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ENGINEERING&KNOWLEDGE&TEST& ELECTRICAL&AND&ELECTRONICS&
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Content
Fundamental Engineering
•! Engineering Mathematics
o! MCQs
•! Engineering Physics
o! MCQs
•! Engineering Drawing
o! MCQs
o! MCQs
•! Electrical Engineering
o! MCQs
•! Electronic Devices
ENGINEERING&KNOWLEDGE&TEST& ELECTRICAL&AND&ELECTRONICS&
&
o! MCQs
•! Control Engineering
o! MCQs
•! Telecommunication Systems
o! MCQs
•! Microwave Engineering
o! MCQs
o! MCQs
•! Instrumentation
o! MCQs
o! MCQs
•! Switching Theory
o! MCQs
ENGINEERING&KNOWLEDGE&TEST& ELECTRICAL&AND&ELECTRONICS&
&
•! Information Technology
o! MCQs
•! Radar Theory
o! MCQs
o! Answers
o! Answers
& &
ENGINEERING&KNOWLEDGE&TEST& ELECTRICAL&AND&ELECTRONICS&
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What does EKT stand for?
EKT stands for Engineering Knowledge Test. It is a simple test to check the
basic engineering knowledge of candidates applying for IAF technical
branch.
The candidates who are applying for the technical branch of IAF through
AFCAT have to attend EKT after general paper.
For every correct answer candidate will get 3 marks, for every wrong
answer 1 mark will be deducted.
Candidates who fail in EKT won’t be eligible for IAF technical branch.
&
ENGINEERING&KNOWLEDGE&TEST& ELECTRICAL&AND&ELECTRONICS&
&
Engineering Mathematics
Contents
1 Matrix Algebra 2
3 Multiple integral 5
5 What is a Statistic? 6
5.1 Mean and Weighted Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6 Fourier Transforms 8
6.1 Trigonometric Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10 Z-transform 11
1
Page: 2 shop.ssbcrack.com
1 Matrix Algebra
Definitions
• An array of real numbers is called an m ◊ n matrix with m rows and n columns.
S T
a11 a12 ..... a1n
W a21 a22 ..... a2n X
W X
W . . . X
W X
W . ..... . X
W X
U . ..... . V
am1 am2 amn
The aij is referred to as the i, jth element and denotes the element in the ith row and jth column.
If m = n then A is called a square matrix of order n. If the matrix has one column or one row
then it is called a column vector or a row vector respectively.
• In a square matrix A of order n the diagonal containing the elements a11 , a22 , ..., ann is called
the principal or leading diagonal. The sum of the elements in this diagonal is called the trace of
A, that is
q
n
trace A = aii
i=1
• A diagonal matrix is a square matrix that has its only non-zero elements along the leading
diagonal. A special case of a diagonal matrix is the unit or identity matrix I for which a11 =
a22 = ... = ann = 1.
• A zero or null matrix 0 is a matrix with every element zero.
Properties of addition
• commutative law: A + B = B + A
• associative law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Properties of multiplication
• The commutative law is not satisfied in general; that is, in general AB ”= BA. Order matters and
we distinguish between AB and BA by the terminology: pre-multiplication of B by A to form
AB and post-multiplication of B by A to form BA.
• Associative law: A(BC) = (AB)C
• If ⁄ is a scalar then (⁄A)B=A(⁄B)=⁄AB
• Distributive law over addition:
(A + B)C = AC + BC
A(B + C) = AB + AC
Note the importance of maintaining order of multiplication.
• If A is an m ◊ n matrix and if Im and In are the unit matrices of order m and n respectively
then Im A = AIn = A
• (A + B)T = AT + B T
• (AT )T = A
• (AB)T = B T AT
Example of Multiplication
The last matrix is in row-echelon form and has two nonzero rows. Hence rank A=2,
c(⁄) = |⁄I ≠ A| = 0
Partial derivative
In mathematics, a partial derivative of a function of several variables is its derivative with respect to
one of those variables, with the others held constant (as opposed to the total derivative, in which all
variables are allowed to vary). Partial derivatives are used in vector calculus and differential geometry.
The partial derivative of a function f(x, y, ...) with respect to the variable x is variously denoted
by
ˆ ˆf
fxÕ , fx ,f or
ˆx ˆx
Since in general a partial derivative is a function of the same arguments as was the original function,
this functional dependence is sometimes explicitly included in the notation, as in
The partial-derivative symbol is ˆ. One of the first known uses of the symbol in mathematics is by
Marquis de Condorcet from 1770, who used it for partial differences. The modern partial derivative
notation is by Adrien-Marie Legendre (1786), though he later abandoned it; Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi
re-introduced the symbol in 1841.
Example
Find the partial derivatives fx and fy if f(x , y) is given by f (x, y) = x2 y + 2x + y
Assume y is constant and differentiate with respect to x to obtain
ˆf ˆ 2
fx = = [x y + 2x + y]
ˆx ˆx
ˆ 2 ˆ ˆ
[x y] + [2x] + [y] = [2xy] + [2] + [0] = 2xy + 2
ˆx ˆx ˆx
3 Multiple integral
The multiple integral is a generalization of the definite integral to functions of more than one real
variable, for example, f(x, y) or f(x, y, z).
s2s3
Evaluate 1 0 (x2 y) dx dy
s3
We will start with 0
(x2 y)dx with y constant.
⁄ 2 ⁄ 3
I= x2 y dx dy
1 0
⁄ 2 56x=3
x3
= y dy
1 3 x=0
⁄ 2 5 2 62
9y
= (9y)dy = = 18 ≠ 4.5 = 13.5
1 2 1
y Õ = cosx5
y ÕÕ + 9y = e≠2x
3 Õ
y Õ y ÕÕÕ ≠ y 2
2
are ordinary differential equations (ODEs). Here, as in calculus, y Õ denotes dy/dx, y ÕÕ = d2 y/dx2 etc.
The term ordinary distinguishes them from partial differential equations (PDEs), which involve partial
derivatives of an unknown function of two or more variables.
5
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What is a Statistic?
In the mind of a statistician, the world consists of populations and samples. An example of a population
is all 7th graders in the United States. A related example of a sample would be a group of 7th graders
in the United States. In this particular example, a federal health care administrator would like to
know the average weight of 7th graders and how that compares to other countries. Unfortunately, it
is too expensive to measure the weight of every 7th grader in the United States. Instead statistical
methodologies can be used to estimate the average weight of 7th graders in the United States by
measure the weights of a sample (or multiple samples) of 7th graders.
Parameters are to populations as statistics are to samples. A parameter is a property of a pop-
ulation. As illustrated in the example above, most of the time it is infeasible to directly measure a
population parameter. Instead a sample must be taken and statistic for the sample is calculated. This
statistic can be used to estimate the population parameter. (A branch of statistics know as Inferential
Statistics involves using samples to infer information about a populations.) In the example about the
population parameter is the average weight of all 7th graders in the United States and the sample
statistic is the average weight of a group of 7th graders.
A large number of statistical inference techniques require samples to be a single random sample and
independently gathers. In short, this allows statistics to be treated as random variables. A in-depth
discussion of these consequences is beyond the scope of this text. It is also important to note that
statistics can be flawed due to large variance, bias, inconsistency and other errors that may arise during
sampling. Whenever performing over reviewing statistical analysis, a skeptical eye is always valuable.
Statistics take on many forms. Examples of statistics can be seen below.
qi=n
Xi
X̄ = i=1
(1)
n
However, equation (1) can only be used when the error associated with each measurement is the same
or unknown. Otherwise, the weighted average, which incorporates the standard deviation, should be
calculated using equation (2) below.
q
wi xi
Xwav = q (2)
wi
1
where wi = ‡i 2 and xi is the data value.
Median
The median is the middle value of a set of data containing an odd number of values, or the average of the
two middle values of a set of data with an even number of values. The median is especially helpful when
separating data into two equal sized bins. The excel syntax to find the median is MEDIAN(starting
cell: ending cell).
Mode
The mode of a set of data is the value which occurs most frequently. The excel syntax for the mode
is MODE(starting cell: ending cell). .
Side Note: Bias Estimate of Population Variance The standard deviation (the square root of variance)
of a sample can be used to estimate a population’s true variance. Equation (3) above is an unbias
estimate of population variance. Equation (3.1) below is another common method for calculating
sample standard deviation, although it is an bias estimate. Although the estimate is biased, it is
advantageous in certain situations because the estimate has a lower variance. (This relates to the
bias-variance trade-off for estimators.)
ı̂ i=n
ı1ÿ
‡n = Ù (Xi ≠ X̄)2 (3.1)
n i=1
When calculated standard deviation values associated with weighted averages, equation (4) below
should be used.
1
‡wav = q (4)
wi
Example Problem
You obtain the following data points and want to analyze them using basic statistical methods. 1,2,2,3,5
Calculate the average: Count the number of data points to obtain n = 5
1+2+2+3+5
mean = = 2.6
5
Obtain the mode: Either using the excel syntax of the previous tutorial, or by looking at the data
set, one can notice that there are two 2’s, and no multiples of other data points, meaning the 2 is the
mode.
Obtain the median: Knowing the n=5, the halfway point should be the third (middle) number in a
list of the data points listed in ascending or descending order. Seeing as how the numbers are already
listed in ascending order, the third number is 2, so the median is 2.
Calculate the standard deviation: Using the equation shown above,
Ú
1
‡= ((1 ≠ 2.6)2 + (2 ≠ 2.6)2 + (2 ≠ 2.6)2 + (3 ≠ 2.6)2 + (5 ≠ 2.6)2 ) = 1.52
5≠1
6 Fourier Transforms
The Fourier transform is important in mathematics, engineering, and the physical sciences. Its discrete
counterpart, the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), which is normally computed using the so-called
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), has revolutionized modern society, as it is ubiquitous in digital electron-
ics and signal processing. Radio astronomers are particularly avid users of Fourier transforms because
Fourier transforms are key components in data processing (e.g., periodicity searches) and instruments
(e.g., antennas, receivers, spectrometers), and they are the cornerstores of interferometry and aperture
synthesis.
The Fourier transform is a reversible, linear transform with many important properties. For any
function f(x) (which in astronomy is usually real-valued, but f(x) may be complex), the Fourier trans-
form can be denoted F(s), where the product of x and s is dimensionless. Often x is a measure
of time t (i.e., the time-domain signal) and so s corresponds to inverse time, or frequency (i.e., the
frequency-domain signal)
Complex exponentials (or sines and cosines) are periodic functions, and the set of complex exponen-
tials is complete and orthogonal. Thus the Fourier transform can represent any piecewise continuous
function and minimizes the least-square error between the function and its representation. There exist
other complete and orthogonal sets of periodic functions; for example, Walsh functions (square waves)
are useful for digital electronics. Why do we always encounter complex exponentials when solving
physical problems? Why are monochromatic waves sinusoidal, and not periodic trains of square waves
or triangular waves? The reason is that the derivatives of complex exponentials are just rescaled com-
plex exponentials. In other words, the complex exponentials are the eigenfunctions of the differential
operator. Most physical systems obey linear differential equations. Thus an analog electronic filter will
convert a sine wave into another sine wave having the same frequency (but not necessarily the same
amplitude and phase), while a filtered square wave will not be a square wave. This property of complex
exponentials makes the Fourier transform uniquely useful in fields ranging from radio propagation to
quantum mechanics.
where ⁄ ⁄
1 T
2 T
a0 = f (t)dt, an = f (t)cos(Ê0 nt)dt
T 0 T 0
⁄
2 T
bn = f (t)sin(Ê0 nt)dt
T 0
signals that are discretely sampled, usually at constant intervals, and of finite duration or periodic.
For such data, only a finite number of sinusoids is needed and the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)
is appropriate. For almost every Fourier transform theorem or property, there is a related theorem or
property for the DFT. The DFT of N uniformly sampled data points xj (where j = 0, ..., N ≠ 1) and
its inverse are defined by
N
ÿ ≠1
Xk = xj · e≠i2fikj/N
n=0
1 ÿ
N ≠1
xj = Xk · ei2fikn/N
N
k=0
Once again, sign and normalization conventions may vary, but our definition is the most common.
The continuous variable s has been replaced by the discrete variable (usually an integer) k.
VN/2 = 1/(2 t)
where s is a complex variable and e≠st is called the kernel of the transformation.
Since the upper limit in the integral is infinite, the domain of integration is infinite. Thus the
integral is an example of an improper integral
10 Z-transform
In signal processing, this definition can be used to evaluate the Z-transform of the unit impulse
response of a discrete-time causal system.
Inverse Z-transform
The inverse Z-transform is
j
1
x[n] = Z ≠1 {X(z)} = X(z)z n≠1 dz
2fij C
where C is a counter clockwise closed path encircling the origin and entirely in the region of convergence
(ROC). In the case where the ROC is causal , this means the path C must encircle all of the poles of
X(z).
Example 1
Let x[n] = (0.5)n . Expanding x[n] on the interval (≠Œ, Œ) it becomes
) * ) *
x[n] = · · · , 0.5≠3 , 0.5≠2 , 0.5≠1 , 1, 0.5, 0.52 , 0.53 , · · · = · · · , 23 , 22 , 2, 1, 0.5, 0.52 , 0.53 , · · · .
Parseval’s theorem
j
1
Œ
ÿ
x1 [n]xú2 [n] = X1 (v)X2ú ( v1ú )v ≠1 dv
n=≠Œ
j2fi C
Engineering'Mathematics'MCQs'
!
Linear'Algebra'(matrices)'
!
1.'''For'any'two'matrices'A'and'B,'which'of'the'following'is'correct?'
(a)' !" = 0% ⇒ ! = 0%'(%" = 0' (b)' ! + " * = !* + 2!" + " * '
(c)' !" , = " , !, ' (d)' ∣ !" ∣%%≠∣ ! ∣%∣ " ∣%%'
'
2.''A'5'X'7'matrix'has'all'its'entries'equal'to'J1.'Then'the'rank'of'a'matrix'is'
(a)' 7' (b)' 5'
(c)' 1' (d)' Zero'
'
0 1
3.'''The'eigen'value'of'the'matrix'[% ]'are'
1 1
(a)' (a+1),0' (b)' a,0'
(c)' (aJ1),0' (d)' 0,0'
'
4.'The'rank'of'(mxn)'cannot'be'more'than'
(a)' m' (b)' n'
(c)' mn' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
5.''In'the'GaussJelimination'for'a'solving'system'of'linear'algebraic'equations,'
triangularization'leads'to'
(a)' Diagonal'matrix' (b)' Lower'triangular'matrix'
(c)' Upper'triangular'matrix' (d)' Singular'matrix'
'
6.''If'A'and'B'are'two'matrices'and'if'AB'exist'then'BA'exists.'
(a)' Only'if'A'has'as'many'rows'a'B'has' (b)' Only'if'both'A'and'B'are'square'
columns' matrices'
(c)' Only'if'A'and'B'are'skew'matrices' (d)' Only'if'both'A'and'B'are'symmetric'
'
7.''If'A'is'a'real'square'matrix'the'AAT'is'
(a)' UnJsymmetric' (b)' Symmetric'
(c)' SkewJsymmetric' (d)' PartiallyJsymmetric'
'
8.''If'A,'B,'C'are'square'matrices'of'the'same'order'then'(ABC)J1'is'equal'to'
(a)' CJ1AJ1BJ1' (b)' CJ1BJ1AJ1''
(c)' AJ1BJ1'CJ1' (d)' AJ1'CJ1BJ1'
'
1 1
9.''The'rank'of'the'matrix'[ ]'is'
0 0
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Engineering'Mathematics'MCQs'
25.'Let'= % −1'.'Then'one'value'of'jj'is''
(a)' 3' (b)' J1'
(c)' 1 (d)' < >W/* '
'
2
'
]^_ Z
26.'For'the'function' ` 'of'a'complex'variable'z,'the'point'z'='0'is'
Z
(a)' A'pole'of'order'3' (b)' A'pole'of'order'2'
(c)' A'pole'of'order'1' (d)' Not'a'singularity'
'
>=\a[D
27.'The'value'of'the'expression' %'
G\ba
(a)' 1J2i' (b)' 1+2i'
(c)' 2Ji' (d)' 2+i'
'
28.'The'equation'Sin(z)'='10'has'
(a)' No'real'(or)'complex'solution' (b)' Exactly'two'distinct'complex'
solutions'
(c)' A'unique'solution' (d)' An'infinite'number'of'complex'
solutions'
'
[
29.'If'a'complex'number'c'satisfies'the'equation'cG = 1'then'the'value'of''1 + c + ''
d
is'___.'
(a)' 0' (b)' 1'
(c)' 2' (d)' 4'
'
30.'If'Z'='x+jy''where'x,y'are'real'then'the'value'of' < eZ 'is'
(a)' 1' (b)' < 6 4 \5 4 '
(c)' < 5 ' (d)' < >5 '
'
Laplace!transform!
'
d
31.'The'Laplace'transform'for'f(t)''is'F(s).'Given' 7 = % 4 4 ','the'final'value'of'f(t)'is'
f \d
____.'
(a)' Initially'' (b)' Zero'
(c)' One' (d)' None'
'
32.'(s+1)J2'is'the'Laplace'transform'of''
(a)' t2' (b)' t3'
(c)' eJ2t' (d)' teJt'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Engineering'Mathematics'MCQs'
'
i
33.'If'g h @ =% 'then'the'value'of' lim h @ = % ___''
f 4 \i 4 ,→n
(a)' Can'not'be'determined' (b)' Zero'
(c)' Unity' (d)' Infinite'
'
34.'If'g h @ − o = p 7 'then'g h @ − o 'is'equal'to''
(a)' esT'F(s)' (b)' eJsT'F(s)'
(c)' p(7) (d)' p(7)
' '
1 − < fP 1 − < >fP
'
35.'Let'Y(s)'be'the'Laplace'transform'of'function'y(t),'then'the'final'value'of'the'function'
is'_____.'
(a)' lim q(7)' (b)' lim q(7)'
f→D f→n
(c)' lim q(7)% (d)' lim q(7)'
f→[ f→>[
'
36.'The'Laplace'transform'of'i(t)'is'given'by'I(s)'='2/s(1+s)''As'@ → ∞','the'value'of'i(t)'
tends'to'___.'
(a)' 0' (b)' 1'
(c)' 2' (d)' infinity'
'
37.'If'F(s)'is'the'Laplace'transform'of'the'function'f(t)'then'Laplace'transform'of'
,
D
h ? s? ''is'
(a)' 1/s'F(s)' (b)' 1/s'F(s)]Jf(0)'
(c)' sF(s)Jf(0)' (d)' JsF(s)'
'
38.'Laplace'transform'of'Sinht'is'
(a)' 1/(s2J1)' (b)' 1/(1Js2)'
(c)' s/(s2J1)' (d)' s/(1Js2)'
'
[
39.'The'inverse'Laplace'transform'of' 4 ''is'
f \f
(a)' 1+et' (b)' 1Jet'
(c)' 1JeJt' (d)' 1+eJt'
'
40.'U(t)'represents'the'unit'step'function.'The'Laplace'transform'of't(@ − u)'is'
(a)' 1 (b)' 1
' %
7u 7−u
(c)' < >fv (d)' < >fv '
' '
7
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Engineering'Mathematics'MCQs'
Calculus!
!
41.'The'area'bounded'by'the'parabola'2y=x2'and'the'lines'x=yJ4'is'equal'to'____.'
(a)' 6' (b)' 18'
(c)' Infinity' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
42.'If'at'every'point'of'a'certain'curve,'the'slope'of'the'tangent'equals'J2x/y,'the'curve'is'
____.'
(a)' A'straight'line' (b)' A'parabola'
(c)' A'circle' (d)' An'ellipse'
'
43.'What'is'the'average'value'of'the'function''g(x)'='(2x+3)2'on'the'interval'from'x'='J3'to'
x'='J1?'
(a)' 7/3' (b)' J4'
(c)' 5' (d)' 3'
'
[
44.'lim ?789( ) = % ____.'
6→D 6
(a)' Infinity' (b)' 0'
(c)' 1' (d)' Can'not'be'determined'
%
45.'If'a'function'is'continuous'at'a'point'its'first'derivative'
(a)' May'or'may'not'exist' (b)' Exist'always'
(c)' Exists'at'infinity' (d)' Exist'at'unique'value'
'
46.'The'function'f(x)'='ex'is'___.'
(a)' Even' (b)' Odd'
(c)' Neither'even'or'odd' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
wax4 6
47.'lim '='___'
6→D 6
(a)' 0' (b)' Infinity'
(c)' 1' (d)' J1'
'
48.'The'area'enclosed'between''the'parabola'y=x2'and'the'straight'line'y=x'is'___.'
(a)' 1/8' (b)' 1/6'
(c)' 1/3' (d)' 1/2'
'
'
49.'For'the'function'f(x)'='x2eJx,'the'maximum'occurs'when'x'is'equal'to'___.'
(a)' 2' (b)' 1'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Engineering'Mathematics'MCQs'
!
1.!!(c)! 2.!(c)! 3.!(a)! 4.!(d)! 5.!(c)! 6.!(a)! 7.!(b)! 8.!(b)! 9.!(c)! 10.!(b)!
11.!(b)! 12.!(b)! 13.!(a)! 14.!(b)! 15.!(b)! 16.!(c)! 17.!(a)! 18.!(b)! 19.!(b)! 20.!(c)!
21.!(c)! 22.!(c)! 23.!(b)! 24.!(a)! 25.!(d)! 26.!(b)! 27.!(b)! 28.!(d)! 29.!(a)! 30.!(d)!
31.!(b)! 32.!(d)! 33.!(b)! 34.!(b)! 35.!(c)! 36.!(d)! 37.!(a)! 38.!(a)! 39.!(c)! 40.!(c)!
41.!(b)! 42.!(d)! 43.!(a)! 44.!(b)! 45.!(a)! 46.!(c)! 47.!(a)! 48.!(b)! 49.!(a)! 50.!(a)!
'
Engineering Physics
Contents
1 Units for measurement 2
1.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4 Laws of motion 8
4.1 Newton first law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 Newton second law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Newton third law of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6 Rotational motion 12
9 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 27
9.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9.2 Radio waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.3 Microwaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
9.4 Infrared waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.5 Visible Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.6 Ultraviolet rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.7 X-rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
9.8 Gamma rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1
Page: 2
11 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 32
11.1 The microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
11.2 Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.1 Dimensions
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities must be raised to
represent the given physical quantity.
Illustration :
Displacement
Defined as the change in the position of an object. Let x1 and x2 be the positions of an object at time t1
and t2 . Then its displacement, denoted by x, in time t = (t2 ≠ t1 ), is given by the difference between
the final and initial positions :
x = x2 ≠ x1
If x2 > x1 , x is positive; and if x2 < x1 , x is negative. Displacement has both magnitude and direction.
Such quantities are represented by vectors.
Uniform motion
If an object moving along the straight line covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in
uniform motion along a straight line.
Average velocity
Average velocity is defined as the change in position or displacement ( x) divided by the time intervals ( t),
in which the displacement occurs :
x2 ≠ x1 x
v̄ = =
t2 ≠ t 1 y
where x2 and x1 are the positions of the object at time t2 and t1 , respectively. The SI unit for velocity is
m/s or ms≠1 .
The average velocity can be positive or negative depending upon the sign of the displacement. It is zero
if the displacement is zero. Fig(a) shows the x-t graphs for an object, moving with positive velocity, Fig(b)
shows the x-t graphs for an object, moving with negative velocity, Fig(c) shows the x-t graphs for an object
at rest.
Average speed
It is defined as the total path length travelled divided by the total time interval during which the motion has
taken place.
