CALCULATING CAPACITY TRENDS IN ROTARY DRYERS

C.R.F. PACHECO1 and S.S. STELLA2

Escola Politécnica da USP - Departamento de Engenharia Química,
1

Caixa Postal 61548 - CEP 05424-970

Phone (011) 818-5765 - Fax (011) 211-3020 - S.Paulo - SP- Brazil
2 Hercules Inc., Av. Roberto Simonsen, 500 CEP 15140-000 -Paulínea - SP - Brazil

(Received: August 15, 1997; Accepted: April 19, 1998)

Abstract - This paper provides a methodology developed for the calculation of the
feed rate and of the exit air conditions in an adiabatic rotary dryer, which operates
with granular, non-porous solids having only unbound surface moisture. Some
aspects related to the algorithm are also discussed in greater detail, such as the
behavior of the wet-bulb temperatures along the dryer and the selection of initial
values for the iterative loops. The results have been compared with published data
from commercial rotary dryers, and predictions compare within 10% of the available
data. The methodology can be used to evaluate trends in the behavior of a rotary
dryer where the operating parameters vary, and it is useful for the practical engineer,
who has to manage several problems commonly encountered in the operation of a
rotary dryer installed in a chemical plant.
Keywords: Rotary dryers, drying systems, drying analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Ongoing market globalization has been pushing companies for a reduction in prices,
along with an increase in quality. For any industrial operation this scenario implies a
reduction of production costs and a tightening of the specification ranges.

The rotary dryer is a piece of equipment which is of relatively common use in the
chemical process industries, due to its simplicity and versatility in handling different
types of solids. The ability to estimate its operating characteristics is of major
importance either in the production planning of an existing plant or in the design of a
new one.

The purpose of this paper is to develop an algorithm for estimating the production
capacity of existing rotary dryers.

For a practical engineer involved with either operation or design of chemical plants,
this algorithm may be helpful in several situations:

a. If one or more process conditions of an existing rotary dryer change, what is

the new capacity for the same product specifications?
 b. During the process of purchasing a new rotary dryer several proposals are
normally received. Can the offered systems do the specific job?
c. There is a possibility of buying a second hand rotary dryer from a given
supplier. In this case, how much product in specific conditions could be
processed?

Literature on rotary dryers is primarily focused on design methodology and on

fundamental parameters needed to understand the physical phenomena involved in
this equipment. In this paper we consider an alternative point of view which
represents a contribution to the analysis of the performance of existing rotary dryers.

We developed a new algorithm using an integral analysis methodology and assuming

an adiabatic dryer operating with granular, non-porous solids. A comparison between
the results obtained using our procedure and the available data from commercial
rotary dryers was shown to be quite satisfactory for the purposes above.

This paper is organized as follows: firstly, we present the equations which describe
the behavior of a rotary dryer; secondly, a careful discussion of the temperature
profiles in the drying region is performed. Then, we develop the structure of the
algorithm and an analysis of the physical conditions which establish the restrictions
needed to assure convergence. A comparison to commercial rotary dryers is
performed, and finally, an example of utilization is given. A copy of the executable
program is available to the reader upon request.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Tsao and Wheelock (1967) presented a set of general equations which describe the
behavior of a rotary dryer.

Here, we use those equations to calculate the production capacity of an existing

rotary dryer of known diameter and length in different scenarios.

A rotary dryer operating with granular, non-porous solids with unbound surface
moisture may be divided, in a simple scheme, in three zones:

I - a first one where the solids are heated to the wet-bulb temperature of the drying
air without losing any moisture,

II - a second one where the solids lose all the desired moisture while remaining at the
wet-bulb temperature of the air and

III - a third one where again the temperature of the solids rises without any further
moisture loss.

Figure 1 sketches the temperature profiles in the three before mentioned zones of
such simplified model, for both counter flow and parallel flow. In the equations below,
the distinction between the two stream arrangements is made labeling the variable
Sg which assumes the value +1 for the counter flow arrangement and -1 for the
parallel flow.
 Figure1: Temperature profiles in the three zones of the rotary dryer as proposed by the model.

