrational numbers are 𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐞 in R
but < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > and < 𝑓(𝑦𝑛 ) > does not converge to the same limit
𝑓 is not continuous at 𝒄 ≠ 1.
……………………
……………………………………………………………..
𝑀𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝟏
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ [𝟎, ∞), we can take 𝒙 = where 𝑛 is an interger
𝒏
𝑓(𝑥) = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
sin 1 1
|𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥)| = |𝑓𝑛 (𝑥)| = > =𝜀
2 4
∴ 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) cannot be uniformly convergent in any interval containing zero.
…………………………………………………………………………
DINI’s Theorem:
𝑓𝑛 → 𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒
< 𝑓𝑛 > 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑛 → 𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦.
…………………………………….
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝒄, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) >
𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑳
………………………………………………………………………………..
< 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝒄, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙.
………………..
1
𝑥𝑛 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 < 𝑥𝑛 > → 0
𝑛
𝑏𝑢𝑡 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) > = < 𝑛 > → ∞ 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒.
………………
doesn’t exists
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎
1
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝑥
𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎
1 1
(𝒉 ∘ 𝒈)(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑔(𝑥)) = ℎ ( ) = sin .
𝑥 𝑥
……………………..
𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝒄 𝑖𝑓𝑓
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝒄 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 < 𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) >
……………………………………………………………..
𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑐 ∈ ℝ
……………………………………………..
…………………
……………….
….
……………………
………………………..
then there exist a < c < b s.t f(c) = d.
𝑓𝑛 converges to 𝑓 pointwise
………
……………………………………………
𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝒇𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.
𝒇 = lim 𝑓𝑛 = 0
1
𝑀𝑛 = sup {|𝑓𝑛 − 𝑓|} = sup {| 𝑓𝑛 |} = → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑛
∴ 𝑓𝑛 → 𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑙𝑦
𝑓 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠.
………………………………….
if a = 0
1, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 0
𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = { , clearly f is Reimann integrable
𝑛→∞ 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑥 < 𝜋
………………………………………………..
………………………………………….
→ 𝑀𝑟 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑟 = 0
………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………..
………………………………..
…………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
1 2 𝑟 𝑛
𝑃 = {𝑥0 = 0, , , … … , 𝑥𝑟 = , … . , = 1 = 𝑥𝑛 }
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 𝑟
𝜹𝒓 = 𝑥𝑟 − 𝑥𝑟−1 = 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒓 = 𝑛.
𝑰𝒓 = [𝑥𝑟−1 , 𝑥𝑟 ]
𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙, 𝒙𝒓 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙.
𝑟1 1 1 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑈(𝑃, 𝑓) = ∑ 𝑀𝑟 𝛿𝑟 = ∑ = 2∑𝑟 = 2
𝑛𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 2
−1
1
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = lim 𝑈(𝑃, 𝑓) = .
𝑛→∞ 2
0
…………………………………………………………………………………
1, 𝑥∈ℚ
𝑓(𝑥) = {
0, 𝑥∉ℚ
𝑚𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀𝑟 = 1
………………………………………………………………………………
𝑓𝒄 ∘ 𝑓𝑰 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
𝑓 3 𝑖𝑠 𝑅𝑖𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒
…………………………………..
𝑎𝑠 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 → 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 3𝑥 2 < 1
lim |𝑢𝑛 |1⁄𝑛 = 3𝑥 2 {
𝑛→∞ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 3𝑥 2 > 1
1
𝑖𝑓 3𝑥 2 = 1 → 𝑢𝑛 = , ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∑ 𝑢𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠.
𝑛
for x < 0
𝑛𝑥 𝑠𝑔𝑛(𝑥)
𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) = =
𝑛|𝑥| √1⁄(𝑛2 𝑥 2 ) + 1 √1⁄(𝑛2 𝑥 2 ) + 1
f(x) = x
1
𝑀𝑛 = → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞
𝑛
…………………