T otal path length
Avergae speed =
T otal time interval
Average speed has obviously the same unit (ms≠1 ) as that of velocity. But it does not tell us in what
direction an object is moving. Thus, it is always positive.
Answer:
Displacement +240m
Average velocity = =
T ime interval (18 + 6)s
Acceleration
Defined as the rate of change of velocity. SI unit is ms≠2
v
a=
t
kinematic equations
The kinematic equations are a set of four equations that can be utilized to predict unknown information
about an object’s motion if other information is known.
The four kinematic equations that describe an object’s motion are:
1
• d=v◊t+ 2 ◊ a ◊ t2
• Vf2 = Vi2 + 2 ◊ a ◊ d
• d= 2
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• V 2f = V i + a ◊ t
vi +vf
◊t
There are a variety of symbols used in the above equations. Each symbol has its own specific meaning. The
symbol d stands for the displacement of the object. The symbol t stands for the time for which the object
moved. The symbol a stands for the acceleration of the object. And the symbol v stands for the velocity of
the object; a subscript of i after the v (as in vi ) indicates that the velocity value is the initial velocity value
and a subscript of f (as in vf ) indicates that the velocity value is the final velocity value.
Eample:
Given is Vi = +30.00 ms≠1 , Vf = 0 ms≠1 , a = -8.00 ms≠2 . Find d.
Answer:
Consider equation, Vf2 = Vi2 + 2 ◊ a ◊ d
Substituting, (0m/s)2 = (30m/s)2 + 2 ◊ (≠8m/s2 ) ◊ d
16 ◊ d = 900
Therefore, d = 56.3m
4 Laws of motion
As per Aristotelian law of motion, a force is required to put a stationary body in motion or stop a moving
body, and some external agency is needed to provide this force. The external agency may or may not be in
contact with the body.
Aristotelian law of motion is flawed, as per Galileo to get at the true law of nature for forces and motion,
one has to imagine a world in which uniform motion is possible with no frictional forces opposing.
Laws of inertia
The law of inertia states that, body will preserve its velocity and direction so long as no force in its motion’s
direction acts on it.
For example,a package thrown out of an aeroplane will continue to move at the speed of the aeroplane on
the horizontal axis (in the direction of the aeroplane movement). Since the law of gravity acts on the package
(a vertical downward axis), the package will gather speed along the vertical axis, but on the horizontal axis
its speed will remain equal to that of the aeroplane.
Momentum
Momentum, P of a body is defined to be the product of its mass m and velocity v, and is denoted by p:
p=m◊v
p p
F Ã Or F = K
t t
Therefore,
dp
F =
dt
For a body of fixed mass m,
dp d(mv) dv
= =m = ma
dt dt dt
i.e the Second Law can also be written as
F =k◊m◊a
This shows that force is proportional to the product of mass m and acceleration a. For K = 1,
F =m◊a
In SI unit force is one that causes an acceleration of 1 m s≠2 to a mass of 1 kg. This unit is known as
newton : 1 N = 1 kg m s≠2 .
Example:
The motion of a particle of mass m is described by y = ut + 12 gt2 . Find the force acting on the particle.
Answer:
Given,
1
y = ut + gt2
2
Now
dy
V = = u + gt
dt
acceleration,
dv
a= =g
dt
Therefore,
F orce F = ma = mg
Thus the given equation describes the motion of a particle under acceleration due to gravity and y is the
position coordinate in the direction of g.
• The terms action and reaction in the third law mean nothing else but force, using different terms for
the same physical concept can sometimes be confusing. A simple and clear way of stating the third law
is as follows :
Forces always occur in pairs. Force on a body A by B is equal and opposite to the force on the body
B by A.
• The terms action and reaction in the third law may give a wrong impression that action comes before
• Action and reaction forces act on different bodies, not on the same body. Consider a pair of bodies A
and B. According to the third law,
FAB = ≠FBA
Conservation of momentum
The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles is conserved.
Consider two bodies A and B, with initial momenta pA and pB . The bodies collide, get apart, with final
momenta pÕA and pÕB respectively. By the Second Law
FAB t = pÕA ≠ pA
FBA t = pÕB ≠ pB
Since, FAB = - FBA by third law;
pÕA ≠ pA = ≠(pÕB ≠ pB )
Therefore,
pÕA + pÕB = pA + pB
which shows that the total final momentum of the isolated system equals its initial momentum.
Thus,
W = (F cos◊) d
Example:
A cyclist comes to a skidding stop in 10 m. During this process, the force on the cycle due to the road is 200
N and is directly opposed to the motion. How much work does the road do on the cycle ?
Answer:
The stopping force and the displacement make an angle of 1800 (fi rad) with each other. Thus, work
done by the road,
W = (F cos◊) d
W = 200 ◊ 10 ◊ cosfi
Therefore, work done = -200 J, It is this negative work that brings the cycle to a halt.
Kinetic energy
The work done on a body that caused the body to be set in motion with some speed v can be expressed as
function of the body’s final speed v and mass m, independent of type of force that acted on the body. We
call this function the body’s Kinetic Energy. If an object of mass m has velocity v, its kinetic energy K is,
1
K = m v2
2
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of the work an object
can do by the virtue of its motion.
Thus, dK = Fdx. Integrating from the initial position (xi ) to final position (xf ), we have
⁄Kf ⁄xf
dK = dx
Ki xi
⁄xf
K f ≠ Ki = F dx = W
xi
Potential energy
Potential energy is the energy that an object has due to its position in a force field or that a system has due
to the configuration of its parts.
Gravitational potential energy of an object, as a function of the height h, is denoted by V(h) and it is the
negative of work done by the gravitational force in raising the object to that height.
V (h) = mgh
Power
Power is defined as the time rate at which work is done or energy is transferred.
The average power of a force is defined as the ratio of the work, W, to the total time t taken,
W
Pa v =
t
Note:
There is another unit of power, namely the horse-power (hp), 1 hp = 746 W.
6 Rotational motion
In uniform circular motion speed of the object is always constant and direction is changing. Thus, velocity
of the object is changing and as a result object has acceleration.
Angular velocity
Angular velocity is defined as the change of the angular displacement in a unit of time. Angular velocity is
symbolised with the Greek letter Ê omega.
Average velocity= Circumference of the circle/time
Ê = 2fi
T = 2fif
Angular acceleration
Angular acceleration – is defined as the time rate of change of angular velocity.Thus,
dÊ
–=
dt
kinematic equations for rotational motion with uniform angular acceleration are:
Ê = Ê0 + –t
◊ = ◊0 + Ê0 t + 12 –t2
Ê 2 = Ê02 + 2–(◊ ≠ ◊0 )
7
7.1
Gravitation
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Kepler’s law
Kepler’s had given three law’s stated below.
1. Law of orbits : All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun situated at one of the foci of the
ellipse.
2. Law of areas : The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of time.
3. Law of periods : The square of the time period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the cube
of the semi-major axis of the ellipse traced out by the planet.
Gravitational constant
The gravitational constant, approximately 6.673 ◊ 10≠11 N.(m/kg)2 and denoted by letter G, is an empirical
physical constant involved in the calculation(s) of gravitational force between two bodies.
Note:
Ô
• The escape speed from the surface of the Earth is Ve = 2
2gRE ( = 11.2 Km/s) where RE is radius of
earth.
• If a particle is outside a uniform spherical shell or solid sphere with a spherically symmetric internal
mass distribution, the sphere attracts the particle as though the mass of the sphere or shell were
concentrated at the centre of the sphere.
• If a particle is inside a uniform spherical shell, the gravitational force on the particle is zero. If a particle
is inside a homogeneous solid sphere, the force on the particle acts toward the centre of the sphere.
This force is exerted by the spherical mass interior to the particle.
• A geostationary (geosynchronous communication) satellite moves in a circular orbit in the equatorial
plane at a approximate distance of 4.22 ◊ 104 km from the Earthâ ès centre.
If the substance is in the form of a long rod, then for small change in temperature, ” T, the fractional
l
= –1 T
l
where –1 is known as the coefficient of linear expansion and is characteristic of the material of the rod.
Similarly, we consider the fractional change VV of a substance for temperature change T and define the
coefficient of volume expansion –v , as
V 1
–v = ( )
V T
Note
1
For ideal gas –v = T . At , 0 C –v = 3.7 ◊ 10≠3 K ≠1 , which is much larger than that for solids and liquids.
Q
S=
T
Where, Q is the amount of heat supplied to the substance to change its temperature from T to T + T .
The specific heat capacity is the property of the substance which determines the change in the temperature
of the substance (undergoing no phase change) when a given quantity of heat is absorbed (or rejected) by
it. It is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or rejected by the substance to change its
temperature by one unit. It depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature. The SI unit of
specific heat capacity is Jkg ≠1 K ≠1 .
If Q stands for the amount of heat absorbed or rejected by a substance of mass m when it undergoes a
temperature change T, then the specific heat capacity s, of that substance is given by,
S 1 Q
s= =
M m T
Notes:
• The latent heat of fusion is the heat per unit mass required to change a substance from solid into
liquid at the same temperature and pressure. The latent heat of vaporisation is the heat per unit mass
required to change a substance from liquid to the vapour state without change in the temperature and
pressure.
• The three modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation.
• Newton’s Law of Cooling says that the rate of cooling of a body is proportional to the excess temperature
of the body over the surroundings :
dQ
= ≠K(T2 ≠ T1 )
dt
Where T1 is the temperature of the surrounding medium and T2 is the temperature of the body.
8.2 Thermodynamics
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that â Ÿtwo systems in thermal equilibrium with a third
system are in thermal equilibrium with each otherâ è. The Zeroth Law leads to the concept of tem-
perature.
• he first law of thermodynamics is the general law of conservation of energy applied to any system in
Q= U+ W
Where Q is the heat supplied to the system, W is the work done by the system and U is the
change in internal energy of the system.
• Equilibrium states of a thermodynamic system are described by state variables. The value of a state
variable depends only on the particular state, not on the path used to arrive at that state. Examples
of state variables are pressure (P ), volume (V ), temperature (T ), and mass (m ). Heat and work
are not state variables. An Equation of State (like the ideal gas equation P V = µRT ) is a relation
connecting different state variables.
• In an isothermal expansion of an ideal gas from volume V 1 to V 2 at temperature T the heat absorbed
(Q) equals the work done (W ) by the gas, each given by
V2
Q = W = µRT ln( )
V1
• The second law of thermodynamics disallows some processes consistent with the First Law of Thermo-
dynamics. It states
Kelvin ≠ P lanck statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and complete conversion
of the heat into work.
Clausius statement
No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object.
Put simply, the Second Law implies that no heat engine can have efficiency ÷ equal to 1 or no refrigerator
can have co-efficient of performance – equal to infinity.
• Carnot engine is a reversible engine operating between two temperatures T 1 (source) and T 2 (sink).
The Carnot cycle consists of two isothermal processes connected by two adiabatic processes. The
efficiency of a Carnot engine is given by
T2
÷ =1≠
T1
No engine operating between two temperatures can have efficiency greater than that of the Carnot
engine.
• If Q > 0, heat is added to the system; If Q < 0, heat is removed to the system; If W > 0, Work is done
by the system; If W < 0, Work is done on the system.
8.3 Electrostatics
1. Conductors allow movement of electric charge through them, insulators do not. In metals, the mobile
charges are electrons; in electrolytes both positive and negative ions are mobile.
2. Electric charge has three basic properties: quantisation, additivity and conservation. Quantisation of
electric charge means that total charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of a basic quantum
of charge (e) i.e., q = n e, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, .... Proton and electron have charges +e, -e,
respectively. For macroscopic charges for which n is a very large number, quantisation of charge can
be ignored. Additivity of electric charges means that the total charge of a system is the algebraic sum
(i.e., the sum taking into account proper signs) of all individual charges in the system. Conservation of
electric charges means that the total charge of an isolated system remains unchanged with time. This
means that when bodies are charged through friction, there is a transfer of electric charge from one
body to another, but no creation or destruction of charge.
k(q1 q2 )
F21 = f orce on q2 due to q1 = rˆ21
r2 12
where rˆ21 is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to q2 and k = 4fi1Á0 is the constant of proportionality.
In SI units, the unit of charge is coulomb. The experimental value of the constant Á0 is 8.854 ◊
10≠12 C 2 N ≠1 m≠2
The approximate value of k is 9 ◊ 109 N m2 C ≠2
ke2
The ratio of electric force and gravitational force between a proton and an electron is Gme mp ¥ 2.3◊1039
4. Superposition Principle: The principle is based on the property that the forces with which two
charges attract or repel each other are not affected by the presence of a third (or more) additional
charge(s). For an assembly of charges q1 , q2 , q3 , ..., the force on any charge, say q1 , is the vector sum
of the force on q1 due to q2 , the force on q1 due to q3 , and so on. For each pair, the force is given by
the Coulomb’s law for two charges stated earlier.
5. An electric field line is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent at each point on the curve gives
the direction of electric field at that point. The relative closeness of field lines indicates the relative
strength of electric field at different points; they crowd near each other in regions of strong electric field
and are far apart where the electric field is weak. In regions of constant electric field, the field lines are
uniformly spaced parallel straight lines.
Some of the important properties of field lines are: (i) Field lines are continuous curves without any
breaks. (ii) Two field lines cannot cross each other. (iii) Electrostatic field lines start at positive charges
and end at negative charges -they cannot form closed loops.
6. An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges q and -q separated by some distance 2a. Its
dipole moment vector p has magnitude 2qa and is in the direction of the dipole axis from -q to q.
7. Field of an electric dipole in its equatorial plane (i.e., the plane perpendicular to its axis and passing
through its centre) at a distance r from the centre:
≠p 1 ≠p
E= ¥ f or r >> a
4fiÁ0 (a2 + r2 ) 23 4fiÁ0 r3
2pr 2p
E= ¥ f or r >> a
4fiÁ0 (r2 ≠ a2 )2 4fiÁ0 r3
· =p◊E
„=E s
10. Gauss’s law: The flux of electric field through any closed surface S is Á10 times the total charge enclosed
by S. The law is especially useful in determining electric field E, when the source distribution has simple
symmetry:
• Thin infinitely long straight wire of uniform linear charge density ⁄
⁄
E= n̂
rˆ2
q
E= (r Ø R)
4fiÁ0 r2
E=0 ; (r < R)
where r is the distance of the point from the centre of the shell and R the radius of the shell. q
is the total charge of the shell: q = 4fiR2 2‡. The electric field outside the shell is as though the
total charge is concentrated at the centre. The same result is true for a solid sphere of uniform
volume charge density. The field is zero at all points inside the shell.
11. Electrostatic force is a conservative force. Work done by an external force (equal and opposite to the
electrostatic force) in bringing a charge q from a point R to a point P is VP ≠VR , which is the difference
in potential energy of charge q between the final and initial points.
12. For series-connected capacitors the equivalent capacitance can be expressed as 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 +
.. + 1/Cn . For parallel-connected capacitors the equivalent capacitance can be expressed as C =
C1 + C2 + .. + Cn
V ÃI
or,
V = RI
where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor. The SI units of resistance
is ohm, and is denoted by the symbol Ê.
l
R=fl
A
Here, l is the length of the conductor, A is the cross sectional area of the conductor and fl is resistivity.
note:
Current per unit area (taken normal to the current), I/A, is called current density and is denoted by j. The
Mobility
The mobility m defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field. ST unit of mobility is
m2 /V s
rT = r0 [1 + –(T ≠ T0 )]
where rT the resistivity at a temperature T and r0 is the same at a reference temperature T0 . – is called
the temperature co-efficient of resistivity, its dimension is (T ≠1 ).
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + .... + Rn
1 1 1 1
= + + .... +
Gtotal G1 G2 Gn
If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference (voltage)
across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in magnitude, and they
also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit components connected in
parallel. The total current is the sum of the currents through the individual components, in accordance
with Kirchhoff’s current law.
• Voltage In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same for all elements.
V = V1 = V2 = ... = Vn
• Resistors The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm’s law. Factoring out the voltage
gives
1 1 1
It otal = V ( + + .... + )
R1 R2 Rn
To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of the resistances of each component
and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total resistance will always be less than the value of the smallest
resistance:
1 1 1 1
= + + .... +
Rtotal R1 R2 Rn
Kirchhoff’s rule
• Junction rule: At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of
currents leaving the junction.
• Loop rule: The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop involving resistors and
cells in the loop is zero.
• It depends on q, v and B (charge of the particle, the velocity and the magnetic field). Force on a
negative charge is opposite to that on a positive charge.
• The magnetic force q[v◊B] includes a vector product of velocity and magnetic field. The vector product
makes the force due to magnetic field vanish (become zero) if velocity and magnetic field are parallel
or anti-parallel. The force acts in a (sideways) direction perpendicular to both the velocity and the
magnetic field. Its direction is given by the screw rule or right hand rule for vector (or cross) product.
• The magnetic force is zero if charge is not moving (as then | v |= 0). Only a moving charge feels the
magnetic force.
Biot-savart law
Consider an infinitesimal element dl of the conductor. The magnetic field dB due to this element is to be deter-
mined at a point P which is at a distance r from it. Let ◊ be the angle between dl and the displacement vector
r. According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude of the magnetic field dB is proportional to the current I, the
element length | dl |, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r. Its direction is perpendicular
Consider a rectangular Amperian loop abcd. Along cd the field is zero as argued above. Along transverse
sections bc and ad, the field component is zero. Thus, these two sections make no contribution. Let the field
along ab be B. Thus, the relevant length of the Amperian loop is, L = h. Let n be the number of turns per
unit length, then the total number of turns is nh. The enclosed current is, Ie = I(nh), where I is the current
in the solenoid. From Ampereâ ès circuital law
BL = µ0 Ie , Bh = µ0 I(nh)
Therefore,
B = µ0 nI
Let r be the average radius of the toroid and n be the number of turns per unit length. Then
µN I
B=
2fir
Consider a small vector area element S of a closed surface S as in figure above. The magnetic flux through
S is defined as „B = B. S, where B is the field at S. We divide S into many small area elements and
calculate the individual flux through each. Then, the net flux „B is,
„B = „B = B. S = 0
By Gauss law we get,
q
E. S =
Lenz’s law
The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the change in magnetic
flux that produced it.
Suppose that the induced current was in the direction opposite to the one depicted in figure above. In
that case, the South-pole due to the induced current will face the approaching North-pole of the magnet.
The bar magnet will then be attracted towards the coil at an ever increasing acceleration. A gentle push
on the magnet will initiate the process and its velocity and kinetic energy will continuously increase without
expending any energy. If this can happen, one could construct a perpetual-motion machine by a suitable
arrangement. This violates the law of conservation of energy and hence can not happen. Now consider the
correct case shown in figure above. In this situation, the bar magnet experiences a repulsive force due to the
induced current. Therefore, a person has to do work in moving the magnet.
Eddy currents When bulk pieces of conductors are subjected to changing magnetic flux, induced
currents are produced in them. However, their flow patterns resemble swirling eddies in water. This effect
was discovered by physicist Foucault (1819-1868) and these currents are called eddy currents.
Applications:
• Magnetic braking in trains.
• Electromagnetic damping.
• Induction furnace.
• Electric power meters.
Induction
An electric current can be induced in a coil by flux change produced by another coil in its vicinity or flux
change produced by the same coil. These two situations are described separately in the next two sub-sections.
However, in both the cases, the flux through a coil is proportional to the current. That is „b à I.
Further, if the geometry of the coil does not vary with time then,
dt = dt
d„B dI
For a closely wound coil of N turns, the same magnetic flux is linked with all the turns. When the flux
„B through the coil changes, each turn contributes to the induced emf. Therefore, N „B Ã I
Mutual inductance
We denote the radius of the inner solenoid S1 by r1 and the number of turns per unit length by n1 . The
corresponding quantities for the outer solenoid S2 are r2 and n2 , respectively. Let N1 andN2 be the total
number of turns of coils S1 and S2 , respectively.
When a current I2 is set up through S2 , it in turn sets up a magnetic flux through S1 . Let us denote it
by phi1 . The corresponding flux linkage with solenoid S1 is, N1 „1 = M12 I2
M12 = µ0 n1 n2 fir12 I2
similarly,
M21 = µ0 n1 n2 fir12 I2
Therefore,
M12 = M21 = M
Note:
Á1 = ≠M dIdt , It shows that varying current in a coil can induce emf in a neighbouring coil. The magnitude
2
of the induced emf depends upon the rate of change of current and mutual inductance of the two coils.
im
i= Ô = 0.707im
2
2
Similarly, the rms voltage is defined by
vm
v= Ô = 0.707vm
2
2
• An ac voltage v = vm sinÊt applied to a pure inductor L, drives a current in the inductor i = im sin(Êt≠
2 ), where im = XL . XL = ÊL is called inductive reactance. The current in the inductor lags the voltage
fi vm
by fi/2. The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero.
• An ac voltage v = vm sinÊt applied to a pure inductor L, drives a current in the inductor i = im sin(Êt+
2 ). Here,
fi
1
im = vm
Xc , Xc = ÊC is called capacitive reactance.
The current through the capacitor is fi/2 ahead of the applied voltage. As in the case of inductor, the
average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.
• In a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, cos„ = 0 and no power is dissipated even though a current
is flowing in the circuit. In such cases, current is referred to as a wattless current.
• The phase relationship between current and voltage in an ac circuit can be shown conveniently by
representing voltage and current by rotating vectors called phasors. A phasor is a vector which rotates
about the origin with angular speed Ê . The magnitude of a phasor represents the amplitude or peak
value of the quantity (voltage or current) represented by the phasor.
• An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit is the phenomenon of resonance. The circuit
1
exhibits resonance, i.e., the amplitude of the current is maximum at the resonant frequency, Ê0 = ÔLC .
9 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
9.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
At the time Maxwell predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves, the only familiar electromagnetic
waves were the visible light waves. The existence of ultraviolet and infrared waves was barely established.
By the end of the nineteenth century, X-rays and gamma rays had also been discovered. We now know that,
electromagnetic waves include visible light waves, X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet
and infrared waves. The classification of em waves according to frequency is the electromagnetic spectrum
9.3 Microwaves
Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), with frequencies in the gigahertz (GHz) range, are produced by
special vacuum tubes (called klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn diodes). Due to their short wavelengths, they
are suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft navigation. Radar also provides the basis for the speed
guns used to time fast balls, tennisserves, and automobiles. Microwave ovens are an interesting domestic
application of these waves. In such ovens, the frequency of the microwaves is selected to match the resonant
frequency of water molecules so that energy from the waves is transferred efficiently to the kinetic energy of
the molecules. This raises the temperature of any food containing water
9.7 X-rays
Beyond the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum lies the X-ray region. We are familiar with X-rays be-
cause of its medical applications. It covers wavelengths from about 10≠8 m (10 nm) down to 10≠13 m (10≠4 nm).
One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target by high energy electrons. X-rays are used
as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer. Because X-rays damage or
destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be taken to avoid unnecessary or over exposure.
c = 2.99792458 ◊ 108 ms≠1 . For many purposes, it suffices to take c = 3 ◊ 108 ms≠1 . The speed of light
in vacuum is the highest speed attainable in nature.
10.1 REFRACTION
When a beam of light encounters another transparent medium, a part of light gets reflected back into the
first medium while the rest enters the other. A ray of light represents a beam. The direction of propagation
of an obliquely incident ray of light that enters the other medium, changes at the interface of the two media.
This phenomenon is called refraction of light. Snell experimentally obtained the following laws of refraction:
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface at the point of incidence, all lie in
the same plane.