In both cases the following parameters are assumed to be known:

• dryer geometry: length (Z) and internal diameter (D);

• for the solids: specific heat (CS) , inlet and outlet moisture content (X1 and
X2 for counter flow or X2 and X1 for parallel flow) and temperature (TS1 and
TS2 for counter flow or TS2 and TS1 for parallel flow);
• for the drying air: mass flow rate (G), inlet temperature (T2), ambient
temperature (T3) and relative humidity (WR3).

The algorithm calculates the mass flow rate of solids (L) that can be processed in the
dryer and the air temperature (T1) and humidity (W1) at the outlet.

For the situations sketched in Figure 1 the following equations apply:

Overall water balance:

(1)
Overall enthalpy balance:

(2)

where: HS = enthalpy of the solids

H = enthalpy of the air, calculated from its temperature and humidity

Enthalpy balance between points 2 and 4:

(3)

and between 4 and 5:

(4)

The kinetics of the process is expressed in terms of the Number of Heat Transfer
Units (NT) and the Length of a Transfer Unit (LT).

The Number of Heat Transfer Units (NT) is related to the fraction of the initial heat
transfer driving force existing at the air outlet. This is defined as:

(5)

In order to integrate equation (5), Tsao and Wheelock (1967) have assumed that the
heat capacities of both streams have little variation along the dryer. With this
assumption, the temperature profiles become linear and integration for each zone of
the dryer gives, respectively:

(6)

(7)

(8)

The Length of a Transfer Unit (LT) is defined by:

(9)

where: CG = specific heat of the air, kJ kg-1 oC-1

GS = air mass velocity, kg m-2 s-1,

Ua = overall heat transfer coefficient, W m-3 oC-1.

Several methods for estimating the overall heat transfer coefficients have been
described and were summarized by Baker (1983). According to him, none of the
correlations reviewed in his article can be recommended with reasonable degree of
confidence. However, the correlation proposed by Friedmann and Marshall (1949) is
considered the most reliable, since it is based on extensive and careful experimental
data. Their correlation has the following form:

(10)

where K=244.7 for Ua in W m-3 oC-1, GS in kg m-2 s-1 and D in m.

The above correlation is valid for peripheral shell speeds between 0.2 and 0.5 m s-
1 and holdups between 2 and 8 %.

The constant (K) takes into account factors that could influence the available heat
transfer area, namely: particle size distribution, shell rotation speed, material holdup
in the dryer and shape and number of flights.

The dryer length is related to NT and LT by:

, (11)

where

(12)

With this set of equations, it is possible to fully describe the behavior of a rotary
dryer.

Analysis Of The Temperature Profiles

One point that needs to be discussed more profoundly is the behavior of the wet-bulb
temperature along zone II of the dryer.

The temperature profiles shown in Figure 1 suggest that the wet-bulb temperature
decreases in the direction of the air flow along zone II. In fact, the wet-bulb
temperature can rise or fall depending on the operating conditions. This behavior may
be understood in the following way:

The effect of drying on a material for a counter flow arrangement implies that:

X5 > X4 (13)

Developing this inequality using the enthalpy balance between points 4 and 5, one
obtains:

(14)
where: Cw = water specific heat, kJ kg oC-1

TW = air wet-bulb temperature, oC

Rearranging the above inequality and taking into account that, for a given pressure, H
can be calculated as a function of TW only, the results are:

(15)

where:

(16)

The left-hand side of inequality (15) is a function of TW4 and TW5, where r is a
parameter. Therefore, we can write:

f(TW4 ,TW5) >0 (17)

As stated above, drying can only occur if condition (17) is met.

Figure 2 shows a plot of the above inequality for three different values of r, in the full
lines represents the region where f(Tw4, Tw5) >0 and in the dotted lines the negative
one. The behavior of f(TW4,TW5) and the resulting wet-bulb temperature profile are
summarized as below.

