Revised Study

Material

For
GATE – PSU

Chemical Engineering

Heat Transfer

GATE Syllabus

Conduction, convection and radiation, heat transfer

coefficients, steady and unsteady heat conduction,
boiling, condensation and evaporation; types of heat
exchangers and evaporators and their design.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1
CONDUCTION 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction 3
1.3 General Conduction Equation Based on Cartesian Coordinates 3
1.4 Heat Transfer Through a Wall 5
1.5 Composite Wall (Materials in Series) 6
1.6 Composite Wall (Materials in Parallel) 7
1.7 Plane Wall With Internal Heat Generated 8
1.8 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 9
1.9 General Conduction Equation Based on Polar Cylindrical Coordinates 10
1.10 Heat Transfer From a Circular Duct 11
1.11 Critical Radius of Insulation 12
1.12 Unsteady State Heat Conduction 15
1.12.1 Lumped Capacity System 16

Chapter 2
CONVECTION 24
2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Newton’s Law of Cooling 25
2.3 Film Heat Transfer Coefficients 26
2.4 Heat Transfer to a Flowing Fluid 26
2.5 Types of Convection 28
2.5.1 Natural Convection 28
2.5.1.1 Mechanisms of Natural Convection 28
2.5.1.2 Natural Convection Over Surfaces 31
2.5.2 Forced Convection 32
2.5.2.1 Mechanism of Forced Convection 32
2.5.2.2 Velocity Boundary Layer 33
2.5.2.3 Thermal Boundary Layer 36

Chapter 3
RADIATION 42
3.1 Introduction 42
3.2 Black Body Radiation 44
3.3 Radiation Laws 44
3.3.1 Planck’s Law 44
3.3.2 Stefan Boltzmann Law 54
3.3.3 Wien’s Displacement Law 46
3.4 Radiation Properties 46
3.4.1 Emissivity 46
3.4.2 Receiving Properties 48
3.5 Kirchhoff’s Law 50
3.6 The View Factor 50

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3.7 View Factor Relation 51

3.7.1 The Reciprocity Rule 51
3.7.2 The Summation Rule 52
3.8 Radiation Heat Transfer 52
3.9 Net Radiation Between Two Surfaces 53

Chapter 4
BOILING AND CONDENSATION 57
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Heat Transfer to Boiling Liquids 57
4.3 Flow Boiling Regimes 57
4.4 Heat Transfer to Condensation 64
4.4.1 Film Wise Condensation 64
4.4.2 Drop Wise Condensation 65

Chapter 5
HEAT EXCHANGERS 66
5.1 Introduction 66
5.2 Classification of Heat Exchangers 66
5.3 Construction of Heat Exchangers 68
5.4 Plate Heat Exchangers 68
5.5 Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers 70
5.5.1 Types of Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers Front And Rear Heads 71
5.5.2 Types of shell And Tube Heat Exchangers 73
5.5.3 Description of Internal Parts of Shell And Tube Heat Exchangers 74
5.5.3.1 Tubes 74
5.5.3.2 Shells 75
5.5.3.3 Nozzles 75
5.5.3.4 Front And Rear End Heads 75
5.5.3.5 Baffles 76
5.5.3.6 Tube Sheets 78
5.6 Double Pipe Heat Exchangers 79
5.7 Fluidized Bed Heat Exchangers 80
5.8 Heat Exchangers Analysis 81
5.8.1 Fluid Flow 81
5.8.2 Balance And Effectiveness 82
5.8.3 Exchanger Equation 84
5.9 Fouling 84

Chapter 6
EVAPORATION 87
6.1 Introduction 87
6.2 Evaporators 87
6.3 Classification of Evaporators 87
6.3.1 Batch Pan Evaporators 87
6.3.2 Natural Circulation Evaporators 88

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6.3.3 Rising Film Evaporators 89

6.3.4 Falling Film Tubular Evaporators 90
6.3.5 Rising / Falling Film Tubular Evaporators 92
6.3.6 Forced Circulation Evaporators 92
6.3.7 Wiped Film Evaporators 93
6.3.8 Plate Type Evaporators 94
6.4 Evaporators Analysis 95
6.4.1 Capacity 95
6.4.2 Evaporator Economy 96

Chapter 7
LEVEL 1 98
LEVEL 2 117

Chapter 8
UNSOLVED QUESTIONS 142

Chapter 9
QUESTIONS (2004 TO 2015) 151
2004 151
2005 152
2006 155
2007 157
2008 161
2009 163
2010 165
2011 166
2012 168
2013 170
2014 171
2015 172

Chapter 10
SOLUTIONS 174

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CHAPTER
6
• EVAPORATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Evaporation is an operation used to concentrate a solution of a non-volatile solute and a

volatile solvent, which in many cases is water. A portion of solvent is vaporized to
produce a concentrated solution, slurry or thick, viscous liquid.

Evaporation differs from drying in that the residue is a flow able liquid instead of a solid.
Evaporation is different from distillation in that there is no attempt to separate the vapors
into individual components.