• The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant. Remember
that the angles of incidence (i ) and refraction (r ) are the angles that the incident and its refracted ray
make with the normal, respectively. We have
sin i
= n21
sin r
where n21 is a constant, called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium.
Note: Optical density should not be confused with mass density, which is mass per unit
volume. It is possible that mass density of an optically denser medium may be less than that
of an optically rarer medium (optical density is the ratio of the speed of light in two media).
For example, turpentine and water. Mass density of turpentine is less than that of water but
its optical density is higher.
fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz fibres. Each fibre consists of a core and cladding.
The refractive index of the material of the core is higher than that of the cladding.
When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable angle, it undergoes
repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fibre and finally comes out at the other end .
Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss in the intensity
of the light signal.
11 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
• Eye
• The closest distance for which the lens can focus light on the retina is called the least distance of distinct
vision, or the near point. The standard value for normal vision is taken as 25 cm. (Often the near
point is given the symbol D.) This distance increases with age, because of the decreasing effectiveness
of the ciliary muscle and the loss of flexibility of the lens.
• The near point may be as close as about 7 to 8 cm in a child ten years of age, and may increase to
as much as 200 cm at 60 years of age. Thus, if an elderly person tries to read a book at about 25 cm
from the eye, the image appears blurred. This condition (defect of the eye) is called presbyopia. It is
corrected by using a converging lens for reading. Thus, our eyes are marvellous organs that have the
capability to interpret incoming electromagnetic waves as images through a complex process. These
are our greatest assets and we must take proper care to protect them. Imagine the world without a
pair of functional eyes. Yet many amongst us bravely face this challenge by effectively overcoming their
limitations to lead a normal life. They deserve our appreciation for their courage and conviction.
• In spite of all precautions and proactive action, our eyes may develop some defects due to various
reasons. We shall restrict our discussion to some common optical defects of the eye. For example, the
light from a distant object arriving at the eye-lens may get converged at a point in front of the retina.
This type of defect is called nearsightedness or myopia.
• if the eye-lens focusses the incoming light at a point behind the retina, a convergent lens is needed to
compensate for the defect in vision. This defect is called farsightedness or hypermetropia
11.2 Telescope
The telescope is used to provide angular magnification of distant objects. It also has an objective and
an eyepiece. But here, the objective has a large focal length and a much larger aperture than the
eyepiece. Light from a distant object enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at its
second focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image.
Engineering'Physics'MCQs'
!
1.'''Mirage'is'due'to'
(a)' unequal'heating'of'different'parts' (b)' magnetic'disturbances'in'the'
of'the'atmosphere' atmosphere'
(c)' depletion'of'ozone'layer'in'the' (d)' equal'heating'of'different'parts'of'the'
atmosphere' atmosphere'
2.'''Metals'are'good'conductors'of'electricity'because'
(a)' they'contain'free'electrons' (b)' the'atoms'are'lightly'packed'
(c)' they'have'high'melting'point' (d)' all'of'the'above'
'
3.'''Pick'out'the'scalar'quantity'
(a)' force' (b)' pressure'
(c)' velocity' (d)' acceleration'
'
4.'''Sound'waves'in'air'are'
(a)' transverse' (b)' longitudinal'
(c)' electromagnetic' (d)' Polarized''
'
5.'''Lux'is'the'SI'unit'of'
(a)' intensity'of'illumination' (b)' luminous'efficiency'
(c)' luminous'flux' (d)' luminous'intensity'
'
6.'''It'takes'much'longer'to'cook'food'in'the'hills'than'in'the'plains,'because'
(a)' in' the' hills' the' atmospheric' (b)' due' to' low' atmospheric' pressure' on'
pressure'is'lower'than'that'in'the' the' hills,' the' water' boils' at' a'
plains' and' therefore' water' boils' temperature' higher' than' 100oC' and'
at' a' temperature' lower' than' therefore'water'takes'longer'to'boil'
100oC' causing' an' increase' in' '
cooking'time'
(c)' in' the' hills' the' atmospheric' (d)' in' the' hills' the' humidity' is' high' and'
density' is' low' and' therefore' a' lot' therefore'a'lot'of'heat'is'absorbed'by'
of'heat'is'lost'to'the'atmosphere' the' atmosphere' leaving' very' little'
heat'for'cooking'
'
7.'''Moment'of'inertia'is'
(a)' vector' (b)' scalar'
(c)' phasor' (d)' tensor'
'
8.'''Sound'travels'at'the'fastest'speed'in'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Engineering'Physics'MCQs'
'
16.'Heat'energy'received'by'the'earth'from'the'sun'is'due'to'(CPMT'1994)'
(a)' Convection' (b)' Radiation'
(c)' )'Reflection'of'light' (d)' Transmission'of'light'
'
17.'Spectrum'of'a'perfectly'black'body'is'
(a)' Line'spectrum' (b)' Band'spectrum'
(c)' Continuous'spectrum' (d)' None'of'these'
'
'18.'The'process'of'heat'transfer'in'which'heat'is'transferred'with'actual'migration'of'
medium'particles'is'known'as'(AFMCU94)'
(a)' Conduction' (b)' Convection'
(c)' Radiation' (d)' Reflection'
'
19.'Dimensions'of'surface'tension'are:'
(a)' [M2L2T2]' (b)' [M2LT2]'
(c)' [MT2]' (d)' [MLT2]'
'
20.'In'an'atom'bomb'the'reaction'which'occurs'is:'
(a)' Thermo'nuclear' (b)' Uncontrolled'fission'
(c)' )'Controlled'fission' (d)' Fusion'
'
21.'Which'instrument'is'used'to'measure'altitudes'in'aircraft's?'
(a)' Audiometer' (b)' Ammeter'
(c)' Altimeter' (d)' Anemometer'
'
'
'
'
22.'Which'instrument'is'used'to'measure'depth'of'ocean?'
(a)' Galvanometer' (b)' Fluxmeter'
(c)' Endoscope' (d)' Fathometer'
'
23.'Name'of'the'instrument'to'measure'atmospheric'pressure'?'
(a)' Barometer' (b)' Barograph'
(c)' Bolometer' (d)' Calipers'
'
24.'Which'instrument'is'used'to'determine'the'intensity'of'colors?'
(a)' Cathetometer' (b)' Chronometer'
(c)' Colorimeter' (d)' Commutator'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Engineering'Physics'MCQs'
'
25.'Thomas'Alva'Edison'invented'
(a)' Cinema' (b)' Cine'Camera'
(c)' Computer' (d)' Cinematograph'
'
26.'Alfred'Nobel'invented'
(a)' X'ray' (b)' Diesel'Engine'
(c)' Dynamite' (d)' Dynamo'
'
27.'David'Hughes'invented'
(a)' Machine'Gun' (b)' Microphone'
(c)' Microscope' (d)' Motorcycle'
'
28.'Who'discovered'Atom?'
(a)' Madam'Curie' (b)' James'Chadwick'
(c)' Rutherford' (d)' John'Dalton'
'
29.'The'absorption'of'ink'by'blotting'paper'involves'
(a)' capillary'action'phenomenon' (b)' viscosity'of'ink'
(c)' siphon'action' (d)' diffusion'of'ink'through'the'blotting'
'
30.'Unit'of'Pressure'is'
(a)' newton'second' (b)' Pascal'
(c)' watt' (d)' newton'per'meter'
'
31.'Radian'per'second'is'unit'of'
(a)' Momentum' (b)' Moment'of'Inertia'
(c)' Frequency' (d)' Angle'Velocity'
'
32.'What'is'unit'of'Work'and'Energy?'
(a)' Joule' (b)' kilogram'
(c)' ampere' (d)' meter'
'
33.'What'is'unit'of'Viscosity?'
(a)' coulomb' (b)' newton'second'per'square'meter'
(c)' watt'per'meter'per'degree'Celsius' (d)' joule'per'kilogram'per'Kelvin'
'
34.'What'is'unit'of'Electrical'Capacity'?'
(a)' henry' (b)' farad'
(c)' volt' (d)' ohm'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Engineering'Physics'MCQs'
'
35.'Scalar'Quantities'are'
(a)' physical'quantities'which'have' (b)' physical'quantities'which'have'no'
magnitude'only'and'no'direction' magnitude'only'and'only'direction'
(c)' physical'quantities'which'have' (d)' physical'quantities'which'have'no'
magnitude'only'and'direction' magnitude'and'no'direction'
'
36.'What'is'displacement'?'
(a)' Longest'distance'covered'by'a' (b)' Shortest'distance'covered'by'a'body'
body'in'a'random'direction' in'a'random'direction'
(c)' Shortest'distance'covered'by'a' (d)' Longest'distance'covered'by'a'body'
body'in'a'definite'direction' in'a'definite'direction'
'
37.'Which'law'is'also'called'law'of'inertia'?'
(a)' Newton'first'law' (b)' Newton'second'law'
(c)' Newton'third'law' (d)' All'of'above'
'
38.'What'is'newton'third'law'of'motion'?'
(a)' Everybody'maintains'its'initial' (b)' The'rate'of'change'in'momentum'of'
state'rest'or'motion'unless'no' a'body'is'directly'proportional'to'the'
external'force'is'applied' applied'force'on'the'body'and'takes'
place'in'the'direction'of'force.'
(c)' To'every'action'there'is'equal'and' (d)' None'of'above'
opposite'reaction'
'
39.'Energy'posses'by'a'body'in'motion'is'called'
(a)' Kinetic'Energy' (b)' Potential'Energy'
(c)' Both'of'Above' (d)' None'of'Above'
'
40.'Electric'Motor'converts'
(a)' Electrical'energy'into'mechanical' (b)' Mechanical'energy'into'Electrical'
energy' energy'
(c)' Electrical'energy'into'light'energy' (d)' None'of'above'
'
41.'Atmospheric'pressure'is'measured'by'
(a)' Tonometer' (b)' Pyrometer'
(c)' Barometer' (d)' Thermometer'
'
42.'Force'of'attraction'between'the'molecules'of'different'substances'is'called'
(a)' Surface'tension' (b)' Cohesive'force'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Engineering'Physics'MCQs'
Answers:'Engineering'Physics'MCQs'
!
1.!!(a)! 2.!(a)! 3.!(b)! 4.!(b)! 5.!(a)! 6.!(a)! 7.!(d)! 8.!(a)! 9.!(c)! 10.!(b)!
11.!(d)! 12.!(a)! 13.!(c)! 14.!(b)! 15.!(c)! 16.!(b)! 17.!(c)! 18.!(b)! 19.!(c)! 20.!(b)!
21.!(c)! 22.!(d)! 23.!(a)! 24.!(c)! 25.!(d)! 26.!(c)! 27.!(b)! 28.!(d)! 29.!(a)! 30.!(b)!
31.!(d)! 32.!(a)! 33.!(b)! 34.!(b)! 35.!(a)! 36.!(c)! 37.!(a)! 38.!(c)! 39.!(a)! 40.!(a)!
'
Engineering Drawing
Contents
1 Projection of straight line 1
2 Projections of Planes 2
3 Projections of Solids 3
4 Intersection of surfaces 4
5 Isometric Projections 5
1
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Projection of straight line
Straight line is the Locus of a point, which moves linearly. Straight line is also the shortest distance between
any two given points.
The projection of a line can be obtained by projecting its end points on planes of projections and then
connecting the points of projections. The projected length and inclination of a line, can be different compared
to its true length and inclination.
When a line is parallel to one plane and inclined to the other, The projection of the line on the plane to
which it is parallel will show its true length. The projected length on the plane to which it is inclined will
always be shorter than the true length. In figure 2, the line AB is parallel to VP and is inclined to HP. The
angle of inclination of AB with HP is being Îÿ degrees. Projection of line AB on VP is aâ èbâ è and is the
true length of AB. The projection of line AB on HP is indicated as line ab. Length ab is shorter than the
true length AB of the line.
1
Page: 2
2 Projections of Planes
A plane is as two dimensional surface having length and breadth with negligible thickness. They are formed
when any three or more non-collinear points are joined. Planes are bounded by straight/curved lines and
may be either regular or an irregular. Regular plane surfaces are in which all the sides are equal. Irregular
plane surfaces are in which the lengths of the sides are unequal.
line.
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Casting projection of a plane is more complex even though the procedure is same as that of a straight
4 Intersection of surfaces
Whenever two or more solids combine, a definite curve is seen at their intersection. This curve is called
the curve of intersection (COI). Lines of intersection are a common feature in engineering applications or
products.
To understand their projection process let’s look at the following example.
5 Isometric Projections
Isometric projection is a method for visually representing three-dimensional objects in two dimensions.
The four basic steps for creating an isometric drawing are:
• Positioning the object. Determine the isometric viewpoint that clearly depicts maximum features of
the object.
• Once the object is positioned and the view point is decided, draw the isometric axes which will produce
The step wise procedure for drawing isometric view of an object having isometric planes only are shown
in figure.
1. Step 1: Determine the desired view of the object. Here the object will be viewed from above (regular
isometric). The isometric axes are then drawn as shown in step-1.
2. Step 2: Construct the front isometric plane using W and H dimensions. Width dimensions are drawn
along 30o lines from the horizontal. Height dimensions are drawn as vertical lines.
The step wise procedure for drawing isometric view of an object having isometric planes only are shown
in figure.
3. Step 3: Construct the top isometric plane using the W and D dimensions. Both W and D dimensions
are drawn along 30o lines from the horizontal.
4. Step 4: Construct the right side isometric plane using D and H dimensions. Depth dimensions are
drawn along 30o lines and height dimensions are drawn as vertical lines.
5. Step 5: Transfer some distances for the various features from the multi-view drawing to the isometric
lines that make up the isometric rectangle on the front and top planes of the isometric box, e.g. distance
A is measured from the multi-view drawing. It is then transferred along the width line in the front
plane of the isometric rectangle. Draw the details of the block by drawing isometric lines between the
points transferred from the multi-view drawing, e.g., the notch is taken out of the block by locating its
position on the front and the top planes of the isometric box.
6. Step 6: Transfer the remaining features from the multi-view drawing to the isometric drawing. Block
in the details by connecting endpoints of the measurements taken from the multi-view drawing.
7. Step 7: Darken all visible lines and erase or lighten the construction lines to complete the isometric
drawing of the object
• Full section view, where the section plane goes completely through the object.
• Half section view, where the section plane goes half-way through the object.
• Offset section, where the sectional plane bent through the features that are not aligned.
• Broken-out section where the section goes through part of the object.
Contents
1 Characteristics of diodes 2
1.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Metal-oxide Semiconductor Field-effect Transistor (MOSFET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Amplifiers 10
2.1 Biasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Frequency response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5 Feedback amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Operational Amplifier 16
3.1 Characteristics of op-amp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4 Active Filters 17
6 Multiplexer 19
7 Schmitt Trigger 19
8 Multi-vibrators 20
12 8-bit Microprocessors 22
12.1 Architecture of 8051 microprocessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1
Page: 2
1 Characteristics of diodes
1.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
The three parts of a BJT are collector, emitter and base. Before knowing about the bipolar junction transistor
characteristics, we have to know about the modes of operation for this type of transistors. The modes are:
Now coming to the characteristics of BJT there are different characteristics for different modes of opera-
tion. Characteristics is nothing but the graphical forms of relationships among different current and voltage
variables of the transistor. The characteristics for p - n - p transistors are given for different modes and
different parameters.
As the emitter - base junction is forward biased, therefore the graph of IE V s VEB is similar to the
forward characteristics of a p - n diode. IE increases for fixed VEB when VCB increases.
Output Characteristics
The output characteristics shows the relation between output voltage and output current IC is the out-
put current and collector - base voltage and the emitter current IE is the input current and works as the
parameters. The figure below shows the output characteristics for a p - n - p transistor in CB mode.
As we know for p - n - p transistors IE and VEB are positive and IC , IB , VCB are negative. These
are three regions in the curve, active region saturation region and the cut off region. The active region is
the region where the transistor operates normally. Here the emitter junction is reverse biased. Now the
saturation region is the region where both the emitter collector junctions are forward biased. And finally the
cut off region is the region where both emitter and the collector junctions are reverse biased.
The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that of a forward biased of p - n diode. But as VCB
increases the base width decreases.
Output Characteristics
Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve or graph between collector current (IC) and collector -
emitter voltage (VCE ) when the base current IB is the parameter. The characteristics is shown below in the
figure.
Like the output characteristics of common - base transistor CE mode has also three regions named (i)
Active region, (ii) cut-off regions, (iii) saturation region. The active region has collector region reverse biased
and the emitter junction forward biased. For cut-off region the emitter junction is slightly reverse biased
and the collector current is not totally cut-off. And finally for saturation region both the collector and the
emitter junction are forward biased.
IC increases as VCC is increased because VCE remains less than 0.7 V due to the forward-biased base-
collector junction.
Ideally, when VCE exceeds 0.7 V, the base-collector junction becomes reverse-biased and the transistor
goes into the active, or linear, region of its operation. Once the base collector junction is reverse-biased, IC
levels off and remains essentially constant for a given value of IB as VC E continues to increase. Actually, IC
increases very slightly as VCE increases due to widening of the base-collector depletion region. This results
in fewer holes for recombination in the base region which effectively causes a slight increase in —DC . This is
shown by the portion of the characteristic curve between points B and C in figure. For this portion of the
characteristic curve, the value of IC is determined only by the relationship expressed as IC = —DC IB .
When VCE reaches a sufficiently high voltage, the reverse-biased base-collector junction goes into break-
down; and the collector current increases rapidly as indicated by the part of the curve to the right of point
C in figure above. A transistor should never be operated in this breakdown region.
A family of collector characteristic curves is produced when IC versus VC E is plotted for several values
of IB , as illustrated in figure below. When IB = 0, the transistor is in the cut-off region although there is
a very small collector leakage current as indicated. Cut-off is the non-conducting state of a transistor. The
amount of collector leakage current for IB = 0 is exaggerated on the graph for illustration.
Initially when drain-source voltage Vns is zero, there is no attracting potential at the drain, so no current
flows inspite of the fact that the channel is fully open. This gives drain current Ip = 0. For small applied
voltage Vna , the N-type bar acts as a simple semiconductor resistor, and the drain current increases linearly
with the increase in Vds , upto the knee point. This region, (to the left of the knee point) of the curve is called
the channel ohmic region, because in this region the FET behaves like an ordinary resistor.
With the increase in drain current ID , the ohmic voltage drop between the source and channel region
reverse-biases the gate junction. The reverse-biasing of the gate junction is not uniform throughout., The
reverse bias is more at the drain end than that at the source end of the channel, so with the increase in Vds ,
the conducting portion of the channel begins to constrict more at the drain end. Eventually a voltage Vds is
reached at which the channel is pinched off. The drain current ID no longer increases with the increase in
Vds . It approaches a constant saturation value. The value of voltage VDS at which the channel is pinched
off (i.e. all the free charges from the channel get removed), is called the pinch-off voltage Vp . The pinch-off
voltage Vp , not too sharply defined on the curve, where the drain current ID begins to level off and attains
a constant value. From point A (knee point) to the point B (pinch-off point) the drain current ID increases
with the increase In voltage Vds following a reverse square law. The region of the characteristic in which drain
current ID remains fairly constant is called the pinch-off region. It is also sometimes called the saturation
region or amplifier region. In this region the JFET operates as a constant current device since drain current
(or output current) remains almost constant. It is the normal operating region of the JFET when used as an
amplifier. The drain current in the pinch-off region with VGS = 0 is referred to the drain-source saturation
current, Idss).
It is to be noted that in the pinch-off (or saturation) region the channel resistance increases in proportion
to increase in VDS and so keeps the drain current almost constant and the reverse bias required by the
gate-channel junction is supplied entirely by the voltage drop across the channel resistance due to flow of
IDsg and not by the external bias because VGS = 0.
Drain current in the pinch-of region is given by Shockleyâ ès equation, where ID is the drain current at
a given gate-source voltage VGS , IDSS is the drain-current with gate shorted to source and VGS (0FF) is the
gate-source cut-off voltage.
If drain-source voltage, Vds is continuously increased, a stage comes when the gate-channel junction
breaksdown. At this point current increases very rapidly. and the JFET may be destroyed. This happens
because the charge carriers making up the saturation current at the gate channel junction accelerate to a
high velocity and produce an avalanche effect.
• The maximum saturation drain current becomes smaller because the conducting channel now becomes
narrower.
• Pinch-off voltage is reached at a lower value of drain current ID than when VGS = 0. When an external
bias of, say - 1 V is applied between the gate and the source, the gate-channel junctions are reverse-
biased even when drain current, ID is zero. Hence the depletion regions are already penetrating the
channel to a certain extent when drain source voltage, VDS is zero. Due to this reason, a smaller voltage
drop along the channel (i.e. smaller than that for VGS = 0) will increase the depletion regions to the
point where 1 they pinch-off the current. Consequently, the pinch-off voltage VP is reached at a lower
1 drain current, ID when VGS = 0.
• The ohmic region portion decreases.
• Value of drain-source voltage VDS for the avalanche breakdown of the gate junction is reduced.
For working of JFET in the pinch-off or active region it is necessary that the following conditions be
fulfilled.
The transfer characteristic for a JFET can be determined experimentally, keeping drain-source voltage,
VDS constant and determining drain current, ID for various values of gate-source voltage, VGS . The circuit
diagram is shown in fig. 9.7 (a). The curve is plotted between gate-source voltage, VGS and drain current,
ID . It is similar to the transconductance characteristic of a vacuum tube or a transistor. It is observed that
The transfer characteristic can also be derived from the drain characteristic by noting values of drain
current, ID corresponding to various values of gate-source voltage, VGS for a constant drain-source voltage
and plotting them.
With gate-source voltage (VGS ) below the threshold voltage (vGS (th)) the MOSFET operates in the cut-
off mode. No drain current flows in this mode and the applied drain-source voltage (vDS ) is supported by the
body-collector p-n junction. Therefore, the maximum applied voltage should be below the avalanche break
down voltage of this junction (VDSS ) to avoid destruction of the device.
When VGS is increased beyond vGS (th) drain current starts flowing. For small values of vDS (vDS <
(vGS ≠ vGS (th))iD is almost proportional to vDS . Consequently this mode of operation is called ”ohmic
mode” of operation. In power electronic applications a MOSFET is operated either in the cut off or in the
ohmic mode. The slope of the vDS ≠ iD characteristics in this mode is called the ON state resistance of the
MOSFET (rDS (ON )).
The drain current becomes independent of VDS and determined solely by the gate - source voltage vGS .
This is the active mode of operation of a MOSFET.
Unlike bipolar devices, however, these switching times can be controlled completely by the gate drive circuit
design.
Figure above shows three important capacitances inherent in a MOSFET structure. The most prominent
capacitor in a MOSFET structure is formed by the gate oxide layer between the gate metallization and
the n+ type source region. It has the largest value (a few nano farads) and remains more or less constant
for all values of vGS and vDS . The next largest capacitor (a few hundred pico forwards) is formed by the
drain â body depletion region directly below the gate metallization in the n- drain drift region. Being a
depletion layer capacitance its value is a strong function of the drain source voltage vDS . For low values of
vDS (vDS < (vGS ≠ vGS (th))) the value of CGD (CGD2) is considerably higher than its value for large vDS .
2 Amplifiers
2.1 Biasing
Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors DC operating voltage or current conditions to the
correct level so that any AC input signal can be amplified correctly by the transistor. A transistors steady
state of operation depends a great deal on its base current, collector voltage, and collector current and
therefore, if a transistor is to operate as a linear amplifier, it must be properly biased to have a suitable
operating point.