The same analysis would show a similar behavior for a dryer operating in parallel flow
arrangement.

value of r f(TW4,TW5) wet-bulb temperature along zone II

0.04 >0 for any TW4 > TW5 increases
0.4 >0 for TW4 > TW5 in some regions and for may increase or decrease
TW5 > TW4 in other regions
4.0 >0 for any TW5 > TW4 decreases
Figure 2a: Study of the variation of the function f(TW4 , TW5 ) for a selected value of the parameter r=
0.04.

Figure 2b: Study of the variation of the function f(TW4 , TW5 ) for a selected value of the parameter r=
0.4.
Figure 2c: Study of the variation of the function f(TW4 , TW5 ) for a selected value of the parameter r=
4.0.

ALGORITHM STRUCTURE

The algorithm developed in this work calculates the product flow rate and the exit air
conditions for an adiabatic rotary dryer operating with granular, non-porous solids
having only unbound surface moisture.

The methodology assumes the knowledge of the following data:

• dryer geometry:

- length (Z)

- internal shell diameter (D)

• solids conditions:

- specific heat (CS)

- dry-basis moisture content at the inlet (Xi) and at the outlet (Xo)

- temperature at the inlet (TSi) and at the outlet (Tso )

• drying air conditions:

- pressure (P)
- surrounding air temperature (T3) and relative humidity (WR3)

- temperature (T2) after the air heater

- mass flow rate (G)

• stream arrangement: counter flow or parallel flow

Then the following assignments are done, based on the stream arrangement:

variable counter flow parallel flow

SG +1 -1
TSi TS1 TS2
Xi X1 X2
TSo TS2 TS1
Xo X2 X1

The algorithm follows the steps:

1.Calculate:

- the air mass velocity GS by the expression G / (p D2 / 4).

- the volumetric heat transfer coefficient Ua using equation (10).

- the length of the transfer unit LT using equation (9).

- the number of heat transfer unit NT using equation (11).

2.With P, T3 and WR3, calculate all psychrometric properties for the air at point 3
(ambient air) (psychrometric chart).

3.With P, T2 and W2 = W3, calculate all psychrometric properties for the air at point 2
(dryer inlet) (psychrometric chart).

4.Assume initial values of TW4 and the solids mass flow rate L.

5.Calculate:

- W1 using equation (1), the overall water balance.

- the solids enthalpy at point 2 HS2 by the expression ( CS + X2) TS2.

6.Assume TS4 = Tw4 (model hypothesis).

7.Calculate:

- HS4 the solids enthalpy at point 4 by the expression ( CS + X2) TS4.

- H4 using equation (3), enthalpy balance between points 2 and 4.

8.Assume W4 = W2 (model hypothesis).

9.With P, H4 and W4, calculate all psychrometric properties for the air at point 4, and
in particular the recalculated value Tw4c (psychrometric chart).

10.Use the values of Tw4 and Tw4c to calculate a new value of Tw4 and return to step 6
until convergence is attained.

11.Assume the initial value of Tw5.

12.Assume TS5 = TW5 (model hypothesis).

13.Calculate:

- HS5 the solids enthalpy at point 5 by the expression ( CS + X1) TS5.

- H5 using equation (4) enthalpy balance between points 4 and 5.

14.Assume W5 = W1 (model hypothesis).

15.With P, H5 and W5, calculate all psychrometric properties for the air at point 5 and
in particular the recalculated value Tw5c (psychrometric chart).

16.Use the values of Tw5 and Tw5c to calculate a new value of Tw5 and return to step
12 until convergence is attained.

17.Calculate the Number of Heat Transfer Units for zones I, II and III.

- NTIII using equation (8).

- NTII using equation (7)

- NTI using equation (12)

18.Assume the initial value of T1.

19.Calculate T1C using equation (6) in the form below:

20.Use the values of T1 and T1c to calculate a new value of T1 and return to step 19
until convergence is attained.

21.With P, T1 and W1, calculate all psychrometric properties for the air at point 1, and
in particular H1 (psychrometric chart).

22.Calculate:

- HS1 the solids enthalpy at point 1 by the expression ( CS + X1 ) TS1.

- The reiterative value of the solids mass flow rate Lc using equation (2) overall
enthalpy balance.