Either the vapor or the concentrated stream, or both, may be the desired product.
Therefore, the evaporator should be designed to provide a clean separation of the
vapors from the condensate and the feed.

6.2 EVAPORATORS

An evaporator, like condenser is also a heat exchanger. In an evaporator, the

refrigerant boils or evaporates and in doing so absorbs heat from the substance being
refrigerated. The name evaporator refers to the evaporation process occurring in the
heat exchanger.

6.3 CLASSIFICATION OF EVAPORATORS

There are several ways of classifying the evaporators depending upon the heat transfer
process or refrigerant flow or condition of heat transfer surface.

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6.3.1 BATCH PAN EVAPORATORS

The batch pan is one of the oldest methods of concentration. It is somewhat outdated in
today’s technology, but is still used in a few limited applications, such as the
concentration of jams and jellies where whole fruit is present and in processing some
pharmaceutical products. Up until the early 1960’s, batch pan also enjoyed wide use in
the concentration of corn syrups.

With a batch pan evaporator, product residence time normally is many hours. Therefore,
it is essential to boil at low temperatures and high vacuum when a heat sensitive or
thermo-degradable product is involved. The batch pan is either jacketed or has internal
coils or heaters. Heat transfer areas normally are quite small due to vessel shapes, and
heat transfer coefficients (HTC’s) tend to be low under natural convection conditions.
Low surface areas together with low HTC’s generally limit the evaporation capacity of
such a system. Heat transfer is improved by agitation within the vessel. In many cases,
large temperature differences cannot be used for fear of rapid fouling of the heat
transfer surface. Relatively low evaporation capacities, therefore, limit its use.

6.3.2 NATURAL CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS

Evaporation by natural circulation is achieved through the use of a short tube bundle
within the batch pan or by having an external shell and tube heater outside of the main
vessel. The external heater has the advantage that its size is not dependent upon the

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size or shape of the vessel itself. As a result, larger evaporation capacities may be
obtained. The most common application for this type of unit is as a reboiler at the base
of a distillation column.

6.3.3 RISING FILM TUBULAR EVAPORATORS

Considered to be the first ‘modern’ evaporator used in the industry, the rising film unit
dates back to the early 1900’s. The rising film principle was developed commercially by
using a vertical tube with steam condensing on its outside surface. Liquid on the inside
of the tube is brought to a boil, with the vapor generated forming a core in the center of
the tube. As the fluid moves up the tube, more vapor is formed resulting in a higher
central core velocity that forces the remaining liquid to the tube wall. Higher vapor
velocities, in turn, result in thinner and more rapidly moving liquid film. This provides
higher HTC’s and shorter product residence time.

The development of the rising film principle was a giant step forward in the evaporation
field, particularly in product quality. In addition, higher HTC’s resulted in reduced heat
transfer area requirements and consequently, in a lower initial capital investment.

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6.3.4 FALLING FILM TUBULAR EVAPORATORS

Following development of the rising film principle, it took almost half a century for a
falling film evaporation technique to be perfected (Figure 4). The main problem was how
to design an adequate system for the even distribution of liquid to each of the tubes. For
the rising film evaporator, distribution was easy since the bottom bonnet of the calandria
was always pumped full of liquid, thus allowing equal flow to each tube.

While each manufacturer has its own technique, falling film distribution generally is
based around use of a perforated plate positioned above the top tube plate of the
calandria. Spreading of liquid to each tube is sometimes further enhanced by generating
flash vapor at this point. The falling film evaporator does have the advantage that the
film is ‘going with gravity’ instead of against it. This results in a thinner, faster moving
film and gives rise to an even shorter product contact time and a further improvement in
the value of HTC.

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To establish a well-developed film, the rising film unit requires a driving film force,
typically a temperature difference of at least 25°F (14°C) across the heating surface. In
contrast, the falling film evaporator does not have a driving force limitation—permitting a
greater number of evaporator effects to be used within the same overall operating limits.
For example, if steam is available at 220°F (104°C), then the last effect boiling
temperature is 120°F (49°C); the total available ΔT is equal to 100°F (55°C). In this
scenario a rising film evaporator would be limited to four effects, each with a ΔT of 25°F
(14°C). However, using the falling film technique, it is feasible to have as many as 10 or
more effects.

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6.3.5 RISING/FALLING FILM TUBULAR EVAPORATORS

The rising/falling film evaporator (Figure 5) has the advantages of the ease of liquid
distribution of the rising film unit coupled with lower head room requirements. The tube
bundle is approximately half the height of either a rising or falling film evaporator, or the
vapor / liquid separator is positioned at the bottom of the calandria.

6.3.6 FORCED CIRCULATION EVAPORATORS

The forced circulation evaporator was developed for processing liquors which are
susceptible to scaling or crystallizing. Liquid is circulated at a high rate through the heat
exchanger, boiling being prevented within the unit by virtue of a hydrostatic head
maintained above the top tube plate. As the liquid enters the separator where the
absolute pressure is slightly less than in the tube bundle, the liquid flashes to form a
vapor.