This type of transistor biasing arrangement is also beta dependent biasing as the steady-state condition
of operation is a function of the transistors beta Îö value, so the biasing point will vary over a wide
range for transistors of the same type as the characteristics of the transistors will not be exactly the
same.
The emitter diode of the transistor is forward biased by applying the required positive base bias voltage
via the current limiting resistor RB . Assuming a standard bipolar transistor, the forward base-emitter
voltage drop will be 0.7V. Then the value of RB is simply: (VCC ≠ VBE )/IB where IB is defined as
IC /—
2. Feedback biasing a transistor
This self-biasing configuration is another beta dependent biasing method that requires only two resistors
to bias the transistor. The collector to base feedback configuration ensures that the transistor is always
biased in the active region regardless of the value of Beta (—) as the base bias is derived from the
collector voltage.
In this circuit, the base bias resistor, RB is connected to the transistors collector C, instead of to the
supply voltage rail, Vcc . Now if the collector current increases, the collector voltage drops, reducing
the base drive and thereby automatically reducing the collector current. Then this method of biasing
produces negative feedback.
The biasing voltage is derived from the voltage drop across the load resistor, RL . So if the load current
increases there will be a larger voltage drop across RL , and a corresponding reduced collector voltage,
VC which will cause a corresponding drop in the base current, IB which in turn, brings IC back to
normal.
The opposite reaction will also occur when transistors collector current becomes less. Then this method
of biasing is called self-biasing with the transistors stability using this type of feedback bias network
being generally good for most amplifier designs.
The current flowing through RB1 is generally set at a value equal to about 10 percent of collector
current, IC . Obviously it must also be greater than the base current required for the minimum value
of Beta, —. One of the advantages of this type of self-biasing configuration is that the resistors provide
both automatic biasing and Rf feedback at the same time.
The current flowing from the emitter causes a voltage drop across RE in such a direction, that it forward
biases the emitter-base junction. So if the emitter current increases, voltage drop IRE also increases.
Since the polarity of this voltage reverse biases the emitter-base junction, IB automatically decrease.
Therefore the emitter current increase less than it would have done had there been no self-biasing
resistor.
Resistor values are generally set so that the voltage drop across emitter resistor RE is approximately
10 percent of VCC and the current flowing through resistor RB1 is 10 percent of the collector current
IC .
The common emitter transistor is biased using a voltage divider network. The name of this biasing
configuration comes from the fact that the two resistors RB1 and RB2 are connected to the transistors
base terminal across the supply.
This voltage divider configuration is the most widely used transistor biasing method, as the emitter
diode of the transistor is forward biased by the voltage dropped across resistor RB2 . Also, voltage
divider network biasing makes the transistor circuit independent of changes in beta as the voltages at
the transistors base, emitter, and collector are dependent on external circuit values.
To calculate the voltage developed across resistor RB2 and therefore the voltage applied to the base
terminal we simply use the voltage divider formula for resistors in series. The current flowing through
resistor RB2 is generally set at 10 times the value of the required base current IB so that it has no
effect on the voltage divider current or changes in Beta.
The goal of Transistor Biasing is to establish a known Q-point in order for the transistor to work
efficiently and produce an undistorted output signal. Correct biasing of the transistor also establishes
its initial AC operating region with practical biasing circuits using either a two or four-resistor bias
network.
• Voltage Amplifiers have 3 main properties, Input Resistance, Output Resistance and Gain.
• The Gain of a small signal amplifier is the amount by which the amplifier ”Amplifies” the input signal.
• Gain is a ratio of input divided by output, therefore it has no units but is given the symbol (A) with
the most common types of transistor gain being, Voltage Gain (Av), Current Gain (Ai) and Power Gain
(Ap)
• The power Gain of the amplifier can also be expressed in Decibels or simply dB.
• In order to amplify all of the input signal distortion free in a Class A type amplifier, DC Base Biasing
is required.
• DC Bias sets the Q-point of the amplifier half way along the load line.
• This DC Base biasing means that the amplifier consumes power even if there is no input signal present.
• The transistor amplifier is non-linear and an incorrect bias setting will produce large amounts of dis-
tortion to the output waveform.
• Too large an input signal will produce large amounts of distortion due to clipping, which is also a form
of amplitude distortion.
• Incorrect positioning of the Q-point on the load line will produce either Saturation Clipping or Cut-off
Clipping.
• The Common Emitter Amplifier configuration is the most common form of all the general purpose
voltage amplifier circuit using a Bipolar Junction Transistor.
• The Common Source Amplifier configuration is the most common form of all the general purpose
voltage amplifier circuit using a Junction Field Effect Transistor.
Then we can see that the frequency response of any given circuit is the variation in its behaviour with
changes in the input signal frequency as it shows the band of frequencies over which the output (and the gain)
remains fairly constant. The range of frequencies either big or small between fL and fH is called the circuits
bandwidth. So from this we are able to determine at a glance the voltage gain (in dB) for any sinusoidal
input within a given frequency range.
As mentioned above, the Bode diagram is a logarithmic presentation of the frequency response. Most
modern audio amplifiers have a flat frequency response as shown above over the whole audio range of fre-
quencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This range of frequencies, for an audio amplifier is called its Bandwidth,
(BW) and is primarily determined by the frequency response of the circuit.
Frequency points fL and fH relate to the lower corner or cut-off frequency and the upper corner or cut-off
frequency points respectively were the circuits gain falls off at high and low frequencies. These points on
a frequency response curve are known commonly as the -3dB (decibel) points. So the bandwidth is simply
given as:
Bandwitdth, (BW ) = fH ≠ fL
The decibel, (dB) which is 1/10th of a bel (B), is a common non-linear unit for measuring gain and
is defined as 20log10 (A) where A is the decimal gain, being plotted on the y-axis. Zero decibels, (0dB)
corresponds to a magnitude function of unity giving the maximum output. In other words, 0dB occurs when
Vout = Vin as there is no attenuation at this frequency level and is given as:
Vout
= 1, 20log(1) = 0
Vin
We see from the Bode plot above that at the two corner or cut-off frequency points, the output drops
from 0dB to -3dB and continues to fall at a fixed rate. This fall or reduction in gain is known commonly
as the roll-off region of the frequency response curve. In all basic single order amplifier and filter circuits
this roll-off rate is defined as 20dB/decade, which is an equivalent to a rate of 6dB/octave. These values are
multiplied by the order of the circuit.
These -3dB corner frequency points define the frequency at which the output gain is reduced to 70.71
percent of its maximum value. Then we can correctly say that the -3dB point is also the frequency at which
the systems gain has reduced to 0.707 of its maximum value.
Frequency Response -3dB Point: ≠3dB = 20log10 (0.7071)
The -3dB point is also known as the half-power points since the output power at this corner frequencies
will be half that of its maximum 0dB value.
2.4 Oscillators
Oscillators are the circuits that produce an alternating output without any alternating input. They produce
a periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square wave (pulses). These circuits convert
direct current from a power supply into alternating current signal.
Oscillators are classified based on the frequency ranges of their output signals. There are three categories
given below.
The feedback maybe negative or positive based on the terminal of the op-amp to which the output is
being connected. If itâ ès connected to the negative terminal it is called negative feedback whereas if itâ ès
connected to the positive terminal it is called positive feedback.
3 Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier, also called as op-amp, is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with
a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp produces an output
potential (relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the potential
difference between its input terminals. Given below is the circuit symbol for op-amp.
1. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference between the inputs
zero.
2. The inputs draw no current.
Op-amp applications
• Used in computers and many embedded system applications.
4 Active Filters
An active filter is a type of analog electronic filter that uses active components such as an amplifier. Amplifiers
included in a filter design can be used to improve the performance and predictability of a filter, while avoiding
the need for inductors. An amplifier prevents the load impedance of the following stage from affecting the
characteristics of the filter. An active filter can have complex poles and zeros without using a bulky or
expensive inductor. The shape of the response, the Q-factor and the tuned frequency can often be set with
variable resistors. In some active filter circuits, one parameter can be adjusted without affecting the others.
Timers
A timer is a specialized type of clock for measuring time intervals. By function timers can be categorized
to two main types. A timer which counts upwards from zero for measuring elapsed time is often called a
stopwatch whereas a device which counts down from a specified time interval is more usually called a timer
or a countdown timer. A simple example for this type is an hourglass.
Following figure shows a simple digital timer.
Combinational Circuits
In digital circuit theory, combinational logic, also referred to as time-independent logic, is a type of digital
logic which is implemented by Boolean circuits, where the output is a pure function of the present input only.
Combinational logic is used in computer circuits to perform Boolean algebra on input signals and on stored
data.
A simple example of such logic is (A+B+C).
Sequential Circuits
In digital circuit theory, sequential logic is a type of logic circuit whose output depends not only on the
present value of its input signals but on the sequence of past inputs, the input history. It may also be defined
as a combinational logic circuit with memory.
Sequential logic is used to construct finite state machines, a basic building block in all digital circuitry,
as well as memory circuits and other devices. Virtually all circuits in practical digital devices are a mixture
of combinational and sequential logic.
6 Multiplexer
A multiplexer (or mux) is a device that selects one of several analog or digital input signals and forwards the
selected input into a single line. A multiplexer of 2n inputs has n select lines, which are used to select the
input line to be sent to the output. Multiplexers are mainly used to increase the amount of data that can be
sent over the network within a certain amount of time and bandwidth. A multiplexer is also called as data
selector. Thus, an electronic multiplexer can be considered as a multiple-input, single-output switch.
Following figure shows a basic 2X1 Mux.
7 Schmitt Trigger
In electronics, a Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit with hysteresis, implemented by applying positive
feedback to the non-inverting input of a comparator or differential amplifier. It is an active circuit which
converts an analog input signal to a digital output signal. The circuit is named a ”trigger” because the output
retains its value until the input changes sufficiently to trigger a change. In the non-inverting configuration,
when the input is higher than a certain chosen threshold, the output is high. When the input is below a
different (lower) chosen threshold, the output is low, and when the input is between the two levels, the output
retains its value. This dual threshold action is called hysteresis and implies that the Schmitt trigger possesses
memory and can act as a bistable circuit.
8 Multi-vibrators
A multi-vibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such as
oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices (transistors, electron tubes or
other devices) cross-coupled by resistors or capacitors.
There are three types of multi-vibrators. They are discussed below.
• Astable, in which the circuit is not stable in either state, i.e. it continually switches from one state to
the other. It functions as a relaxation oscillator.
• Monostable, in which one of the states is stable, but the other state is unstable (transient). A trigger
pulse causes the circuit to enter the unstable state. After entering the unstable state, the circuit will
return to the stable state after a set time. Such a circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed
duration in response to some external event. This circuit is also known as a one shot.
• Bistable, in which the circuit is stable in both the states. It can be flipped from one state to the other
by an external trigger pulse. This circuit is also known as a flip flop. It can be used to store one bit of
information.
memory devices. They are typically used in analog-to-digital converters to eliminate variations in input signal
that can corrupt the conversion process.
12 8-bit Microprocessors
In computer architecture, 8-bit integers, memory addresses or other data units are those that are at most 8
bits (1 octet) wide. Also, 8-bit CPU and ALU architectures are those that are based on registers, address
buses or data buses of that size. 8-bit is also a term given to a generation of microcomputers in which 8-bit
microprocessors were the norm.
There are 28 (256) different possible values for 8 bits. When unsigned, it has possible values ranging from
0 to 255, when signed, it has -128 to 127. Eight-bit CPUs use an 8-bit data bus and can therefore access 8
bits of data in a single machine instruction. The address bus is typically a double octet wide (i.e. 16-bit),
due to practical and economical considerations. This implies a direct address space of only 64 KB on most
8-bit processors.
Programming
The processor has seven 8-bit registers accessible to the programmer, named A, B, C, D, E, H, and L, where
A is the 8-bit accumulator and the other six can be used as independent byte-registers or as three 16-bit
register pairs, BC, DE, and HL, depending on the particular instruction. Some instructions use HL as a
(limited) 16-bit accumulator. It also has a 16-bit program counter and a 16-bit stack pointer to memory.
Instructions such as PUSH PSW and POP PSW affected the Program Status Word (flags). The accumulator
stores the results of arithmetic and logical operations and the flags register bits (sign, zero, auxiliary carry,
parity and carry flags) are set or cleared according to the results of these operations. Flag register is used to
indicate the status of the result for e.g., if the result is positive or negative (sign), if result is zero or non-zero,
if there was any carry or stack overflow et cetera.
Interfacing
Interfacing of an 8 bit microprocessor depends on the address bus and the device it is being interfaced with.
Microprocessors generate parallel outputs i.e. they release 8 bits at once but microcontrollers operate on serial
outputs. Thus for the two to be interfaced a conversion circuit will be required that can convert parallel data
into serial data and vice-versa. The combination of RS 232 and MAX 232 is popular for such conversion.
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Analog'Electronics'MCQs'
1.'''The'emitter'of'a'transistor'is'generally'doped'the'heaviest'because'it'
2.'''In'a'properly'biased'NFPFN'transistor,'most'of'the'electrons'from'the'emitter'
3.'''In'a'NFPFN'transistor,'the'leakage'current'is'due'to'
4.'''In'a'transistor,'the'reverse'saturation'current'!"# '
5.'''The'phenomenon'known'as'“early'effect”'in'a'bipolar'transistor'refers'to'a'reduction'
of'the'effective'baseFwidth'caused'by'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Analog'Electronics'MCQs!
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6.''The'transistor'configuration'which'provides'highest'output'impedance'is'
'
(a)' common'base' (b)' common'emitter'
(c)' common'collector' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
7.''When'a'transistor'is'used'in'switching'mode'then'what'is'the'turnFon'time?'
8.''An'ideal'amplifier'
9.'''The'action'of'a'JFET'in'its'equivalent'circuit'can'best'be'represented'as'a''
10.''Compared'to'the'bipolar'junction'transistor,'a'JFET:'
1.! Has'a'larger'gain'bandwidth'production'
2.! Is'less'noisy'
3.! Has'less'input'resistance'
4.! Current'flow'due'to'minority'carriers'
Which'of'the'statements'given'above'are'correct?'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Analog'Electronics'MCQs!
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11.'''A'FET'
12.'''NFchannel'FETs'are'superior'to'PFchannel'FETs'because'they'have'
13.'''The'shape'of'the'transfer'characteristic'of'JFET'is'very'nearly'a''
14.''In'a'JFET,'drain'current'is'primarily'controlled'by'
15.''JFET'has'main'drawback'of'
'
16.''MOSFET'can'be'used'as'a''
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Analog'Electronics'MCQs!
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17.''Consider'the'following'statements'
1.! BJP'is'a'current'controlled'device'with'a'high'input'impedance'and'high'gain'
bandwidth'
2.! FET'is'a'voltage'controlled'device'with'high'input'impedance'and'low'gain'
bandwidth'
3.! UJT'is'a'negative'resistance'device'and'can'be'used'as'an'oscillator'
4.! BJT,'FET'and'UJT'can'all'be'used'for'amplification'
Which'of'the'statements'given'above'are'correct?'
18.'The'lower'turn'off'time'of'MOSFET'when'compared'to'BJT'can'be'attributed'to'
which'one'of'the'following?'
Answer'(c)'
19.''What'is'the'effect'of'cascading'the'amplifier'stages?'
20.''The'major'advantage'of'dc'amplifiers'is'that'it'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Analog'Electronics'MCQs!
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21.'''The'output'power'of'a'power'amplifier'is'several'times'its'input'power.'This'is'
possible'due'to'the'fact'that'
22.'''The'type'of'power'amplifier'which'exhibits'crossover'distortion'in'its'output'is'
23.'''In'a'feedback'amplifier,'the'feedback'improves'the'signal'to'noise'ratio'for'noise'
signal'
24.'''Feedback'in'amplifier'always'helps'in'
25.'''Consider'the'following'statements'
Negative'feedback'in'amplifier'results'in'
1.! Reduced'voltage'gain'
2.! Reduced'bandwidth'
3.! Increases'signal'to'noise'ratio'
4.! Reduced'distortion'
Of'these'statements'
'
26.'''A'Darlington'amplifier'has'a''
27.''The'Darlington'pair'is'mainly'used'for'
28.''Cascaded'amplifier'are'used'as'
29.''The'BJT'amplifier'which'offers'highest'input'impedance'and'least'voltage'gain'is'
30.''In'high'frequency'region,'amplifier'will'behave'like'
31.'''In'signal'generators'
32.''The'Barkhausen'criterion'for'sustained'oscillations'is'given'by'
'
'
33.''Oscillators'use'following'feedback'
34.'''Crustal'oscillators'are'superior'to'tuned'LC'oscillators'mainly'because'of'their'
35.'''In'a'piezoelectric'crystal'oscillator,'the'oscillation'or'tuning'frequency'is'linearly'
proportional'to'the''
37.'''A'triangular'wave'can'be'generated'by'
38.'''A'relaxation'oscillator'is'one'which''
39.''The'multivibrator'circuit'which'possess'one'stable'state'and'one'quasiFstable'is'
'
40.'''A'blocking'oscillator'
41.''The'type'of'multivibrator'used'for'generation'of'clock'pulses'is'
42.'''Schmitt'trigger'is'basically'
43.''Most'important'advantage'of'an'IC'is'its'
44.''Ultraviolet'radiation'is'used'in'IC'fabrication'process'for'
45.''In'the'context'of'IC'fabrication,'metallization'means'
'
'
47.'''An'operational'amplifier'is'basically'a''
48.'''An'ideal'opFamp'is'an'ideal'
49.''When'you'apply'a'triangular'waveform'to'the'input'of'a'differentiator,'the'output'is'
50.''A'sinusoidal'waveform'can'be'converted'to'a'square'waveform'by'using'a''
51.''A'major'advantage'of'active'filters'in'that'they'can'be'realized'without'using'
52.'''For'a'step'input,'the'output'of'an'integrator'is'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Analog'Electronics'MCQs!
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53.''An'oscillator'whose'frequency'is'changed'by'a'variable'dc'voltage,'is'known'as'
54.''Notch'filter'is'also'called'as'
Answers:!Analog!Electronics!MCQs!
1.'(b)' 2.'(a)' 3.'(d)' 4.'(a)' 5.'(b)' 6.'(a)' 7.'(a)' 8.'(d)' 9.'(d)' 10.'(c)'
11.'(d)' 12.'(d)' 13.'(a)' 14.'(c)' 15.'(d)' 16.'(b)' 17.'(b)' 18.'(c)' 19.'(b)' 20.'(b)'
21.'(d)' 22.'(b)' 23.'(c)' 24.'(a)' 25.'(d)' 26.'(a)' 27.'(a)' 28.'(c)' 29.'(c)' 30.'(c)'
31.'(c)' 32.'(b)' 33.'(b)' 34.'(a)' 35.'(d)' 36.'(a)' 37.'(a)' 38.'(c)' 39.'(b)' 40.'(d)'
41.'(a)' 42.'(c)' 43.'(b)' 44.'(b)' 45.'(d)' 46.'(a)' 47.'(b)' 48.'(b)' 49.'(c)' 50.'(c)'
51.'(b)' 52.'(d)' 53.'(b)' 54.'(a)' ' ' ' ' ' '
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Digital'Electronics'MCQs'
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Digital'Electronics'MCQs'
!
1.''The'binary'equivalent'of' 11.6275 '( )is'
(a)' 101.11011' (b)' 1011.1011'
(c)' 101.0011' (d)' 1011.0011'
'
2.''2’s'complement'of'the'number'1010101'is'
(a)' 0101010' (b)' 0101011'
(c)' 1101010' (d)' 1110011'
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3.''Multiplication'of'two'binary'numbers'011'and'110'is'
(a)' 10010' (b)' 11001'
(c)' 11100' (d)' 01110'
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4.''The'octal'equivalent'of'decimal'98'is'
(a)' 89' (b)' 98'
(c)' 142' (d)' 241'
'
5.''The'decimal'equivalent'of'the'hexadecimal'number' *+, '- 'is'
(a)' 111013' (b)' 5929'
(c)' 3416' (d)' 2989'
'
6.''Which'of'the'following'statements'is/are'correct'in'regard'to'excess'3'code?'
(a)' It'is'a'BCD'code' (b)' It'is'an'unweighted'code'
(c)' It'is'selfRcomplementing'code' (d)' All'of'the'above'
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7.''BCD'code'is'
(a)' a'binary'code' (b)' unweighted'code'
(c)' the'same'thing'as'binary'numbers' (d)' the'same'as'gray'code'
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8.''What'is'the'gray'code'word'for'the'binary'number'101011?'
(a)' 101011' (b)' 110101'
(c)' 011111' (d)' 111110'
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9.''Which'one'of'the'following'is'a'nonRvalid'BCD'code?'
(a)' 0111'1001' (b)' 0101'1011'
(c)' 0100'1000' (d)' 0100'1001'
'
10.'The'number'of'bits'required'to'represent'an'eight'digit'decimal'number'BCD'is''
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Digital'Electronics'MCQs'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Digital'Electronics'MCQs'
1.! AND'''''''
2.! OR'
3.! NOT'
Their'correct'hierarchy'is'
(a)' 1,2,3' (b)' 3,1,2'
(c)' 1,3,2' (d)' 2,3,1'
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20.'In'exclusive'OR'gate,'output'is'zero'when'the'inputs'are'
(a)' 0,1' (b)' 1,0'
(c)' 1,1' (d)' 1,x'
'
21.'The'output'of'a'logic'gate'is'‘1’'when'all'its'input'are'at'logic'“0”''
The'gate'is'either'
(a)' A'NAND'or'an'EXROR'gate' (b)' A'NOR'or'an'EXROR'gate'
(c)' An'AND'or'an'EXRNOR'gate' (d)' A'NOR'or'an'EXRNOR'gate'
'
22.'An'XOR'gate'produces'output'only'when'two'inputs'are'
(a)' high' (b)' low'
(c)' different' (d)' equal'
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23.'An'AND'gate'
(a)' implements'logic'addition' (b)' gives'high'output'only'when'all'
inputs'are'low'
(c)' is'equivalent'to'a'series'switching' (d)' is'equivalent'to'a'parallel'switching'
circuit' circuit'
'
'
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24.'Which'of'the'following'Boolean'expression'is'‘NOT'TRUE’?'
(a)' + + 1 = +' (b)' + + + = 1'
(c)' +. + = +' (d)' +. + = 0'
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25.'Which'of'the'following'Boolean'algebra'rules'is'correct?'
(a)' +. + = 1' (b)' + + +* = + + *'
(c)' + + +* = + + *' (d)' + + + * = *'
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26.'The'AND'function'can'be'realized'by'using'‘n’'number'of'NOR'gates.'What'is'‘n’'
equal'to?'
(a)' 2' (b)' 3'
(c)' 4' (d)' 5'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Digital'Electronics'MCQs'
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27.'According'to'DeRMorgan’s'second'theorem'
(a)' A'NAND'gate'is'always' (b)' An'AND'gate'is'equivalent'to'a'
complementary'to'an'AND'gate' bubbled'NAND'gate'
(c)' A'NAND'gate'is'equivalent'to'an' (d)' A'NAND'gate'is'equivalent'to'a'
bubbled'AND'gate' bubbled'OR'gate'
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28.'What'are'the'ultimate'purposes'of'minimizing'logic'expressions?'
1.! To'get'a'small'size'expression'
2.! To'reduce'the'number'of'variables'in'the'given'expression'
3.! To'implement'the'function'of'the'logic'expression'with'least'hardware.'