23.Use the values of the solids mass flow rate L and Lc to calculate a new value of L
and return to step 5 until convergence is attained.

SELECTION OF INITIAL VALUES FOR THE ITERATIVE LOOPS

The algorithm has four iterative loops (TW4, TW5, L and T1) and some precautions had
to be taken in the selection of the initial values in order to assure the convergence of
the loops. The use of constant values would not assure convergence for any arbitrary
set of operating conditions. To overcome this difficulty, the initial values are
calculated based on the analysis of physical processes occurring in the dryer.

In that sense, the first estimate for TW4 is made under the following assumptions
(refer to Figure 3):

1. At any point in the dryer the temperature TS of the solids must be above the
dew point temperature TD of the air in order to avoid condensation and in
particular for point 4, (TS4 > TD4).
2. TS4 = TW4 as assumed by Tsao and Wheelock (1967).
3. TD4 = TD2 since there is no change on moisture content between points 2 and 4
(the dew point for the air inlet is represented by point 6 in Figure 3).
4. Consequently, the air is cooled at constant moisture from point 2 to point 4,
TW4 < TW2.

The first three conditions imply that TW4 > TD2, and condition 4 implies that TW4 < TW2.
Therefore, the first estimate for TW4 is taken as the average between TW2 and TD2.

The first estimate for L is calculated from the global mass balance, choosing a value
for W1, based on the following assumptions:

1. W1 > W2 because moisture is added to the air during the drying process.
2. The value for TW4 estimated as described above, determines the maximum
outlet moisture attainable in an ideal drying process (shown in Figure 3 as point
8). Then, it follows that W1 < W8.

Therefore, W1 is taken as the average between W2 and W8, and the value of L is then
calculated.

Since TW5 is close to TW4, the initial value for TW5 is taken as equal to TW4 (as in fact
the temperatures would be the same if the change in the total enthalpy of the solids
stream were negligible in an adiabatic dryer).

The initial value of T1 is obtained from equation (6). But since it cannot be put in a
form where T1 is isolated on one side, an iterative loop is used. Among the several
forms of rearranging equation (6) in order to have T1 on the right-hand side, we have
chosen this particular one with a unique root:
 (17)

Figure 3: First estimates for moist air wet-bulb temperature TW4 and moist air absolute humidity W1.

Since T1 must be greater than TS1, its initial value is taken slightly above TS1.

The use of these criteria on the selection of the initial values for the iterative loops
assures that the algorithm works properly.

COMPARING THE RESULTS OF THE METHOD WITH PUBLISHED DATA

As we discussed above, this algorithm was developed by assuming an adiabatic dryer.

In reality, commercial rotary-dryers have heat losses to the environment, and
therefore, they do not present rigorous adiabatic behavior.

Nevertheless, a comparison between predictions from our algorithm and real world
was made to evaluate the difference between the ideal and real situations.

In order to perform such a comparison, a data set published by Perry (1984) (table
20-13, page 20-33) for seven rotary dryers operating in parallel flow was used. This
table furnishes:

• dryer length and diameter

• for the solids:

- inlet and outlet temperatures

- inlet and outlet wet-basis moisture content

 - outlet solids mass flow rate (wet-basis)

• for humid air:

- inlet and outlet temperatures

• evaporation rate

Table 1 shows for the seven dryers the data needed to use the algorithm and the
results obtained.

The solids moisture content and its mass flow rate are presented in dry-basis as
requested by the algorithm.

The specific heat of the solids was not given, and we assumed: 1 kJ kg-1 oC-1, which is
a representative value for several materials (Perry (1984) table 20-14).

The air mass flow rate was estimated using the evaporation rate and the following
approximation:

(18)

where: E = evaporation rate in kg s-1

l = water latent heat of evaporation at (TS1+TS2)/2 in kJ kg-1

As can be seen from Table 1, the feed rates agree to within 10% and the air outlet
temperatures agree to within 5%. The results obtained are lower consistently than
the real ones, but these do not affect the validity of an evaluation of trends on dryer
operation. In addition, the agreement remains along a broad range of dryer sizes.