The main applications for a forced circulation evaporator are in the concentration of
inversely soluble materials, crystallizing duties, and in the concentration of thermally
degradable materials which result in the deposition of solids. In all cases, the
temperature rise across the tube bundle is kept as low as possible, often as low as 3-
5°F (2-3°C). This results in a recirculation ratio as high as 220 to 330 lbs (100 to 150

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Kg) of liquor per pound (kilogram) of water evaporated. These high recirculation rates
result in high liquor velocities through the tube which help to minimize the build-up of
deposits or crystals along the heating surface. Forced circulation evaporators normally
are more expensive than film evaporators because of the need for large bore circulating
pipe work and large re-circulating pumps. Operating costs of such a unit also are
considerably higher.

6.3.7 WIPED FILM EVAPORATORS

The wiped or agitated thin film evaporator has limited applications due to the high cost
and is confined mainly to the concentration of very viscous materials and the stripping of
solvents down to very low levels. Feed is introduced at the top of the evaporator and is
spread by wiper blades on to the vertical cylindrical surface inside the unit. Evaporation
of the solvent takes place as the thin film moves down the evaporator wall. The heating
medium normally is high pressure steam or oil.

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A high temperature heating medium generally is necessary to obtain a reasonable

evaporation rate since the heat transfer surface available is relatively small as a direct
result of its cylindrical configuration.

The wiped film evaporator is satisfactory for its limited applications. However, in addition
to its small surface area, it also has the disadvantage of requiring moving parts such as
the wiper blades which, together with the bearings of the rotating shaft, need periodic
maintenance. Capital costs in terms of dollars per pound of solvent evaporated also are
very high.

6.3.8 PLATE TYPE EVAPORATORS

To effectively concentrate an increasing variety of products which differ by industry in

such characteristics as physical properties, stability, or precipitation of solid matter,
equipment manufacturers have engineered a full range of evaporation systems.
Included among these are a number of plate type evaporators.

Plate evaporators initially were developed and introduced by APV in 1957 to provide an
alternative to the tubular systems that had been in use for half a century. The
differences and advantages were many. The plate evaporator, for example, offers full
accessibility to the heat transfer surfaces. It also provides flexible capacity merely by
adding more plate units, shorter product residence time resulting in a superior quality
concentrate, a more compact design with low headroom requirements, and low
installation cost.

These APV plate evaporation systems are made in four arrangements — Rising/Falling
Film, Falling Film, Paravap, and Forced Circulation — and may be sized for use in new
product development or for production at pilot plant or full scale operating levels.

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APV plate type evaporators have been sold commercially for over 50 years.
Approximately 2000 systems have been manufactured by APV for the concentration of
hundreds of different products.

6.4 EVAPORATORS ANALYSIS

6.4.1 CAPACITY

The capacity of an evaporator can be defined as the number of kilograms of water

vaporized / evaporated per hour.

The higher the capacity of the evaporator, the more the designer can justify complex
and expensive evaporation systems in order to provide high energy efficiency.

For evaporator design purposes, the capacity is defined as the evaporation rate per
hour. However, in some applications such as seasonal fruit juice processors, the
equipment is only operated for part of the year. This means that an expensive
evaporator is idle for part of the year. The economic calculation has to include annual
operating hours.

For low capacities the designer is less concerned about energy efficiency. If the
evaporation rate is below 2,200 lb/h (1000 kg/h), it is difficult to justify multi- effect
evaporation. Usually a single-effect evaporator, often with thermo vapor recompression
(TVR), is the system of choice at this capacity.

In many cases, mechanical vapor recompression (MVR) is the most efficient

evaporator. However, these systems operate at a low temperature difference, which
results in high heat transfer area. Also MVR requires either a centrifugal compressor or
a high pressure fan which are expensive equipment items. These cannot usually be
justified for low capacity evaporators.

6.4.2 EVAPORATOR ECONOMY

Economy of an evaporator is defined as the number of kilograms of water evaporated

per kilogram of steam fed to the evaporator. It is alos called as steam economy.

In single effect evaporator the amount of water evaporated per kg of steam fed is
always less than one and hence economy is less than one. The fact that the latent heat

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of evaporation of water decreases as the pressure increases tends to make the ratio of
water vapor produced per kg of steam condensed less than unity.

The methods of increasing the economy are:

(i) Use of multi-effect evaporation system,

(ii) Vapor recompression

Example 6.1 An evaporator operating at atmospheric pressure is fed at the rate of

10000 kg/h of weak liquor containing 4% caustic soda. Thick liquor leaving the
evaporator contains 25% caustic soda. Find the capacity of the evaporator.

Solution:

Basis: 10000 kg/h of thick liquor leaving the evaporator.

Let m be the kg/h of thick liquor leaving the evaporator.

Material balance of caustic soda:

Caustic soda in feed = Caustic soda in thick liquor

0.04 x 10000 = 0.25 x m

m = 1600 kg/h

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