4.! To'reduce'the'expression'for'making'it'feasible'for'hardware'implementation'
Select'the'correct'answer'from'the'codes'given'below'
(a)' 1'only' (b)' 2'and'3'only'
(c)' 3'only' (d)' 3'and'4''
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29.'The'reason'for'using'gray'code'in'kRmaps'is'
(a)' gray'code'is'efficient'than'binary' (b)' gray'code'provides'cell'values'that'
codes' differ'in'only'one'bit'in'adjacent'cells'
(c)' no'other'code'is'available' (d)' any'other'code'can'also'be'used'
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30.'Consider'the'following'
Any'combinational'circuit'can'be'build'using'
1.! NAND'gate'
2.! NOR'gates'
3.! EXROR'gates'
4.! Multipliers'
Which'of'these'are'correct?'
(a)' 1,'2'and'3' (b)' 1,'3'and'4'
(c)' 2,'3'and'4' (d)' 1,'2'and'4'
'
31.'In'a'sequential'circuit,'the'output'state'depends'upon'
(a)' past'output'states'and'present' (b)' input'states'only'
input'states'
(c)' input'and'output'states' (d)' none'of'these'
'
32.'Which'of'the'following'circuits'come'under'the'class'of'combinational'logic'circuits?'
1.! Full'adder'
2.! Full'subtracter'
3.! Half'ladder'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Digital'Electronics'MCQs'
4.! JRK'flip'
5.! Counter'
Select'the'correct'answer'from'the'codes'given'below'
(a)' 1'and'2' (b)' 2'and'3'
(c)' 3'and'4' (d)' 4'and'5'
'
33.'A'full'adder'can'be'made'of'
(a)' Two'half'adders' (b)' Two'half'adders'and'a'NOR'gate'
(c)' Two'half'adders'and'a'OR'gate' (d)' Two'half'adders'and'a'AND'gate'
'
34.'A'gate'is'inhibited'when'its'input'is'at'‘1’.'The'gate'is'
(a)' AND' (b)' NAND'
(c)' OR' (d)' NOR'
'
35.'Which'of'the'following'flip'flop'is'used'as'a'latch?'
(a)' JRK'flipRflop' (b)' RS'flipRflop'
(c)' T'flipRflop' (d)' D'flipRflop'
'
36.'The'number'of'flip'flops'required'in'a'decade'counter'is'
(a)' 2' (b)' 3'
(c)' 4' (d)' 0'
'
37.'The'full'forms'of'the'abbreviations'TTL'and'CMOS'in'reference'to'logic'families'are'
(a)' Triple'Transistor'logic'and'Chip' (b)' Tristate'transistor'logic'and'chip'
metal'oxide'semiconductor' metal'oxide'semiconductor'
(c)' Transistor'Transistor'Logic'and' (d)' Tristate'transistor'logic'and'
complementary'metal'oxide' complementary'metal'oxide'silicon'
semiconductor'
'
38.'The'logic'circuit'which'belongs'to'nonRsaturated'logic'is'
(a)' ECL' (b)' TTL'
(c)' CMOS' (d)' NMOS'
'
39.'In'a'CMOS'inverter,'
(a)' one'transistor'is'N'channel' (b)' one'transistor'is'N'channel'depletion'
depletion'type'and'the'other'is'P' type'and'the'other'is'N'channel'
channel'enhancement'type' enhancement'type'
(c)' One'transistor'is'N'channel' (d)' One'transistor'is'N'channel'
enhancement'type'and'the'other' enhancement'type'and'the'other'is'
is'P'channel'enhancement'type' also'N'channel'enhancement'type'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Digital'Electronics'MCQs'
'
40.'The'logic'family'which'has'minimum'power'dissipation'is'
(a)' 112) (b)' 3 4 2)
(c)' 562) (d)' 6789)
'
41.'Among'the'following'four,'the'slowest'ADC'analogRtoRdigital'converter'is'
(a)' parallel'comparator'type' (b)' successive'approximation'type'
(c)' integrating'type' (d)' counting'type'
'
!
Answers:'Digital'Electronics'MCQs'
1.!(b)! 2.!!(b)! 3.!(a)! 4.!(c)! 5.!(d)! 6.!(d)! 7.!(a)! 8.!(d)! 9.!(b)! 10.!(d)!
11.!(c)! 12.!(b)! 13.!(a)! 14.!(a)! 15.!(d)! 16.!(b)! 17.!(c)! 18.!(c)! 19.!(b)! 20.!(c)!
21.!(d)! 22.!(c)! 23.!(c)! 24.!(a)! 25.!(c)! 26.!(b)! 27.!(d)! 28.!(d)! 29.!(b)! 30.!(d)!
31.!(a)! 32.!(d)! 33.!(c)! 34.!(d)! 35.!(d)! 36.!(c)! 37.!(c)! 38.!(a)! 39.!(c)! 40.!(d)!
41.!(c)! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
'
'
Electrical Engineering
Contents
1 Transformer 2
3 Ideal transformer 4
4 Losses in a transformer 4
5 Transformer tests 5
7 Auto Transformer 8
11 DC Motor: Principal 9
11.1 production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11.2 Motoring operation of a d.c. machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11.3 Constructional aspects of dc machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11.4 Armature reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11.5 Parallel operation of DC generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
11.6 Shunt Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
11.7 Speed control of d.c. motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1
Page: 2 shop.ssbcrack.com
1 Transformer
• A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another without
changing frequency. This is a very basic definition of transformer.
• A varying current in the transformer’s primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the core
and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the
secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding. Making
use of Faraday’s Law in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers
can thus be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power
networks.
• Ideal transformer
It is very common, for simplification or approximation purposes, to analyze the transformer as an ideal
transformer model as represented in the two images. An ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear trans-
former that is lossless and perfectly coupled; that is, there are no energy losses and flux is completely
confined within the magnetic core.
• Faraday’s laws,
”Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly proportional to the induced EMF in a
conductor or coil”.
• Due to this impedance of transformer, there will be voltage drops in both primary and secondary
transformer windings.
Resistance of Transformer
Generally, both primary and secondary windings of electrical power transformer are made of copper. Copper is
a very good conductor of current but not a super conductor. Actually, super conductor and super conductivity
both are conceptual, practically they are not available. So both windings will have some resistance. This
Impedance of Transformer
As we said, both primary and secondary windings will have resistance and leakage reactance. These resistance
and reactance will be in combination, is nothing but impedance of transformer. If R1 and R2 and X1 and
X2 are primary and secondary resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer respectively , then Z1 and
Z2 impedance of primary and secondary winding are respectively,
Z1 = R1 + jX1
Z2 = R2 + jX2
The Impedance of transformer plays a vital role during parallel operation of transformer.
3 Ideal transformer
• Ideal transformer model is developed by considering a transformer which does not have any loss. That
means the windings of the transformer are purely inductive and the core of transformer is loss free.
• There is zero leakage reactance of transformer. As we said, whenever we place a low reluctance core
inside the windings, maximum amount of flux passes through this core, but still there is some flux
which does not pass through the core but passes through the insulation used in the transformer. This
flux does not take part in the transformation action of the transformer. This flux is called leakage flux
of transformer.
• In an ideal transformer, this leakage flux is also considered nil. That means, 100 % flux passes through
the core and links with both the primary and secondary windings of transformer.
• Although every winding is desired to be purely inductive but it has some resistance in it which causes
voltage drop and I 2 R loss in it. In such ideal transformer model, the windings are also considered ideal,
that means resistance of the winding is zero.
4 Losses in a transformer
Copper Loss
Copper loss is I12 R loss, in primary side and in the secondary side it is I22 R2 , where I1 I2 are primary and
secondary current of the transformer and R1 andR2 are the resistances of the primary and secondary winding.
Copper loss in transformer vary with load.
Core Losses
We = ke f 2 Kf2 Bm
2
watts
Where,
Kh = Hysteresis constant.
Ke = Eddy current constant.
Kf = form constant.
Hysteresis Loss
The magnetic core of transformer is made of â öCold Rolled Grain Oriented Silicon Steelâ ö. Steel is very
good ferromagnetic material. This kind of materials are very sensitive to be magnetized. That means,
whenever magnetic flux would pass through, it will behave like magnet. Ferromagnetic substances have
numbers of domains in their structure. Domains are very small regions in the material structure, where all
the dipoles are paralleled to same direction. In other words, the domains are like small permanent magnets
situated randomly in the structure of substance. These domains are arranged inside the material structure
in such a random manner, that net resultant magnetic field of the said material is zero. Whenever external
magnetic field or mmf is applied to that substance, these randomly directed domains get arranged themselves
in parallel to the axis of applied mmf. After removing this external mmf, maximum numbers of domains
again come to random positions, but some of them still remain in their changed position. Because of these
unchanged domains, the substance becomes slightly magnetized permanently. This magnetism is called ”
Spontaneous Magnetism”. To neutralize this magnetism, some opposite mmf is required to be applied. The
magneto motive force or mmf applied in the transformer core is alternating. For every cycle due to this
domain reversal, there will be extra work done. For this reason, there will be a consumption of electrical
energy which is known as Hysteresis loss of transformer.
5 Transformer tests
Open Circuit Test
The open-circuit test, or ”no-load test”, is one of the methods used in electrical engineering
to determine the no-load impedance in the excitation branch of a transformer.
• The secondary of the transformer is left open-circuited. A wattmeter is connected to the primary. An
ammeter is connected in series with the primary winding. A voltmeter is optional since the applied
voltage is the same as the voltmeter reading. Rated voltage is applied at primary.
• If the applied voltage is normal voltage then normal flux will be set up. Since iron loss is a function
of applied voltage, normal iron loss will occur. Hence the iron loss is maximum at rated voltage. This
maximum iron loss is measured using the wattmeter. Since the impedance of the series winding of
the transformer is very small compared to that of the excitation branch, all of the input voltage is
dropped across the excitation branch. Thus the wattmeter measures only the iron loss. This test only
measures the combined iron losses consisting of the hysteresis loss and the eddy current loss. Although
the hysteresis loss is less than the eddy current loss, it is not negligible. The two losses can be separated
by driving the transformer from a variable frequency source since the hysteresis loss varies linearly with
supply frequency and the eddy current loss varies with the square.
• Since the secondary of the transformer is open, the primary draws only no-load current, which will
have some copper loss. This no-load current is very small and because the copper loss in the primary
is proportional to the square of this current, it is negligible. There is no copper loss in the secondary
because there is no secondary current.
• Current, voltage and power are measured at the primary winding to ascertain the admittance and
power-factor angle.
• Another method of determining the series impedance of a real transformer is the short circuit test.
Advantages
• To maximize electrical power system efficiency: Generally electrical power transformer gives the maxi-
mum efficiency at full load. If we run numbers of transformers in parallel, we can switch on only those
transformers which will give the total demand by running nearer to its full load rating for that time.
When load increases, we can switch none by one other transformer connected in parallel to fulfill the
total demand. In this way we can run the system with maximum efficiency.
• To maximize electrical power system availability: If numbers of transformers run in parallel, we can
shutdown any one of them for maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in system will serve
the load without total interruption of power.
• To maximize power system reliability: if any one of the transformers run in parallel, is tripped due to
fault of other parallel transformers is the system will share the load, hence power supply may not be
interrupted if the shared loads do not make other transformers over loaded.
• To maximize electrical power system flexibility: There is always a chance of increasing or decreasing
future demand of power system. If it is predicted that power demand will be increased in future,
there must be a provision of connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfill the extra demand
because, it is not economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer
by forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money. Again if future
demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed from system to balance the
capital investment and its return.
7 Auto Transformer
Auto transformer is kind of electrical transformer where primary and secondary shares same common single
winding.
• Since part of the winding does ”double duty”, autotransformers have the advantages of often being
smaller, lighter, and cheaper than typical dual-winding transformers,
• but the disadvantage of not providing electrical isolation. Other advantages of autotransformers include
lower leakage reactance, lower losses, lower excitation current, and increased KVA rating.
8 Induction Motor
• One of the most common electrical motor used in most applications which is known as induction motor.
This motor is also called as asynchronous motor because it runs at a speed less than synchronous speed.
In this, we need to define what is synchronous speed. Synchronous speed is the speed of rotation
of the magnetic field in a rotary machine and it depends upon the frequency and number poles of the
machine.
• An induction motor always runs at a speed less than synchronous speed because the rotating
magnetic field which is produced in the stator will generate flux in the rotor which will make the rotor
to rotate, but due to the lagging of flux current in the rotor with flux current in the stator, the rotor
will never reach to its rotating magnetic field speed i.e. the synchronous speed.
• There are basically two types of induction motor that depend upon the input supply - single phase
induction motor and three phase induction motor. Single phase induction motor is not a self
starting motor which we will discuss later and three phase induction motor is a self-starting motor.
Now in general we need to give two supply i.e. double excitation to make a machine to rotate. For
example if we consider a DC motor, we will give one supply to the stator and another to the rotor
through brush arrangement.
11 DC Motor: Principal
D.C. machines are the electro mechanical energy converters which work from a d.c. source and generate
mechanical power or convert mechanical power into a d.c. power.
11.1 production
When the armature is loaded, the armature conductors carry currents. These current carrying conductors
interact with the field and experience force acting on the same. This force is in such a direction as to oppose
their cause which in the present case is the relative movement between the conductors and the field. Thus
the force directly opposes the motion. Hence it absorbs mechanical energy. This absorbed mechanical power
manifests itself as the converted electrical power.
forces coming on the same. Open parallel sided equally spaced slots are normally punched in the rotor
laminations. These slots house the armature winding. Large sized machines employ a spider on which
the laminations are stacked in segments. End plates are suitably shaped so as to serve as ’Winding
supporters’. Armature construction process must ensure provision of sufficient axial and radial ducts
to facilitate easy removal of heat from the armature winding.
5. Field windings In the case of wound field machines (as against permanent magnet excited machines)
the field winding takes the form of a concentric coil wound around the main poles. These carry the
excitation current and produce the main field in the machine. Thus the poles are created electromag-
netically. Two types of windings are generally employed. In shunt winding large number of turns of
small section copper conductor is used. The resistance of such winding would be an order of magnitude
larger than the armature winding resistance. In the case of series winding a few turns of heavy cross
section conductor is used. The resistance of such windings is low and is comparable to armature resis-
tance. Some machines may have both the windings on the poles. The total ampere turns required to
establish the necessary flux under the poles is calculated from the magnetic circuit calculations. The
total mmf required is divided equally between north and south poles as the poles are produced in pairs.
The mmf required to be shared between shunt and series windings are apportioned as per the design
requirements. As these work on the same magnetic system they are in the form of concentric coils.
Mmf ’per pole’ is normally used in these calculations.
6. Armature winding As mentioned earlier, if the armature coils are wound on the surface of the
armature, such construction becomes mechanically weak. The conductors may fly away when the
armature starts rotating. Hence the armature windings are in general pre-formed, taped and lowered
into the open slots on the armature. In the case of small machines, they can be hand wound. The
coils are prevented from flying out due to the centrifugal forces by means of bands of steel wire on the
surface of the rotor in small groves cut into it. In the case of large machines slot wedges are additionally
used to restrain the coils from flying away. The end portion of the windings are taped at the free end
current enclosed is determined. As the magnetic circuit is non-linear, the field mmf and armature mmf are
separately computed and added at each point on the surface of the armature. The actual flux produced is
proportional to the total mmf and the permeance. The flux produced by field and that produced by armature
could be added to get the total flux only in the case of a linear magnetic circuit.
• Field control or flux control is also used for speed control purposes. Normally field weakening is used.
This causes operation at higher speeds than the nominal speed. Strengthening the field has little scope
for speed control as the machines are already in a state of saturation and large field mmf is needed
for small increase in the flux. Even though flux weakening gives higher speeds of operation it reduces
the torque produced by the machine for a given armature current and hence the power delivered does
not increase at any armature current. The machine is said to be in constant power mode under field
weakening mode of control. Above the nominal speed of operation, constant flux mode with increased
applied voltage can be used; but this is never done as the stress on the commutator insulation increases.
• Thus operation below nominal speed is done by voltage control. Above the nominal speed field weak-
ening is adopted. For weakening the field, series resistances are used for shunt as well as compound
motors. In the case of series motors however field weakening is done by the use of ’diverters’ . Diverters
are resistances that are connected in parallel to the series winding to reduce the field current without
affecting the armature current.
Electrical)Engineering)MCQs)
DC)Machines)
!
1.''What'is'the'effect'produced'by'the'electric'current'in'an'electrical'motor?'
(a)' Magnetic'effect' (b)' Magnetic'as'well'as'heating'effect'
(c)' Heating'effect'only' (d)' Heating'as'well'as'chemical'effect'
'
2.''The'rotating'part'of'a'dc'motor'is'known'as'
(a)' Pole'stator' (b)' Stator'
(c)' Armature' (d)' Carbon'brush'
'
3.''The'function'of'the'commutator'in'a'dc'motor'machine'is'
(a)' To'change'direct'current'to' (b)' To'improve'commutation'
alternate'current'
(c)' For'easy'speed'control' (d)' to'change'alternating'voltage'to'
direct'voltage'
'
4.''Carbon'brushes'are'used'in'electric'motor'to'
(a)' Brush'off'carbon'deposits'on'the' (b)' Provide'a'path'for'flow'of'current'
commutator'
(c)' Prevent'overheating'of'armature' (d)' Prevent'sparking'during'
winding' commutation'
'
5.''Voltage'equation'for'dc'motor'is'
(a)' ! = #$ + &' (' ' (b)' ! = #$ − &' (' '
(c)' #$ = ! + &' (' ' (d)' #$ = 0.5&' (' '
'
6.''The'speed'of'a'd.c'motor'is'
(a)' Directly'proportional'to'back'emf' (b)' Inversely'proportional'to'back'emf'
and'inversely'proportional'to'flux' and'directly'proportional'to'flux'
(c)' Directly'proportional'to'emf'as' (d)' Inversely'proportional'to'emf'as'well'
well'as'flux' as'flux'
'
7.''In'a'dc'motor'the'iron'losses'occur'in'
(a)' The'yoke' (b)' The'armature'
(c)' The'field' (d)' None'of'these'
'
8.''The'function'of'the'starter'in'dc'machines'is'
(a)' To'avoid'the'excessive'current'at' (b)' To'control'the'speed'
starting'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
square'of'armature'current'and' of'armature'current'and'speed'in'
speed'in'inversely'proportional'to' directly'proportional'to'torque'
torque'
(c)' Torque'and'speed'are' (d)' None'of'these'
proportional'to'square'of' '
armature'current'
'
18.'A'series'motor'is'started'without'load.'The'effect'is'that'
(a)' The'torque'increases'rapidly' (b)' The'speed'increases'rapidly'
(c)' Current'drawn'increases'rapidly' (d)' The'back'emf'decreases'
'
19.'The'direction'of'rotation''a'D.C'series'motor'can'be'reversed'by'interchanging'
(a)' The'supply'terminals'only' (b)' The'field'terminals'only'
(c)' The'supply'as'well'as'field' (d)' None'of'these'
terminals'
'
20.'Armature'reaction'is'attributed'to'
(a)' The'effect'of'magnetic'field'setup' (b)' The'effect'of'magnetic'field'setup'by'
to'armature'current' field'current'
(c)' Copper'loss'in'the'armature' (d)' The'effect'of'magnetic'field'setup'by'
back'emf'
'
21.'Which'of'the'following'dc'motors'is'suitable'for'high'starting'torque?'
(a)' Shunt'motor' (b)' Commutative'compound'motor'
(c)' Series'motor' (d)' Compound'motor'
'
22.'As'the'load'is'increased,'the'speed'of'a'shunt'motor'
(a)' Remains'constant' (b)' Increases'slightly'
(c)' Reduces'slightly' (d)' None'of'these'
'
23.'For'parallel'operation,'the'polarities'of'two'generators'
(a)' Must'oppose'each'other' (b)' Must'be'same'
(c)' May'or'may'not'be'same' (d)' None'of'these'
'
24.'The'emf'induced'in'the'armature'of'a'd.c'machine'is'
(a)' Directly'proportional'to'the'flux' (b)' directly'proportional'to'both'flux'and'
and'inversely'proportional'to'the' the'speed'
speed' '
(c)' inversely'proportional'to'both'the' (d)' none'of'the'above'
flux'and'the'speed' '
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
'
25.'The'direction'of'induction'emf'in'an'armature'coil'of'a'dc'machine'is'
(a)' The'same'as'that'of'the'current' (b)' Opposite'to'that'of'the'current'for'
for'both'the'generator'and'the' both'the'generator'and'the'motor'
motor'
(c)' The'same'as'that'of'the'current' (d)' None'of'these'
for'the'generator'and'opposite'to' '
that'of'the'current'for'the'motor'
'
26.'The'commutator'of'machine'acts'as'a'
(a)' FullYwave'rectifier' (b)' HalfYwave'rectifier'
(c)' Controlled'fullYwave'rectifier' (d)' Controlled'halfYwave'rectifier'
'
27.'Consider'the'following'statement'
'
I.'''The'purpose'of'using'of'compensating'winding'in'a'd.c'machine'is'to'counteract'
II.''Armature'reaction'm.m.f'under'the'poleYfaces.'
III.'Armature'reaction'm.m.m'in'the'interpole'zone.'
IV.Flashover'between'positive'and'negative'brushes.'
'
State'which'of'the'following'is'correct.'
(a)' Both'I'and'II' (b)' Only'III'
(c)' Both'I'and'III' (d)' Both'II'and'III'
'
28.'The'core'losses'in'a'd.c'machine'occur'due'to'
(a)' Hysteresis'only' (b)' Eddy'current'only'
(c)' Armature'current'' (d)' Both'hysteresis'and'eddy'currents'
'
29.'The'core'losses'in'a'd.c'machine'occur'in'
(a)' The'armature'only' (b)' The'pole'faces'only'
(c)' The'yoke'only' (d)' Both'the'armature'and'the'pole'faces'
'
30.'Ohmic'losses'in'a'd.c'machine'occur'in'
(a)' The'armature'winding'only' (b)' The'field'winding'only'
(c)' The'brush'contact'only' (d)' The'armature'winding,'the'field'
winding'and'also'the'variable'losses'
is'equal'to.'
'
31.'The'brake'test'for'the'determination'of'efficiency'of'a'd.c'machine'is'
(a)' An'indirect'method' (b)' A'regenerative'method'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
e.m.f'is'produced''
'
39.'Maximum'efficiency'of'the'motor'will'occur'when'
(a)' Copper'losses'>'Iron'losses' (b)' Copper'losses'<'Iron'losses'
(c)' Copper'losses'='friction'losses' (d)' Copper'losses'='constant'losses'
'
40.'Interpoles'are'connected'in'series'with'the''
(a)' Line' (b)' Armature'winding'
(c)' Shunt'field'winding' (d)' Line'and'armature'winding'
'
41.'When'the'field'terminals'and'armature'terminals'are'both'interchanged'of'dc'shunt'
motor,'then'the'
(a)' Motor'will'not'run' (b)' Motor'will'run'in'the'same'direction'
(c)' Motor'will'run'in'opposite' (d)' Speed'of'motor'will'change'
direction'
'
42.'Residual'magnetism'is'the'essential'prerequisite'for'starting'which'type'of'd.c'
generator?'