Table 1: Comparative results between published and calculated values for

seven commercial.
Rotary dryers

Experimental Data Used For Running the Program

Xi : 0.3333
Xo:: 0.005
CS: 1 kJ kg-1 oC
TSi: 27 oC
TSo: 65 oC
T2 : 165 oC
P: 101234 Pa
Dryer #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
D m 1.219 1.372 1.524 1.839 2.134 2.438 3.048
Z m 7.62 7.621 9.144 10.698 12.192 13.716 16.767
G kg s-1 0.957 1.276 1.595 2.233 2.871 3.829 6.062
Feed Rate
 Lexperim. kg s-1 0.113 0.144 0.176 0.263 0.351 0.451 0.715
Lcalculated kg s-1 0.108 0.136 0.174 0.244 0.316 0.416 0.650
Difference % 4.42 5.55 1.13 7.22 9.97 7.76 9.09
Air Outlet Temperature
oC
T1 experim. 71 71 71 71 71 71 71
oC
T1 calculated 67.7 72.6 70.4 70.3 69.7 70.7 71.9
Difference % 4.67 -2.25 0.84 0.99 1.83 0.42 -1.27

THE EXECUTABLE PROGRAM

An executable program, which runs in a user-friendly environment, where all the

operations can be followed in a single screen page, is available upon request to the
reader.

This program uses a previous algorithm developed by Pacheco (1995) which

calculates the moist air properties and plays the role of the psychrometric chart. For
the convergence of the iterative loops, the Wegstein method as exposed by Franks
(1972) was used.

The executable program is composed of two files:

• ROTDRYER.EXE - the executable file

• DATA.DAT - a file containing the last set of data entered in the program

The program is started by typing ROTDRYER

<enter> at the DOS prompt. The program screen, shown in Figure 4, is composed of
three sets of lines:

• 13 lines which contain input data that can be changed by the user
• 7 lines containing the results of the calculations
• one line for modification of any of the inputs

The lines containing the results display the product flow rate, the exit air conditions,
and the accordance with the following guidelines given by practice:

• 0.1 £ D/Z £ 0.25

• 0.28 £ GS £ 13.9 kg s-1 m-2
• 1.5 £ NT £ 2.0

To change one of the inputs, just type the number of the item and press <enter>. A
new line appears, showing the parameter to be changed.

Type the new value, and press <enter>. The program then calculates the new
outputs. Repeat the process to modify other parameters.
1- pressure (Pa): 101234
2- solid initial moisture content d.b. (%): 33.33
3- solid final moisture content d.b. (%): 0.50
4- solid initial temperature (oC): 27.0
5- solid final temperature (oC): 65.0
6- solid specific heat (kJ/kg/oC): 1.000
7- ambient air temperature (oC): 27.0
8- ambient air relative humidity (%): 60
9- inlet air temperature (oC): 165.0
10- air flow rate (kg/s): 6.062
11- length (m): 16.8
12- diameter (m): 3.0
13- flow (1= counter flow 2= parallel-flow ): 2
Solid flow rate (kg/s): 0.650
Outlet air temperature (oC): 71.9
Outlet air relative humidity (%): 21.9
Dew-point temperature at the outlet (oC): 39.9
D/Z: 0.18 (0.1 <= D/Z <= 0.25)
GS (kg/sm2): 0.831 (0.278 <= GS <= 13.9)
NT: 1.53 (1.5 <= NT <= 2.0)

Modify item nr. (0 to end):

Figure 4: Shows program single screen page, with the values of dryer #7.

The results can be printed out by pressing the" Print Screen" key. To exit the
program, type "0" (zero) and <enter>.

EXAMPLE

Consider a rotary dryer operating with the conditions displayed in Figure 4. Suppose
that, for some reason, the inlet moisture of the solids increases from 33.3% to 40%.
What could be done to obtain the same product flow rate (0.65 kg s-1) with the same
outlet moisture (5%)? It is also assumed that the system has some flexibility for
changing the air flow rate and inlet temperature.