(a)' Separately'excited'generator' (b)' Shunt'generator'
(c)' Series'generator' (d)' All'of'these'
'
43.'The'yoke'of'dc'machine'
(a)' is'laminated' (b)' in'not'laminated'
(c)' may'or'may'not'be'laminated' (d)' none'of'these'
'
'
'
'
44.'The'presence'of'equalizer'bar'
(a)' is'essential'for'parallel'operation' (b)' is'preferable'for'parallel'operation'of'
of'compound'generator' compound'generators'
(c)' is'unnecessary'for'parallel' (d)' none'of'these'
operation'of'compound'
generators'
'
45.'The'difference'between'no'load'and'full'load'speeds'of'dc'shunt'motor'is'of'the'
order'of''
(a)' 20%' (b)' 1%'
(c)' 10%' (d)' 99%'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
46.'Swinburne'test'cannot'be'used'for'
(a)' Series'motor' (b)' Shunt'motor'
(c)' Compound'motor' (d)' None'of'these'
'
47.'In'a'dc'machine'the'maximum'losses'occur'due'to'
(a)' Iron'losses' (b)' Mechanical'losses'
(c)' Copper'losses' (d)' None'of'above'
'
48.'The'efficiency'of'a'generator'is'usually'expressed'as'
(a)' (input'Y'losses)/input' (b)' Output/input'
(c)' Output/(output'+'losses)' (d)' None'of'above'
'
49.'The'rotating'part'of'a'dc'motor'is'known'as'
(a)' Pole' (b)' Stator'
(c)' Armature' (d)' Carbon'brush'
'
Transformers)
!
50.'Transformer'is'used'to'change'the'values'of'
(a)' Voltage' (b)' Frequency'
(c)' Power' (d)' Power'factor'
'
51.'The'path'of'the'magnetic'flux'in'a'transformer'has'
(a)' High'reluctance' (b)' Low'resistance'
(c)' High'connectivity' (d)' Low'reluctance'
'
52.'Transformer'works'on'
(a)' ac' (b)' dc'
(c)' an'and'dc' (d)' pulsating'device'
'
53.'Transformer'works'on'the'principle'of'
(a)' SelfYinduction' (b)' Mutual'induction'
(c)' Faradays'law'of'electromagnetic' (d)' Self'and'mutual'induction'both'
induction'
'
54.'Rating'of'transformer'is'given'in'
(a)' kVA' (b)' kVAR'
(c)' kW' (d)' Watts'
'
'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
'
55.'If'a'higher'voltage'is'given'to'the'primary'and'low'voltage'is'taken'from'the'
secondary'of'transformer'is'it'called'
(a)' StepYup' (b)' StepYdown'
(c)' Instrument'transformer' (d)' Stabilizer'
'
56.'The'emf'induced'in'the'secondary'winding'of'a'transformer'depend'upon'
(a)' Number'of'turns' (b)' Flux'
(c)' Supply'frequency' (d)' All'of'these'
'
57.'Electrical'power'is'transferred'from'one'coil'to'the'other'coil'in'a'transformer'
(a)' Electrically' (b)' Electromagnetically'
(c)' Magnetically' (d)' Physical'
'
58.'As'compared'to'an'amplifier,'a'transformer'cannot'
(a)' Increase'the'output'voltage' (b)' Increase'the'output'current'
(c)' Increase'output'power' (d)' None'of'these'
'
59.'Two'transformers'are'operating'in'parallel.'They'will'share'the'load'depending'upon'
their'
(a)' Efficiency'' (b)' Rating'
(c)' Leakage'reactance' (d)' Per'unit'impedance'
'
60.'What'is'the'typical'use'of'an'autoYtransformer?'
(a)' Isolating'transformer' (b)' Toy'transformer'
(c)' Control'transformer' (d)' Variable'transformer'
'
61.'In'any'transformer,'the'voltage'per'turn'in'primary'and'secondary'remains'
(a)' Always'same' (b)' Always'in'ratio'of'K'
(c)' Always'different' (d)' Sometimes'same'
'
62.'The'special'silicon'steel'in'used'for'laminations'because'
(a)' Eddy'current'losses'are'reduced' (b)' Hysteresis'losses'are'reduced'
(c)' Both'losses'are'reduced' (d)' None'of'these'
'
63.'CrossYover'winding'are'used'for'
(a)' High'voltage'winding'of'small' (b)' Low'voltage'winding'of'small'rating'
rating'transformers' transformers'
(c)' High'voltage'winding'of'large' (d)' None'of'these'
rating'transformers' '
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
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64.'The'input'power'to'a'threeYphase'transformer'is'given'by'
(a)' 3×!/0 &/0 ' (b)' 3×!/0 &/0 1234'
(c)' 3×!5 &6 1234' (d)' 3×!/0 &/0 7814'
'
65.'The'leakage'flux'of'a'transformer'is'defined'as'following'
(a)' It'is'flux'which'is'linked'with'the' (b)' It'is'the'magnetic'flux'which'is'linked'
primary'and'the'secondary' either'only'with'the'primary'or'only'
winding' with'the'secondary'
(c)' It'is'the'flux'whose'path'is' (d)' None'of'these'
exclusively'through'the'air' '
'
'
'
66.'Iron'loss'in'an'actual'transformer'remains'practically'constant'from'noYload'to'fullY
load'because'
(a)' Core'flux'remains'practically' (b)' Primary'voltage'remains'voltage'
constant'
(c)' Value'of'transformation'ration' (d)' Permeability'of'transformer'core'
remains'constant' remains'constant'
'
67.'The'primary'reason'why'openYcircuit'test'is'performed'on'the'lowYvoltage'winding'
of'the'transformer'is'that'it'
(a)' Draws'sufficiently'large'noYload' (b)' Requires'least'voltage'to'perform'the'
current'for'convenient'reading' test'
(c)' Needs'minimum'power'input' (d)' Has'become'a'universal'custom'
'
68.'NoYload'test'on'a'transformer'is'carried'out'to'determine'
(a)' Copper'loss' (b)' FullYload'current'
(c)' Magnetizing'current' (d)' Efficiency'of'the'transformer'
'
69.'The'shortYcircuit'test'in'a'transformer'is'used'to'determine'
(a)' Iron'loss'at'any'load' (b)' Copper'loss'at'any'load'
(c)' Hysteresis'loss' (d)' EddyYcurrent'loss'
'
70.'The'main'reason'for'using'high'voltage'for'longYdistance'power'transmission'is'to'
(a)' Provide'industrial'establishments' (b)' Enable'the'national'grid'system'to'be'
with'high'voltage' used'
(c)' Reduce'time'of'transmission' (d)' Reduce'transmission'losses'due'to'
conductor'resistance'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
71.'The'ordinary'efficiency'of'a'given'transformer'is'maximum'when'
(a)' It'runs'at'half'fullYload' (b)' It'runs'at'fullYload'
(c)' Its'copper'loss'equals'iron'loss' (d)' It'runs'overload'
'
72.'The'main'purpose'of'using'core'in'a'transformer'is'to'
(a)' Decrease'iron'losses' (b)' Prevent'eddy'current'loss'
(c)' Eliminate'magnetic'hysteresis' (d)' Decrease'reluctance'of'the'common'
magnetic'flux'path'
'
73.'While'conducting'shortYcircuit'test'on'a'transformer'which'of'the'following'side'is'
shortYcircuit'
(a)' H.V'side' (b)' L.V'side'
(c)' Primary'side' (d)' None'of'these'
'
74.'Spiral'winding'is'suitable'only'for'winding'
(a)' Carrying'low'current' (b)'
Carrying'very'high'current'
(c)'
Rated'for'high'voltage' (d)' Rated'for'low'voltage'
'
75.'CrossYover'winding'is'suitable'for'
(a)' Low'voltage'winding'of'small' (b)' High'voltage'winding'of'small'
transformers' transformers'
(c)' Low'voltage'winding'of'large' (d)' High'voltage'winding'of'large'
winding' transformers'
'
76.'For'shortYcircuit'and'openYcircuit'test'of'a'transformer'the'instrument'are'connected'
on'
(a)' Equivalent'resistance'and'leakage' (b)' Equivalent'resistance'and'core'loss'
reactance'
(c)' Magnetizing'current'and' (d)' Magnetizing'current'and'core'loss'
equivalent'leakage'reactance'
'
'
77.'The'leakage'flux'in'a'transformer'depends'upon'
(a)' The'applied'voltage' (b)' The'frequency'
(c)' The'load'current' (d)' The'mutual'flux'
'
78.'Eddy'current'loss'in'a'transformer'depend'on'
(a)' Both'voltage'and'frequency' (b)' Voltage'alone'
(c)' Load'current'alone' (d)' Thickness'of'core'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
79.'In'a'transformer'
(a)' Both'o.c'and's.c'tests'are' (b)' o.c'test'is'conducted'on'h.v'side'and'
conducted'on'l.v'side' s.c'tests'on'l.v'side'
(c)' o.c'test'is'conducted'on'l.v'side' (d)' both'o.c'and's.c'tests'are'conducted'
and's.c'tests'on'h.v'side' on'h.v'side'
'
80.'Transformers'zero'voltage'regulation'occurs'at'
(a)' Unity'p.f' (b)' Leading'p.f'
(c)' Lagging'p.f' (d)' Zero'p.f'leading'
'
81.'The'loss'due'to'eddy'current'in'a'transformer'is''
(a)' Directly'proportional'to'the' (b)' Indirectly'proportional'to'the'current'
current'
(c)' Indirectly'proportional'to'the' (d)' Directly'proportional'to'the'
resistance'of'the'winding' resistance'of'the'winding'
'
Alternator)and)Synchronous)Machines)
!
82.'Alternator'Generates'
(a)' d.c' (b)' a.c'
(c)' dc'and'ac'both' (d)' pulsating'd.c'
'
83.'The'rotor'of'the'alternator'requires'
(a)' d.c' (b)' a.c'
(c)' pulsating'd.c' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
84.'The'different'types'of'rotor'of'an'alternator'are'
(a)' Salient'pole'type' (b)' Cylindrical'pole'type'
(c)' Both'salient'pole'and'cylindrical' (d)' None'of'these'
pole'type'
'
85.'Salient'pole'type'rotors'are'generally'used'with'prime'movers'of'
(a)' High'speed' (b)' Low'speed'
(c)' Medium'speed' (d)' Low'and'high'speed'
'
86.'Cylindrical'pole'type'rotors'are'generally'used'with'prime'movers'of'
(a)' High'speed' (b)' Low'speed'
(c)' Medium'speed' (d)' Low'and'high'speed'
'
87.'The'frequency'of'emf'generated'depends'upon'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
95.'In'3'phase'synchronous'motor'
(a)' The'field'MMF'lags'airgap'flux'and' (b)' The'field'MMF'leads'the'airgap'flux'
the'airgap'flux'lags'the'armature' and'the'airgap'flux'leads'the'
MMF' armature'MMF'
(c)' The'field'MMF'leads'the'airgap' (d)' The'field'MMF'lags'the'airgap'and'
flux'and'the'airgap'flux'lags'the' the'airgap'flux'leads'the'armature'
armature'MMF' MMF'
'
96.'The'synchronous'motor'suns'on'
(a)' 3Yphase'a.c'supply' (b)' 3Yphase'ac'and'dc'supply'
(c)' dc'supply'only' (d)' 3Yphase'a.c'and'single'phase'a.c''
'
97.'If'the'field'of'synchronous'motor'is'under'excited,'the'power'factor'will'be'
(a)' Power'factor'angle' (b)' Synchronous'angle'
(c)' Torque'angle' (d)' Angle'of'retardation'
'
98.'If'the'field'of'synchronous'motor'is'under'excited,'the'power'factor'will'be'
(a)' more'than'unity' (b)' unity'
(c)' lagging'' (d)' leading'
'
'
'
'
'
99.'The'advantage'of'synchronous'motor'as'compared'to'induction'motor'are'that'
(a)' It'runs'at'constant'speed' (b)' It'can'run'over'wide'range'of'power'
factors'both'lagging'and'leading'
(c)' It’s'torque'is'less'sensitive'to' (d)' All'of'these'
change'in'supply'voltage'
'
100.'A'synchronous'motor'working'on'leading'power'factor'and'not'driving'any'
mechanical'load'is'known'as'
(a)' Synchronous'induction'motor' (b)' Spinning'motor'
(c)' Synchronous'condenser' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
101.'Synchronous'motors'are'usually'operated'at'
(a)' Unity'power'factor' (b)' Leading'power'factor'
(c)' Lagging'power'factor' (d)' None'of'these'
'
102.'Synchronous'motors'are'used'in'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
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'
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110.'In'a'rotating'machine,'the'generated'e.m.f'
(a)' is'in'phase'with'working'flux'ϕ'' (b)' leads'flux'ϕ'by'90°''
(c)' lags'flux'ϕ'by'90°' (d)' lags'flux'ϕ'by'180°'
'
Induction!motors!
111.'For'induction'motors,'normally'
(a)' the'rotor'winding'is'connected'to' (b)' the'stator'winding'is'connected'to'
supply'and'the'stator'winding'is' supply'and'the'rotor'winding'is'short'
shortYcircuited' circuited'
(c)' both'the'stator'and'the'rotor' (d)' the'stator'winding'is'connected'to'
winding'are'connected'to'supply' supply'and'the'rotor'winding'is'openY
circuited'
'
112.'An'induction'motor,'is'general,'is'analogous'to'
(a)' An'autoYtransformer' (b)' A'twoYwinding'transformer'with'its'
secondary'openYcircuited'
(c)' A'twoYwinding'transformer'with' (d)' a'threeYwinding'transformer'
its'secondary'shortYcircuited'
'
113.'The'rotor'of'a'3Yphase'induction'rotates'in'the'same'direction'as'the'direction'of'
revolving'field'because'of'
(a)' Faraday’s'laws'of'electro' (b)' Lenz’s'law'
magnetic'induction'
(c)' Fleming’s'right'hand'rule' (d)' None'of'these'
'
114.'The'rotor'of'a'3Yphase'induction'motor'always'runs'at'
(a)' Synchronous'speed' (b)' Less'than'synchronous'speed'
(c)' More'than'synchronous'speed' (d)' None'of'these'
'
115.'The'speed'of'an'induction'motor'is'
(a)' Always'less'than'the'synchronous' (b)' Can'be'equal'to'or'less'than'the'
speed' synchronous'
(c)' Always'more'than'the' (d)' None'of'these'
synchronous'speed'
'
116.'Which'of'the'following'statements'about'the'three'phase'induction'motor'is'true?'
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Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electrical'Engineering'MCQs'
Answers:)Electrical)Engineering)EKT)MCQs)
!
1.!!(b)! 2.!(c)! 3.!(d! 4.!(b)! 5.!(a)! 6.!(a)! 7.!(a)! 8.!(a)! 9.!(c)! 10.!(a)!
11.!(b)! 12.!(b)! 13.!(a)! 14.!(b)! 15.!(d)! 16.!(b)! 17.!(a)! 18.!(b)! 19.!(b)! 20.!(a)!
21.!(c)! 22.!(c)! 23.!(a)! 24.!(b)! 25.!(c)! 26.!(a)! 27.!(a)! 28.!(d)! 29.!(d)! 30.!(d)!
31.!(c)! 32.!(b)! 33.!(d)! 34.!(a)! 35.!(c)! 36.!(d)! 37.!(c)! 38.!(a)! 39.!(d)! 40.!(b)!
41.!(b)! 42.!(c)! 43.!(b)! 44.!(a)! 45.!(b)! 46.!(a)! 47.!(c)! 48.!(c)! 49.!(c)! 50.!(a)!
51.!(d)! 52.!(a)! 53.!(d)! 54.!(a)! 55.!(b)! 56.!(d)! 57.!(c)! 58.!(c)! 59.!(d)! 60.!(d)!
61.!(a)! 62.!(b)! 63.!(a)! 64.!(d)! 65.!(b)! 66.!(a)! 67.!(a)! 68.!(c)! 69.!(b)! 70.!(d)!
71.!(c)! 72.!(d)! 73.!(b)! 74.!(b)! 75.!(b)! 76.!(d)! 77.!(c)! 78.!(d)! 79.!(c)! 80.!(b)!!
81.!(a)! 82.!(b)! 83!(a)! 84!(c)! 85!(b)! 86!(a)! 87!(d)! 88.!(d)! 89.!(c)! 90.!(b)!
91.!(b)! 92.!(b)! 93.!(a)! 94.!(c)! 95.!(a)! 96.!(b)! 97.!(c)! 98.!(c)! 99.!(d)! 100.!(c)!
101.!(b)! 102.!(a)! 103.!(a)! 104.!(b)! 105.!(a)! 106.!(d)! 107.!(c)! 108.!(c)! 109.!(d)! 110.!(c)!
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Electronic Devices
Contents
1 Energy Bands 2
2 Intrinsic Semiconductors 3
3 Extrinsic Semiconductors 3
4 Diode 4
5 Current-voltage characteristic 5
9 LASER 10
10 Zener diode 11
12 PIN Diode 13
1
Page: 2 shop.ssbcrack.com
1 Energy Bands
• The materials can be classified on the basis of energy gap between their valence band and conduction
band.
• The valence band is the band consisting of free valence electron and the conduction band is empty
band. Conduction takes place when an electron jumps from valence band to conduction band and the
gap between these two bands is energy gap. Wider the gap between the bands, higher the energy it
requires to shift the electron to conduction band.
• In case of conductors, this energy gap is absent or in other words conduction band and valence band
overlap each other. Thus electron requires minimum energy to jump from valence band, e.g. Silver,
Copper and Aluminium. In insulators, this gap is very large. Therefore, it requires large amount of
energy to shift an electron from valence to conduction band. Thus insulators are poor conductors of
electricity, e.g. mica, diamond.
• Semiconductors have energy gap in between conductors and insulators ( 1 eV) and thus require
energy more than conductors but less than insulators. They don’t conduct electricity at low temperature
but as temperature increases conductivity increases e.g. silicon and germanium. This is the most basic
theory of semiconductor. The materials that are neither conductor nor insulator with energy gap of
about 1 eV (electron volt) are called semiconductors. Most common type of materials that are used
as semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) because of their property to withstand high
temperature. For Si and Ge energy gap is given as,
Eg = 1.213.6 ◊ 10≠4 T eV (for Si)
Eg = 0.785 ≠ 2.23 ◊ 10≠4 T eV (for Ge)
Where, T = absolute temperature in oK Assuming room temperature to be 300 oK, Eg = 0.72eV for
2 Intrinsic Semiconductors
As per theory of semiconductor, semiconductor in its pure form is called as intrinsic semiconductor. In
pure semiconductor number of electrons (n) is equal to number of holes (p) and thus conductivity is very low
as valence electrons are covalent bonded.
Intrinsic Silicon
• A pure semi conductors material which has impurity is do pent atom and no lattice defects is known
as intrinsic silicon. The electrical conductivity of this type of silicon is entirely dependent on thermally
generated carrier
• Silicon is a very important element semiconductor. Silicon is a group IV material. In its outer orbit it
has four valance electrons which are held by covalent bonds with the valance electrons of four nearest
silicon atom. These valance electrons are not available for electricity. So, at OK intrinsic semi conductor
behaves like an insulator. When temperature rises some valance electrons break covalent bonds thermal
energy. This vacancy in the band caused by a free electron creates a hole. The electrons gain sufficient
energy to jump to conduction band from valance band and leave a hole in the valance band. This
energy is equal to 1.2 ev in room temperature (at 300K) which is equal to the band gap energy.
• In the intrinsic silicon crystal, the no of holes is equal to the no. of free electrons. New electrons whole
pairs are generated by gaining thermal energy but at the same time some are lost due to recombination.
• In equilibrium condition, the electron concentration and the hole concentration p are equal and they
are equal to the intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon nickel i.e, n = p = ni. The atomic structure is
shown below.
Extrinsic Silicon
• A pure semiconductor material having impurity in its crystal is known as extrinsic silicon. Intrinsic
semiconductor can be turned in to extrinsic semiconductor when it is doped with controlled amount of
dopants. It is doped with donor atom (group V elements) it becomes n-type semiconductor. And it is
doped with acceptor atoms (group III elements) it becomes p-type semiconductor.
• Let a small amount of group V element is added to an intrinsic semiconductor crystal. The examples
of group V elements are p, as sb, etc. They have 5 valance electrons. When they displace a Si atom,
the 4 valance electrons made co-valance bonds with neighboring atoms leaving some free electron. The
energy necessary for silicon this purpose is about 0.05 ev. This kind of impurity is named as donor.
The silicon known as n- type semiconductors as the electrons are negative charged particles.
• The Fermi energy level moves closer to the conduction band in the n-type semiconductors. Here the
no. of free electrons is increased over intrinsic concentration of electrons and no. of holes is decreased
over intrinsic hole concentration. Electrons are majority charge carriers.
• If a small amount of group III elements is added to a intrinsic semiconductor crystal, then they displace
a silicon atom, group III elements like AI,B, IN have three valance electrons. These three electrons
make covalent band with neighboring atoms creating a hole. These kinds of impurity atoms known as
acceptors. The semiconductor in known as p-type semiconductor as the hole is assumed to be positively
charged.
N-type Semiconductor
In this type of semiconductor majority carriers are electrons and minority carriers are holes. N-type semi-
conductor is formed by adding pentavalent ( five valence electrons) impurity in pure semiconductor crystal,
e.g. P. As, Sb.
Four of the five valence electron of pentavalent impurity forms covalent bond with Si atom and the
remaining electron is free to move anywhere within the crystal. Pentavalent impurity donates electron to Si
that’s why N- type impurity atoms are known as donor atoms. This enhances the conductivity of pure Si.
Majority carriers are electrons therefore conductivitry is due to these electrons only and is given by, ‡ = neµe
4 Diode
A diode is a simple electrical device that allows the flow of current only in one direction. So it can be said
to act somewhat like a switch. It is derived from ”di-ode ” which means a device having two electrodes.
The p-n junction is a basic building block in any semiconductor device. It is formed by joining a p type
(intrinsic semiconductor doped with a trivalent impurity) and n type semiconductor (intrinsic semiconductor
doped with a pentavalent impurity) together with a special fabrication technique such that a p-n junction is
formed. Hence it is a device with two elements, the p-type forms anode and the n-type forms the cathode.
These terminals are brought out to make the external connections.
5 Current-voltage characteristic
the diode starts to conduct significantly. This is called the knee voltage or cut-in voltage and is
equal to the barrier potential of the p-n junction. This is a feature of the exponential curve, and is seen
more prominently on a current scale more compressed than in the diagram here.
4. At larger forward currents the current-voltage curve starts to be dominated by the ohmic resistance of
the bulk semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to a straight line whose
slope is the bulk resistance. This region is particularly important for power diodes. The effect can be
modelled as an ideal diode in series with a fixed resistor.
Forward Biased
When the diode is forward biased, due to the negative terminal on the n-side, electrons from the n-side
are pushed towards the p-region. Similarly due to positive voltage on the p-side of the diode, Holes from
the p-region are pushed towards n-side. Due to this the electrons will start converting the positive ions in
the p-region into neutral atoms and holes will start converting the negative ions in the n-region to neutral
atoms. Hence width of the depletion region starts reducing due to reduction in the barrier potential. (As the
atoms in the depletion region are getting converted into neutral atoms less and less charged ions remain in
this region with increase in supply voltage, hence width decreases.) This keeps happening and at a certain
point the depletion region collapses and there is no opposition to the flow of current. Hence large number of
electrons and holes will cross the junction and make the current to flow from anode to cathode.
Hence, forward biased electrical resistance of diode is very small and hence there is a small voltage drop
(Practical condition, ideally there should be 0 forward resistance) across it. Its value for silicon diode is
about 0.7 V.
Reverse Biased
When the diode is reverse biased the hole from the p-side will get attracted towards the negative terminal
Avalanche diodes
These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown
voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes),
but break down by a different mechanism: the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field
across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current.
Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The
difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener
is that the channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, so there are collisions
between them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients
of opposite polarities.
in crystal radio receivers. Cat’s whisker diodes are generally obsolete, but may be available from a few
manufacturers.
Gunn diodes
These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a
region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across
the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.
Laser diodes
When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a
laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical
communication.
Thermal diodes
This term is used both for conventional p-n diodes used to monitor temperature due to their varying forward
voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling. Peltier heat
pumps may be made from semiconductor, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the
differing behaviour of charge carriers in N and P type semiconductor to move heat.
Photodiodes
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired ef-
fect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense
light(photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the
kind of diode most sensitive to light). A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical
communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a
two-dimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.
PIN diodes
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure. They
are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large-volume, ionizing-radiation
detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can
withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices,
such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage
drop than p-n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range
0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor
saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general
higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from
minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes-so they have a faster reverse recovery
than p-n junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p-n diodes, which
provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode
power supply, mixers, and detectors.
Gold-doped diodes
Zener diodes
These can be made to conduct in reverse bias (backward), and are correctly termed reverse breakdown diodes.
This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as
a precision voltage reference. The term Zener diode is colloquially applied to several types of breakdown
diodes, but strictly speaking Zener diodes have a breakdown voltage of below 5 volts, whilst those above that
value are usually avalanche diodes. In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are
connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near-zero. Some devices
labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in
series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered
trademark). The Zener diode is named for Dr. Clarence Melvin Zener of Carnegie Mellon University, inventor
of the device.
• JFET consists of a doped Si or GaAs bar. There are ohmic contacts, the two ends of the bar and
semiconductor junction on its two sides. If the semiconductor bar is n-type, the two sides of the bar
is heavily doped with p - type impurities and this is known as n-channel JFET. On the other hand if
the semiconductor bar is p- type, the two sides of the bar is heavily doped with n- type impurities and
this is known as p- channel JFET. When a voltage is applied between the two ends, a current which is
carried by the majority carriers of the bar flows along the length of the bar.
• There are several terminals in JFET. The terminal through which the majority carrier enter the bar
and the terminal through which they leave are known as source (s) and drain (D) respectively. The
Applications of JFET
1. Low noise and high input impedance amplifier:-
Noise is an undesirable disturbance which interferes with the signals information-greater the noise less
the information. Energy electronics device cause some amount of noise. If FET s is used at the front
end, we get less amount of amplified noise at the output. Now, it has very high input impedance. So,
it can be used in high input impedance amplifier.
2. Buffer amplifier:-
Buffer amplifier should have very high input impedance and low output impedance. Because of high i
/ p impedance and low output impedance, FET acts as great buffer amplifier. the common drain mode
can be used in this purpose.
3. R.F. Amplifier:-
JFET is good in low current signal operation as it is a voltage controlled semiconductors device. It has
very low noise level. So, it can be used as RF amplifier in receiver sections of communication field.
4. Current source:-
Here all the supply voltage appears across load. If the current tries to increase very much, the excessive
load a current drives the JFET in to active region. Thus JFET acts as a current source .
5. Multiplexer:-
Analog multiplexer circuit can be made using JFETs. An example is given below.
8 MOS capacitor
An MOS[Metal oxide semiconductor]. capacitor is made of a semiconductor body or substrate, an
insulator and a metal electrode called a gate. Practically the metal is a heavily doped n+ poly-silicon layer
which behaves as a metal layer. The dielectric material used between the capacitor plates is silicon dioxide
(SiO2 ). The metal acts as one plate of the capacitor and the semiconductor layer which may be n-type or
p-type acts as another plate.
9 LASER
The acronym LASER stands for Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
• A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated
emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term ”laser” originated as an acronym for ”light amplifica-
tion by stimulated emission of radiation”.
• A laser differs from other sources of light because it emits light coherently. Spatial coherence allows a
laser to be focused to a tight spot, enabling applications like laser cutting and lithography.
• Spatial coherence also allows a laser beam to stay narrow over long distances (collimation), enabling
applications such as laser pointers.
• Lasers can also have high temporal coherence which allows them to have a very narrow spectrum, i.e.,
they only emit a single color of light. Temporal coherence can be used to produce pulses of light-as
short as a femtosecond.
10 Zener diode
A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as
an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value
known as the breakdown voltage, ”Zener knee voltage”, ”Zener voltage”, ”avalanche point”, or ”peak inverse
voltage”.
Zener effect
The Zener effect is a type of electrical breakdown in a reverse biased p-n diode in which the electric field
enables tunneling of electrons from the valence to the conduction band of a semiconductor, leading to a large
number of free minority carriers, which suddenly increase the reverse current. Zener breakdown is employed
in a Zener diode.
Mechanism
Under a high reverse-bias voltage, the p-n junction’s depletion region expands, leading to a high strength
electric field across the junction. A sufficiently strong electric field enables tunneling of electrons from the
valence to the conduction band of a semiconductor leading to a large number of free charge carriers. This
sudden generation of carriers rapidly increases the reverse current and gives rise to the high slope conductance
of the Zener diode.
• Voltage regulator
A Zener diode can be applied to a circuit to regulate the voltage applied to a load, such as in a linear
regulator.
provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an external source of DC power supply to carry
out the amplification process.
• Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. These two
kinds of charge carriers are characteristic of the two kinds of doped semiconductor material; electrons
are majority charge carriers in n-type semiconductors, whereas holes are majority charge carriers in
p-type semiconductors. In contrast, unipolar transistors such as the field-effect transistors have only
one kind of charge carrier.
• Charge flow in a BJT is due to diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of
different charge concentrations. The regions of a BJT are called emitter, collector, and base.[note 1]
A discrete transistor has three leads for connection to these regions. Typically, the emitter region is
heavily doped compared to the other two layers, whereas the majority charge carrier concentrations in
base and collector layers are about the same. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to
the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base where there are minority
carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority-carrier devices.
Application of BJT
• BJT’s are used in discrete circuit designed due to availability of many types, and obviously because of
its high transconductane and output resistance which is better than MOSFET.
12 PIN Diode
1. PIN photodiode is a kind of photo detector, it can convert optical signals into electrical signals.
2. This technology was invented in the latest of 1950’s. There are three regions in this type of diode.
There is a p-region an intrinsic region and an n-region. The p-region and n-region are comparatively
heavily doped than the p-region and n-region of usual p-n diodes. The width of the intrinsic region
should be larger than the space charge width of a normal p-n junction. The PIN photodiode operates
with an applied reverse bias voltage and when the reverse bias is applied, the space charge region must
cover the intrinsic region completely. Electron hole pairs are generated in the space charge region by
photon absorption.
3. The switching speed of frequency response of photodiode is inversely proportional to the life time.
The switching speed can be enhanced by a small minority carrier lifetime. For the photo detector
applications where the speed of response is important, the depletion region width should be made as
large as possible for small minority carrier lifetime as a result the switch speed also increases. This
can be achieved PIN photodiode as the insertion of intrinsic region the space charge width larger. The
diagram of a normal PIN photodiode is given below.
• Avalanche photodiode structural configuration is very similar to the PIN photodiode. A PIN photodiode
consists of three regions-
a) p-region,
b) intrinsic region,
c) n-region.
Wafers
A typical wafer is made out of extremely pure silicon that is grown into mono-crystalline cylindrical ingots
(boules) up to 300 mm (slightly less than 12 inches) in diameter using the Czochralski process. These ingots
are then sliced into wafers about 0.75 mm thick and polished to obtain a very regular and flat surface.
Thermal oxidation
In microfabrication, thermal oxidation is a way to produce a thin layer of oxide (usually silicon dioxide) on
the surface of a wafer. The technique forces an oxidizing agent to diffuse into the wafer at high temperature
and react with it. The rate of oxide growth is often predicted by the Deal-Grove model. Thermal oxidation
may be applied to different materials, but this article will only consider oxidation of silicon substrates to
produce silicon dioxide.
Ion implantation
Ion implantation is a materials engineering process by which ions of a material are accelerated in an
electrical field and impacted into a solid. This process is used to change the physical, chemical, or
electrical properties of the solid. Ion implantation is used in semiconductor device fabrication.
Photolithography
Photolithography, also termed optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used in microfabrication
to pattern parts of a thin film or the bulk of a substrate. It uses light to transfer a geometric pattern from
a photomask to a light-sensitive chemical ”photoresist”, or simply ”resist,” on the substrate. A series of
chemical treatments then either engraves the exposure pattern into, or enables deposition of a new material
in the desired pattern upon, the material underneath the photo resist. For example, in complex integrated
circuits, a modern CMOS wafer will go through the photolithographic cycle up to 50 times.
Electronic*Devices*MCQs*
!
1.''Electronics'is'the'branch'of'engineering'which'deals'with'the'application'of'
(a)' electronic'devices' (b)' production'of'electronic'components'
(c)' fission'of'uranium'nuclei' (d)' generation'of'small'power'
'
2.''The'color'code'of'a'1k'Ω'resistance'is'
(a)' black,'brown,'red' (b)' red,'brown,'brown'
(c)' brown,'black,'red' (d)' black,'black,'red'
'
3.''Which'one'of'the'following'has'the'ability'to'act'as'an'open'circuit'for'dc'and'a'short'
circuit'for'ac'of'high'frequency.'
(a)' an'induction'' (b)' a'capacitor'
(c)' a'resistor' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
4.''A'device'having'characteristics'very'close'to'that'of'an'ideal'voltage'source'is'
(a)' Vacuum'diode' (b)' Zener'diode'
(c)' Transistor' (d)' FET'
'
5.''The'maximum'number'of'electronics'which'the'valence'shell'of'an'atom'can'have'is'
(a)' 6' (b)' 8'
(c)' 18' (d)' 2'
'
6.''An'electron'with'velocity'‘u’'is'placed'in'an'electric'filed'E'and'magnetic'field'B.'The'
force'experienced'by'the'electron'is'given'by''
(a)' UeE' (b)' Ueu'×'B'
(c)' Ue(u×E+B)' (d)' Ue(E+u×B)'
'
7.''The'bonding'forces'in'compound'semiconductors,'such'as'GaAs,'arise'from'
(a)' Ionic'bonding' (b)' Metallic'bonding'
(c)' Covalent'bonding' (d)' Combination'of'ionic'and'covalent'
bonding'
'
8.''Elements'can'reach'a'stable'atomic'structure'by'
(a)' Losing'electrons'only' (b)' Gaining'electrons'only'
(c)' Losing'and'gaining'or'sharing' (d)' Collisions'between'atoms'
electrons'
'
9.''Which'one'of'the'following'materials'does'not'have'a'covalent'bond?'
(a)' Metal' (b)' Silicon'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electronic'Devices'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electronic'Devices'MCQs'
'
17.''In'an'intrinsic'semiconductor,'the'number'of'electrons'is'equal'to'the'number'of'
holes'at'which'temperature?'
(a)' 0'K' (b)' 0'°C'
(c)' high'temperature' (d)' all'temperatures'
'
18.'In'an'intrinsic'semiconductor'
(a)' there'are'no'holes'in'the'material' (b)' the'number'of'holes'is'too'small'
(c)' electrons'in'the'material'are' (d)' there'is'no'electrons'in'the'material'
neutralized'by'holes'
'
19.'Which'one'of'the'following'statements'is'correct?'If'the'Fermi'level'lies'midway'
between'the'conduction'and'valence'bands,'then'the'semiconductor'and'valence'bands,'
then'the'semiconductor'is'
(a)' Intrinsic' (b)' Extrinsic'
(c)' pUtype' (d)' nUtype'
'
20.'With'an'increase'in'temperature,'the'Fermi'level'in'an'intrinsic'semiconductor'
(a)' moves'closer'to'the'conduction' (b)' moves'closer'to'the'valence'band'
band'edge' edge'
(c)' moves'into'the'conduction'band' (d)' remains'at'the'center'of'the'
forbidden'gap'
'
21.'In'a'semiconductor,'the'movement'of'holes'is'due'to'
(a)' movement'of'electrons'in' (b)' movement'of'holes'in'conduction'
conduction'band' band'
(c)' movement'of'holes'in'valence' (d)' movement'of'electrons'in'valence'
band' band'
'
22.''Major'part'of'the'current'in'an'intrinsic'semiconductor'is'because'of'
(a)' valence'band'electron' (b)' conduction'band'electron'
(c)' thermally'generated'electrons' (d)' holes'in'the'valence'band'
'
'
23.'On'which'of'the'following'factors'does'the'electrical'conductivity'of'a'semiconductor'
depends?'
1.! Carrier'concentration'
2.! Carrier'mobility'
3.! Sign'of'the'carrier'
Select'the'correct'answer'using'the'codes'given'below'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electronic'Devices'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electronic'Devices'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electronic'Devices'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electronic'Devices'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electronic'Devices'MCQs'
'
'
'
'
55.'For'construction'of'a'fullUwave'rectifier'
(a)' atleast'two'diodes'are'needed' (b)' more'than'two'diodes'are'needed'
(c)' atleast'four'diodes'are'needed' (d)' '
'
56.'Bridge'rectifiers'are'preferred'because'
(a)' they'require'small'transformer' (b)' they'have'less'peak'inverse'voltage'
(c)' they'need'small'transformer'and' (d)' they'have'low'ripple'factor'
also'have'less'peak'inverse'
voltage'
'
57.'The'bridge'rectifier'is'preferable'to'a'full'wave'rectifier'with'center'tap'connections'
because'
(a)' it'uses'four'diodes' (b)' its'transformer'has'no'center'tap'
(c)' it'needs'much'small'transformer' (d)' both'(b)'and'(c)'
for'the'same'output'
'
58.'The'primary'function'of'a'filter'is'to'
(a)' minimize'ac'input'variations' (b)' suppress'odd'harmonics'in'the'
rectifier'output'
(c)' stabilize'dc'level'of'the'output' (d)' remove'ripples'from'the'rectifier'
voltage' output'
'
59.'A'bleeder'resistor'in'a'power'supply'filter'performs'which'of'the'following'
functions?'
1.! Protects'the'rectifier'diodes'from'high'voltage'transients'
2.! Ensures'discharge'of'capacitor'when'power'supply'is'turnedUoff'
3.! Provide'constant'output'current'from'the'supply'when'the'load'is'variable'
4.! Improves'output'voltage'regulation'
Select'the'correct'answer'using'the'codes'given''
(a)' 1,'2and'3' (b)' 2,'3'and'4'
(c)' 1'and'3' (d)' 2'and'4'
'
60.''Choke'input'filter'is'a''
(a)' zero'detector' (b)' average'detector'
(c)' peak'detector' (d)' RMS'detector'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Electronic'Devices'MCQs'
61.'If'capacitor'value'increases'in'a'capacitor'filter,'then'the'ripple'factor'
(a)' increase' (b)' becomes'zero'
(c)' decreases' (d)' none'of'these'
'
62.'For'a'step'input,'the'output'of'an'integrator'is'
(a)' a'pulse' (b)' a'triangular'waveform'
(c)' a'spike' (d)' a'ramp'
'
63.'A'clipper'circuit'always'
(a)' needs'a'dc'source' (b)' clips'some'part'of'the'input'signal'
(c)' clips'upper'portion'of'input'signal' (d)' clips'upper'portion'of'input'signal'
'
64.'Without'a'dc'source,'a'clipper'acts'like'a'
(a)' clamper' (b)' chopper'
(c)' rectifier' (d)' demodulator'
'
65.'The'primary'function'of'a'clamper'circuit'is'to'
(a)' introduce'a'dc'level'into'ac'signal' (b)' suppress'variations'in'signal'voltage'
(c)' raise'+ve'half'cycle'of'the'signal' (d)' lower'–ve'half'cycle'of'the'signal'
'
'
Answers:*Electronic*Devices*MCQs*
!
1.!!(a)! 2.!(c)! 3.!(b)! 4.!(b)! 5.!(b)! 6.!(d)! 7.!(c)! 8.!(c)! 9.!(a)! 10.!(b)!
11.!(d)! 12.!(a)! 13.!(d)! 14.!(a)! 15.!(a)! 16.!(c)! 17.!(a)! 18.!(c)! 19.!(a)! 20.!(d)!
21.!(d)! 22.!(c)! 23.!(a)! 24.!(b)! 25.!(a)! 26.!(c)! 27.!(c)! 28.!(b)! 29.!(b)! 30.!(d)!
31.!(c)! 32.!(c)! 33.!(d)! 34.!(a)! 35.!(d)! 36.!(b)! 37.!(d)! 38.!(c)! 39.!(b)! 40.!(b)!
41.!(a)! 42.!(a)! 43.!(b)! 44.!(b)! 45.!(c)! 46.!(a)! 47.!(d)! 48.!(b)! 49.!(d)! 50.!(d)!
51.!(d)! 52.!(c)! 53.!(d)! 54.!(d)! 55.!(a)! 56.!(c)! 57.!(d)! 58.!(d)! 59.!(d)! 60.!(b)!
'
'
Control Engineering
Contents
1 Control system definition 2
6 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion 9
6.0.1 Routh Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8 Bode diagrams
shop.ssb cra ck.com 14
8.1 Bode plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
9 Root loci 16
10 Lead compensation 20
11 Lag compensation 20
12 lead-lag compensation 20
1
Page: 2 shop.ssbcrack.com
For example, consider an elevator. When the fourth-floor button is pressed on the first floor,
the elevator rises to the fourth floor with a speed and floor-levelling accuracy designed for passenger
comfort. The push of the fourth-floor button is an input that represents our desired output, shown
as a step function in Figure. The performance of the elevator can be seen from the elevator response
curve in the figure below.
Two major measures of performance are apparent: (1) the transient response and (2) the steady-
state error.
• Remote control
• Convenience of input form
• Compensation for disturbances
• Starts with a subsystem called an input transducer, which converts the form of the input to that
used by the controller.
• Controller drives a process or a plant. The input is sometimes called the reference, while the
output can be called the controlled variable.
• Signals, such as disturbances, are shown added to the controller and process outputs via summing
junctions.
• Distinguishing characteristic of an open-loop system is that it cannot compensate for any distur-
bances that add to the controller’s driving signal
• The input transducer converts the form of the input to the form used by the controller.
• Output transducer, or sensor, measures the output response and converts it into the form used
by the controller.
• The first summing junction algebraically adds the signal from the input to the signal from the
output, which arrives via the feedback path, the return path from the output to the summing
junction.
• The output signal is subtracted from the input signal. The result is generally called the actuating
signal.
• In systems where both the input and output transducers have unity gain, the actuating signal’s
value is equal to the actual difference between the input and the output. Under this condition,
the actuating signal is called the error.
• The closed-loop system compensates for disturbances by measuring the output response, feeding
that measurement back through a feedback path, and comparing that response to the input at
the summing junction. If there is any difference between the two responses, the system drives
the plant, via the actuating signal, to make a correction.
The presence of a closed loop whereby we can start at point A(s) and move through the system
in the feed-forward position and return to point A(s) is noted. The term closed loop system is used
to denote systems of this type in which there are feedback elements such that we may go through a
complete path in the forward direction and return to the starting point. We may combine the forward
transfer functions G3 (s) and G4 (s) and redraw the block diagram that represents the transfer function
of this system.
The poles of a transfer function are the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause
the transfer function to become infinite or any roots of the denominator of the transfer function
that are common to roots of the numerator.
The zeros of a transfer function are the values of the Laplace transform variable, s, that cause
the transfer function to become zero, or any roots of the numerator of the transfer function that
are common to roots of the denominator.
First-Order System
A first-order system without zeros
If the input is a unit step, where R(s) = 1s , the Laplace transform of the step response is C(s),
where
a
C(s) = R(s)G(s) =
s(s + a)
where the input pole at the origin generated the forced response cf (t) = 1, and the system pole
at -a, generated the natural response cn (t) = ≠eat .
Let us examine the significance of parameter a, the only parameter needed to describe the
transient response.
1
When t = a
1
eat = ea◊ a = e1 = 0.37
Therefore,
1 1
C(t) at t = a = 1 ≠ ea◊ a = 1 ≠ 0.37 = 0.63
Time constant
We call 1/a the time constant of the response. The time constant can be described as the time
for e at to decay to 37 percent of its initial value.
The reciprocal of the time constant has the units (1/seconds), or frequency. Thus, we can call
the parameter a the exponential frequency. Since the derivative of ea t is ≠ a when t = 0, a is
the initial rate of change of the exponential at t =0. Thus, the time constant can be considered a
transient response specification for a first-order system, since it is related to the speed at which
the system responds to a step input.
Rise time is defined as the time for the waveform to go from 0.1 to 0.9 of its final value.
Settling Time, Ts
Settling time is defined as the time for the response to reach, and stay within, 2 percent of its
final value.
Second-order system
Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order system exhibits a wide range of
responses that must be analyzed and described. Whereas varying a first-order system’s parameter
simply changes the speed of the response, changes in the parameters of a second-order system
can change the form of the response.
– General
– Overdamped
Poles: Two real at ≠‡1 , ≠‡2 Natural response: Two exponentials with time constants equal
to the reciprocal of the pole locations, or
– Underdamped
Poles: Two complex at ≠‡d ± jÊd Natural response: Damped sinusoid with an exponential
envelope whose time constant is equal to the reciprocal of the pole’s real part. The radian
frequency of the sinusoid, the damped frequency of oscillation, is equal to the imaginary
part of the poles, or
c(t) = AcosÊ1 t ≠ „
– Crtically damped
Poles: Two real at ‡1 Natural response: One term is an exponential whose time constant is
equal to the reciprocal of the pole location. Another term is the product of time, t, and an
exponential with time constant equal to the reciprocal of the pole location, or
6 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion
Stability is the most important system specification. If a system is unstable, transient response
and steady-state errors are moot points. An unstable system cannot be designed for a specific
transient response or steady-state error requirement.
– A linear, time-invariant system is stable if the natural response approaches zero as time
approaches infinity.
Note:
– A system is stable if the natural response approaches zero as time approaches infinity.
– A system is unstable if the natural response approaches infinity as time approaches infinity.
– A system is marginally stable if the natural response neither decays nor grows but remains
constant or oscillates
Using Routh-Hurwitz criterion method, we can tell how many closed-loop system poles are in
the left half-plane, in the right half-plane, and on the jÊ-axis. We can find the number of poles
in each section of the s-plane, but we cannot find their coordinates.
The method requires two steps: (1) Generate a data table called a Routh table (2) interpret
the Routh table to tell how many closed-loop system poles are in the left half-plane, the right
half-plane, and on the jÊ-axis.
Look at the equivalent closed-loop transfer function shown in Figure above. Since we are inter-
ested in the system poles, we focus our attention on the denominator. Begin by labelling the rows
with powers of s from the function highest power of the denominator of the closed-loop transfer
function to s0 . Next start with the coefficient of the highest power of s in the denominator and
list, horizontally in the first row, every other coefficient. In the second row, list horizontally,
starting with the next highest power of s, every coefficient that was skipped in the first row.
Each entry is a negative determinant of entries in the previous two rows divided by the entry in
the first column directly above the calculated row. The left-hand column of the determinant is
always the first column of the previous two rows, and the right-hand column is the elements of
the column above and to the right. The table is complete when all of the rows are completed
down to s0 .
Special Cases
10
s5 + 2s4 + 3s3 + 6s2 + 5s + 3
Start by forming the Routh table for the denominator of above equation. At the second
row we multiply through by 1/7 for convenience. We stop at the third row, since the entire
First we return to the row immediately above the row of zeros and form an auxiliary
polynomial, using the entries in that row as coefficients. The polynomial will start with the
power of s in the label column and continue by skipping every other power of s. Thus, the
polynomial formed for this example is
P (s) = s4 + 62 + 8
dP (s)
= 4s3 + 12s
ds
Finally, we use the coefficients of to replace the row of zeros. Again, for convenience, the
third row is multiplied by 1/4 after replacing the zeros.