Among the several possibilities, here we will only discuss two solutions:

a) Increasing the air flow rate by 10% (from 6.062 to 6.668 kg s-1) and increasing
the inlet air tempertaure from 160 to 181 oC. The resulting product flow rate in this
case would still be 0.65 kg s-1.

b) Increasing the air inlet temperature from 160 to 190 oC, keeping the air flow rate
constant. The resulting product flow rate is also 0.65 kg s-1.

Although both alternatives satisfy the condition of maintaining the production rate
and the product specifications, the first one does the job with an NT of 1.41, while the
second one does it with an NT of 1.53. This means that the second alternative uses
energy in a more efficient way, and therefore, should be chosen. In fact, the first
option operates with an air flow rate of 6.67 kg s-1 and gives an air exit temperature
of 79.4 oC, while the second operates with a lower air flow rate (6.06 kg s-1) and a
lower air exit temperature of 78.4 oC.

This was an example of an application of the presented algorithm, but several others
can be devised.

CONCLUSIONS

This algorithm, in spite of being rather simple since it consists basically of a set of
algebraic equations, permits a quick look at the performance of a rotary dryer.

However, several details had to be examined in order to assure that the algorithm
would work properly. The examination of these details actually uncovered rather
interesting aspects of the behavior of a rotary dryer.

The agreement between the algorithm and real data shows that our approach can
help the practical engineer to obtain a rapid diagnosis of the performance of a rotary
dryer.

NOMENCLATURE

CG Air specific heat, kJ kg-1 oC-1

CS Solids specific heat, kJ kg-1 oC-1
CW Water specific heat, kJ kg-1 oC-1
D Internal rotary dryer diameter, m
E Evaporation rate, kg s-1
G Air mass flow rate, dry-basis, kg s-1
GS Air mass velocity, dry-basis, kg s-1 m-2
H Moist air enthalpy, kJ kg-1
HS Solids enthalpy, kJ kg-1
K Constant for the heat transfer coefficient
L Solids mass flow rate, dry-basis, kg s-1
LT Length of a Transfer Unit
NT Number of Heat Transfer Units
P System total pressure, Pa
Pp Water vapor partial pressure, Pa
Pss: Water vapor pressure at dry-bulb temperature, Pa
Psu Water vapor pressure at wet-bulb temperature, Pa
r (G/L)/(CS+CWX5)
SG Counter flow; parallel flow identification variable
T Moist air dry-bulb temperature, oC
TD Dew point temperature, oC
TS Solids temperature, oC (Tsi- inlet; Tso- outlet)
TW Moist air wet-bulb temperature, oC
Ua Volumetric heat transfer coefficient, W m-3 oC-1
W Moist air absolute humidity, kg/kg
WR Moist air relative humidity, %/100
X Solids moisture content, dry-basis, kg/kg (Xi- inlet; Xo- outlet)
Z Dryer shell length, m
Greek letters

 Water latent heat of evaporation at (TS1+TS2)/2 (kJ kg-1)

REFERENCES

Baker,C.G.J., Cascading Rotary Dryers, in Advances in Drying, McGraw-Hill, Vol 2, ch

1 (1983). [ Links ]

Franks, R.G.E., Modeling and Simulation in Chemical Engineering. Wiley-Interscience,

(1972). [ Links ]

Friedmann, S.J. and Marshall, W.R., Studies in Rotary Drying Part II - Heat and Mass
Transfer, Chem.Eng.Prog. Vol.45, pp.573-588 (1949). [ Links ]

Pacheco, C.R.F., Carta Psicrométrica para Computadores Pessoais - PC for PC, Revista
Brasileira de Eng. Química, Vol.XV, No.2, pp.21-26 (Nov.,1995). [ Links ]

Perry, R.H.; Green, D.W. and Maloney, J.O., Perry's Chemical Engineers'Handbook,
McGraw-Hill Book Co, 6th ed., New York (1984). [ Links ]

Tsao, G.T. and Wheelock, T.D., Drying Theory and Calculations. Chem.Eng. , pp. 201-
214 (June 19,1967). [ Links ]