Table shows that all entries in the first column are positive. Hence, there are no rightâ half-
plane poles.
C(s) G(s)
=
R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
Problem
2
G(s)H(s) =
s≠1
The characteristic equation is
2 s+1
F (s) = 1 + G(s)H(s) = 1 + = =0
s≠1 s≠1
Conformal mapping of the s-plane grids into the F(s) plane, where
s+1
F (s) = =0
s≠1
The function F(s) is analytic everywhere in the s plane except at its singular points. For each
point of analyticity in the s plane, there corresponds a point in the F(s) plane. For example, if
s=2+j1, then F(s) becomes
2 + j1 + 1
F (2 + j1) = = 2 ≠ j1
2 + j1 ≠ 1
Thus, point s=2+j1 in the s plane maps into point 2-j1 in the F(s) plane.
Mapping Theorem
Let F(s) be a ratio of two polynomials in s. Let P be the number of poles and Z be the number
Stability analysis
If the Nyquist path in the s plane encircles Z zeros and P poles of 1+G(s)H(s) and does not
pass through any poles or zeros of 1+G(s)H(s) as a representative point s moves in the clockwise
direction along the Nyquist path, then the corresponding contour in the G(s)H(s) plane encircles
the -1+j0 point N=Z-P times in the clockwise direction.
In examining the stability of linear control systems using the Nyquist stability criterion, we see
that three possibilities can occur:
– There is no encirclement of the -1+j0 point. This implies that the system is stable if there
8 Bode diagrams
A Bode diagram consists of two graphs: One is a plot of the logarithm of the magnitude of a
sinusoidal transfer function; the other is a plot of the phase angle; both are plotted against the
frequency on a logarithmic scale.
The standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude of G(jÊ) is 20log | G(jv) |, where the
base of the logarithm is 10.
The main advantage of using the Bode diagram is that multiplication of magnitudes can be con-
verted into addition. Furthermore, a simple method for sketching an approximate log-magnitude
curve is available. It is based on asymptotic approximations. Such approximation by straight-
line asymptotes is sufficient if only rough information on the frequency-response characteristics is
needed. Should the exact curve be desired, corrections can be made easily to these basic asymp-
totic plots. Expanding the low-frequency range by use of a logarithmic scale for the frequency
is highly advantageous, since characteristics at low frequencies are most important in practical
systems.
Basic Factors of G( jÊ)H(jÊ). As stated earlier, the main advantage in using the logarithmic plot
is the relative ease of plotting frequency-response curves. The basic factors that very frequently
occur in an arbitrary transfer function G(jÊ)H(jÊ) are
1) Gain K
The Gain K
A number greater than unity has a positive value in decibels, while a number smaller than unity
has a negative value. The log-magnitude curve for a constant gain K is a horizontal straight
line at the magnitude of 20 log K decibels.The phase angle of the gain K is zero. The effect of
varying the gain K in the transfer function is that it raises or lowers the log-magnitude curve of
the transfer function by the corresponding constant amount, but it has no effect on the phase
curve.
The decibel value of any number can be obtained from this line. As a number increases by a
factor of 10, the corresponding decibel value increases by a factor of 20. This may be seen from
the following:
.
The logarithmic magnitude of 1/jÊ in decibel is
1
20log | |= ≠20logÊ dB
jÊ
1
20log | |= ≠20log 1 + Ê 2 T 2 dB
1 + jÊT
For low frequencies, such that Ê << 1/T , the log magnitude may be approximated by
≠20log 1 + Ê 2 T 2 dB = ≠20log1 = 0 dB
Thus, the log-magnitude curve at low frequencies is the constant 0-dB line. For high frequencies,
such that Ê >> 1/T ,
≠20log 1 + Ê 2 T 2 dB = ≠20logÊT dB
1
G(jÊ) =
[1 + 2’( ÊjÊn ) + ( ÊjÊn )2 ]û1
If ’ > 1, this quadratic factor can be expressed as a product of two first-order factors with real
poles. If 0 < ’ < 1, this quadratic factor is the product of two complex- conjugate factors.
Asymptotic approximations to the frequency-response curves are not accurate for a factor with
low values of ’.
The asymptotic frequency-response curve may be obtained as follows:
Û
Ê2 2 Ê
G(jÊ) = ≠20log (1 ≠ ) + (2’ )2
Ên2 Ên
for low frequencies such that Ê << Ên , the log magnitude becomes
≠20log1 = 0dB
The low-frequency asymptote is thus a horizontal line at 0 dB. For high frequencies such that
Ê >> Ên , the log magnitude becomes
Ê2 Ê
≠20log 2
= ≠40log
Ên Ên
1
w= ln(z)
T
9 Root loci
Consider the negative feedback system shown in Figure below. The closed-loop transfer function
is
1 + G(s)H(s) = 0
G(s)H(s) = ≠1
Angle condition:
| G(s)H(s) |= 1
The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the roots of the charac-
teristic equation, or the closed-loop poles. A locus of the points in the complex plane satisfying
the angle condition alone is the root locus. The roots of the characteristic equation (the closed-
loop poles) corresponding to a given value of the gain can be determined from the magnitude
condition. The details of applying the angle and magnitude conditions to obtain the closed-loop
poles are presented later in this section.
A typical procedure for sketching the root-locus plot is as follows:
” s = ” (s + 1) = ” (s + 2) = 0o
This shows that the angle condition cannot be satisfied. Hence, there is no root locus on
the positive real axis. Next, select a test point on the negative real axis between 0 and -1.
Then
” s = 180o , ” (s + 1) = ” (s + 2) = 0o
Thus,
≠” s ≠ ” (s ≠ 1) ≠ ” (s ≠ 2) = ≠180o
and the angle condition is satisfied. Therefore, the portion of the negative real axis between
0 and -1 forms a portion of the root locus. If a test point is selected between -1 and -2, then
” s = ” (s + 1) = 1800 ” (s + 2) = 0o
and
≠” s ≠ ” (s ≠ 1) ≠ ” (s ≠ 2) = ≠360o
or
±180o (2k = 1)
Anglesof asymptotes = (k = 0, 1, 2, 3....)
3
3. Determine the breakaway point To plot root loci accurately, we must find the breakaway
point, where the root-locus branches originating from the poles at 0 and -1 break away (as
K is increased) from the real axis and move into the complex plane. The breakaway point
corresponds to a point in the s plane where multiple roots of the characteristic equation
occur.
A simple method for finding the breakaway point is available. We shall present this method
in the following:
Let us write the characteristic equation as
where A(s) and B(s) do not contain K. Note that f(s)=0 has multiple roots at points where
df (s)
=0
ds
This can be seen as follows: Suppose that f(s) has multiple roots of order r, where r Ø 2
.Then f(s) may be written as
df (s)
|s=s1 = 0 (9.2)
ds
This means that multiple roots of f(s) will satisfy equation (9.2) from equation (9.2)
df (s)
= B Õ (s) + KAÕ (s) = 0
ds
where
dA(s) dB(s)
AÕ (s) = , B Õ (s) =
ds ds
The particular value of K that will yield multiple roots of the characteristic equation is
B Õ (s)
K=≠
AÕ (s)
If we substitute this value of K into equation (9.1), we get
B Õ (s)
f (s) = B(s) ≠ A(s) = 0
AÕ (s)
or
B(s)
K=≠
A(s)
and
dK
=0
ds
10 Lead compensation
– A lead compensator is a device that provides phase lead in its’ frequency response.
– If the compensator has phase lead - and never a phase lag - then there are implications
about where the corner frequencies are in the Bode’ plot.
– Other implications are that the phase lead compensator will have only certain types of
pole-zero patterns in the s plane.
jÊ
+1
G(jÊ) =
jÊp
jÊ
jÊz +1
Êz < Ê ≠ p
11 Lag compensation
lag compensatorâ ès can be used to adjust frequency response by adding equal numbers of poles
and zeroes to a systems. Those added singularities may possibly be manipulated to give better
stability, better performance and general improvement.
– First, a lag compensator is a device that provides phase lag in its’ frequency response.
– If the compensator has phase lag - and never a phase lead - then there are implications
about where the corner frequencies are in the Bode’ plot.
– Phase lag compensator will have only certain types of pole-zero patterns in the s plane.
12 lead-lag compensation
In a lag lead compensator, where a lag compensator is cascaded with a lead compensator, both
steady state and transient responses can be improved. Both lead compensators and lag compen-
sators introduce a pole-zero pair into the open loop transfer function. The transfer function can
be written in the Laplace domain as
Y s+z
=
X s+p
where X is the input to the compensator, Y is the output, s is the complex Laplace transform
variable, z is the zero frequency and p is the pole frequency. The pole and zero are both typically
negative, or left of the zero in the complex plane. In a lead compensator, | z |<| p |, while in a
lag compensator | z |>| p |.
A lead-lag compensator consists of a lead compensator cascaded with a lag compensator. The
overall transfer function can be written as
Y (s + z1 )(s + z2 )
=
X (s + p1 )(s + p2 )
This matrix function is referred to as the state transition matrix, and under our assumption on
the nature of A(t) it turns out that the state transition matrix exists and is unique.
Control'Engineering'MCQs'
!
1.''Which'statement'is'not'correct'for'open<loop'control'system?'
(a)' Simple'construction'and'ease'of' (b)' Less'expensive'
maintenance'
(c)' Disturbances'causes'errors' (d)' To'maintain'the'required'quality'in'
the'output,'recalibration'is'not'
required'
2.''In'a'feedback'amplifier,'the'bandwidth'
(a)' Decreases'by'the'same'amount'as' (b)' Increases'by'the'same'amount'as'the'
the'gain'decreases' gain'decrease'
(c)' Decreases'by'the'same'amount'as' (d)' Remains'unaffected'
the'gain'decreases'
'
3.''In'a'negative'feedback'system'with'loop'gain'T,'the'noise'generated'within'the'basic'
amplifier'
(a)' decreases'by'a'factor'of'(1<T)' (b)' decreases'by'a'factor'of'(1+T)'
(c)' increases'by'a'factor'of'(1<T)' (d)' remains'unaffected'by'the'feedback'
'
4.''In'a'negative'feedback'system'with'loop'gain'T,'the'noise'as'input'to'the'amplifier'
leads'to''
(a)' increase'in'S/N'ratio'by'(1<T)' (b)' decease'in'S/N'ratio'by'(1+T)'
(c)' increase'in'S/N'ratio'by'(1<T)' (d)' no'effect'on'S/N'ratio'
'
5.''Introduction'of'negative'feedback'in'a'system'does'not'lead'to'reduction'in'
(a)' Bandwidth' (b)' Distortion'
(c)' Instability' (d)' Overall'gain'
'
6.''The'sensitivity'of'a'closed<loop'system'to'gain'changes'and'load'disturbances'
depends'upon'
(a)' Forward'gain' (b)' Loop'gain'
(c)' Frequency' (d)' All'of'these'
'
7.''In'a'feedback'system'the'transient'response'
(a)' decays'at'a'constant'rate' (b)' gets'magnified'
(c)' decays'slowly' (d)' decays'more'quickly'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
8.''The'frequency'and'time'domain'are'related'through'
(a)' Laplace'transform' (b)' Fourier'integral'
(c)' Laplace'transform'of'Fourier' (d)' Laplace'transform'and'Fourier'
integral' integral'
'
9.''The'characteristic'equation'of'a'second'order'system'is'given'by'! " + 2%&' ! + &'" =
0.'The'term'&' 'is'called'
(a)' Overdamped'natural'frequency' (b)' Undamed'natural'frequency'
(c)' Undamped'critical'frequency' (d)' None'of'these'
'
10.'In'the'above'equation,'the'term'ξ'is'called'
(a)' Pole'factor' (b)' Stability'factor''
(c)' Damping'factor' (d)' Frequency'factor'
'
11.''In'the'above'system,'if'ξ=1,'the'poles'of'the'transfer'function'will'be'
(a)' Real'and'equal'' (b)' Imaginary'and'equal'
(c)' Complex'conjugate' (d)' Over'damped'
12.''In'the'same'system,'if'ξ'='1,'the'system'is'
(a)' Underdamped' (b)' Absolutely'damped'
(c)' Critically'damped' (d)' Overdamped'
'
13.''In'the'system,'if'ξ'='1,'the'system'exhibits'
(a)' Large'undershoot' (b)' Large'overshoot'
(c)' Small'overshoot' (d)' No'overshoot'
'
14.'In'the'same'system,'if'ξ'>'1,'the'poles'are'
(a)' Real'and'equal' (b)' Complex'conjugate'
(c)' Imaginary'and'equal' (d)' None'of'these'
'
15.''In'the'same'system,'if'ξ'>'1,'the'system'is'
(a)' Underdamped'' (b)' Absolutely'damped'
(c)' Critically'damped' (d)' Overdamped'
'
16.''In'the'same'system,'If'ξ'>1,'the'system'exhibits''
(a)' Large'overshoot' (b)' Medium'overshoot'
(c)' Small'overshoot' (d)' No'overshoot'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
17.'In'the'same'system'if,'ξ'<'1,'the'poles'are'
(a)' Real'and'equal' (b)' Real'and'unequal'
(c)' Imaginary'and'equal' (d)' Complex'conjugate'
'
18.''In'the'same'system,'if'ξ'<'1,'the'system'will'exhibit'
(a)' Damped'response'' (b)' Oscillatory'response'
(c)' An'overshoot' (d)' All'of'these'
'
19.''In'the'same'system','if'ξ'='0,'the'poles'are'
(a)' ±+&' ' (b)' ±+&'" '
(c)' ±+%&' ' (d)' ±+%&'" '
'
20.''Error'constants'of'system'are'a'measure'of''
(a)' Steady<state'response' (b)' Transient<state'response'
(c)' Relative'stability' (d)' Steady<state'as'well'as'transient'
response'
'
21.''Static'error'coefficients'are'used'as'a'measure'of'the'effectiveness'of'closed<loop'
systems'for'specified'
(a)' Position'input'signal' (b)' Velocity'input'signal'
(c)' Acceleration'input'signal' (d)' All'of'these'
'
22.''Velocity'error'constant'of'a'system'is'measured'when'the'input'of'the'system'is'
(a)' Unit'step'function' (b)' Unit'ramp'function'
(c)' Unit'impulse'function' (d)' Unit'parabolic'function'
'
23.''Bandwidth'is'used'as'means'of'specifying'performance'of'a'control'system'related'
to'
(a)' Relative'stability'of'the'system' (b)' The'speed'of'the'response'
(c)' The'constant'gain' (d)' All'of'these'
'
24.''In'control'systems,'excessive'bandwidth'should'be'avoided'because'
(a)' Noise'is'proportional'to' (b)' It'leads'to'low'relative'stability'
bandwidth'
(c)' It'leads'to'slow'speed'of'response' (d)' None'of'these'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
25.''Settling'time'of'a'second<order'system'for'damping'ratio'ξ'and'frequency'&' 'is'
given'by'
(a)' 4%&- ' (b)' 4&-
'
%
(c)' 4 (d)' %&- '
'
%&-
'
26.''For'underdamped'second'order'system,'the'poles'are'
(a)' Negative'and'real' (b)' Imaginary'and'complex'
(c)' Complex'conjugates'with'negative' (d)' Positive'and'real'
real'parts'
'
27.''In'most'systems,'an'increase'in'gain'leads'to'
(a)' Larger'damping'ratio' (b)' Smaller'damping'ratio'
(c)' Constant'damping'ratio' (d)' None'of'these'
'
28.''In'a'system'if'the'poles'lie'off'the'real'axis,'then'the'system'is'
(a)' Overdamped' (b)' Critically'damped'
(c)' Underdamped' (d)' None'of'these'
'
29.''If'a'system'has'only'two'poles'(each'having'a'negative'real'part)'then'its'damping'
ratio'is'
(a)' Zero' (b)' Non<zero'
(c)' Infinity' (d)' None'of'these'
'
30.''The'transfer'function'of'a'first<order'control'system'is'of'the'type'
(a)' 1 (b)' 1
' '
/! " + 1 /! + 1
(c)' /!' (d)' 1
'
/!
'
31.''The'transfer'function'of'an'integral'controller'is'of'the'type'
(a)' 01 ' (b)' /!'
(c)' 1 (d)' 1
' '
/! /! + 1
'
32.''The'transfer'function'of'a'proportional'controller'is'of'the'type'
(a)' 0' (b)' 0'
(c)' 0' (d)' 1
'
/! + 1
'
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
33.''The'transfer'function'of'a'rate'controller'is'of'the'type'
41.'Conditionally'stable'system'is'one'which'exhibits'poor'stability'at'
(a)' Increased'values'of'open<loop' (b)' Reduced'values'of'open<loop'gain'
gain'
(c)' Low'frequencies' (d)' None'of'these'
'
42.''The'position'and'velocity'errors'of'a'type<2'system'are'
(a)' Constant,'infinity' (b)' Zero,'constant'
(c)' Zero,'zero' (d)' Constant,'constant'
'
B
43.''The'open'loop'transfer'function'type'of'7 ! = C '
5 DE5
(a)' Type'zero'system' (b)' Type<1'system'
(c)' Type<2'system' (d)' Type<3'system'
'
44.''In'the's<plane,'the'unstable'region'is'
(a)' Second'and'third'quadrants' (b)' First'and'fourth'quadrants'including'
including'imaginary'axis' imaginary'axis'except'the'origin'
(c)' First'and'second'quadrants' (d)' Second'and'fourth'quadrants'
including'real'axis' including'real'axis'except'the'origin'
'
45.''A'system'has'some'roots'with'real'parts'equal'to'zero,'but'none'with'positive'real'
parts'is'
(a)' Absolutely'stable' (b)' Relatively'stable'
(c)' Marginally'stable' (d)' Absolutely'unstable'
'
'
46.''A'system'has'poles'at'<1'and'<5'and'zeros'at'1'and'<2,'the'system'is'
(a)' Stable' (b)' Unstable'
(c)' Marginally'stable' (d)' Highly'stable'
'
47.''The'characteristic'equation'of'a'system'has'roots'with'negative'real'parts'if'and'only'
if'elements'of'the'first'column'of'the'Routh’s'table'have'
(a)' Positive'sign' (b)' Negative'sign'
(c)' Same'sign' (d)' Alternative'positive'and'negative'
signs'
'
48.''According'to'the'Routh<Hurwitz'Criterion,'the'roots'of'a'polynomial'F(s)'='0'all'lie'in'
the'left'half'of'the's<plane'if'
(a)' All'the'elements'of'the'first'row'of' (b)' All'the'elements'of'the'first'column'
the'routh’s'tabulation'are'of'the' are'of'the'same'sign'
same'sign'
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
55.''Gain'margin'is'the'reciprocal'of'gain'at'the'frequency'at'which'the'phase'angle'
become'
(a)' 0°' (b)' 90°'
(c)' 180°' (d)' 270°'
56.''Gain'cross'over'frequency'is'defined'as'
(a)' │7 +& J(+&│ = 1' (b)' │7 +& J(+&│ = 0'
(c)' │7 +& J(+&│ = K' (d)' 1
│7 +& J(+&│ = '
2
'
57.''A'position<control'system'is'a''
(a)' Automatic'regulating'system' (b)' Process'control'system'
(c)' Servomechanism' (d)' Stochastic'control'system'
'
58.''A'temperature'control'system'is'known'as''
(a)' Process'control'system' (b)' Servomechanism'
(c)' Cascade'control'system' (d)' None'of'these'
'
59.''A'system'has'the'transfer'function'(1<s)/(1+s).'It'is'known'as''
(a)' Low'pass'system' (b)' High<pass'system'
(c)' All<pass'system' (d)' None'of'these'
'
B
60.'Transfer'function'7 ! = .'This'open'loop'system'is'
DE5H
(a)' Stable' (b)' Unstable'
(c)' Marginally'stable' (d)' Conditionally'stable'
'
61.''The'type'number'of'a'transfer'function'denotes'
(a)' The'number'of'poles'at'origin' (b)' The'number'of'zeros'at'origin'
(c)' The'number'of'finite'poles' (d)' The'number'of'poles'at'infinity'
'
62.''Which'input'yields'natural'response?'
(a)' Step'input' (b)' Sinusoidal'input'
(c)' Impulse'input' (d)' Ramp'input'
'
63.''If'the'system'has'multiple'poles'on'the'jω'axis'the'system'is'
(a)' Stable' (b)' Unstable'
(c)' Marginally'stable' (d)' Conditionally'stable'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
D
64.''Given,'7 ! = ,'the'system'is'
5 DEM5
(a)' Stable' (b)' Unstable'
(c)' Marginally'stable' (d)' Unconditionally'stable'
'
65.''Sinusoidal'oscillators'are''
(a)' Stable' (b)' Marginally'stable'
(c)' Unstable' (d)' Conditionally'stable'
'
66.''The'gain'of'a'system'is'10'at'some'frequency.'In'terms'of'dB,'it'is'
(a)' 0'dB' (b)' 1'dB'
(c)' 20'dB' (d)' 100'dB'
'
67.''If'the'gain'of'the'open<loop'system'is'doubled,'the'gain'margin''
(a)' Is'not'affected'' (b)' Get'doubled'
(c)' Becomes'half' (d)' Become'one<fourth'
'
'
68.''An'ON<OFF'controller'is'
(a)' P'controller' (b)' Integral'controller'
(c)' Non<linear'controller' (d)' PID'controller'
'
69.''The'term'‘reset’control'refers'to'
(a)' Proportional'control' (b)' Integral'control'
(c)' Derivative'control' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
DE.N5
70.''The'transfer'function' .'It'represents'a'
DE5
(a)' Lead'network' (b)' Lag'network'
(c)' Lag<lead'network' (d)' Proportional'controller'
'
71.''The'open'loop'control'system'is'one'in'which''
(a)' Output'is'dependent'on'control' (b)' Output'is'independent'of'control'
input' input'
(c)' Only'system'parameters'have' (d)' None'of'these'
effect'on'the'control'output'
'
72.''Transfer'function'of'a'system'is'used'to'calculate''
(a)' The'steady'state'gain' (b)' The'main'constant'
(c)' The'order'of'the'system' (d)' The'output'for'any'given'input'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
73.''The'frequency'and'time'domain'are'related'through'
(a)' Laplace'transform' (b)' Fourier'integral'
(c)' Laplace'transform'or'Fourier' (d)' Laplace'transform'and'Fourier'
integral' integral'
'
74.''The'Laplace'transform'of'unit'step'function'and'ramp'functions'respectively'are'
(a)' 1 1 (b)' 1 1
, ' , '
!" ! ! !"
(c)' 1 1 (d)' 1 1
, P' , '
! ! !P !
'
75.''The'inverse'Laplace'transform'of'2/(1+s)'is'
(a)' 2 @ + 1 ' (b)' 2= QR '
(c)' 2=' (d)' 2= Q"R '
'
76.''The'characteristic'equation'of'a'second<order'system'is'given'by'! " + 2%&' ! +
&'" = 0.'The'term'S' 'is'called'
(a)' Overdamped'natural''frequency' (b)' Undamped'natural'frequency'
(c)' Undamped'critical'frequency' (d)' None'of'these'
'
77.''The'root'loci'of'a'system'has'three'asymptotes.'The'system'can'have'
(a)' Three'poles' (b)' Five'poles'and'two'zeros'
(c)' Four'poles'and'one'zero' (d)' All'of'these'
'
78.''Which'following'statement'is'not'true'for'root'locus'technique?'
(a)' It'is'used'to'obtain'closed<loop' (b)' It'is'more'useful'for'single<input'
pole'configured'from'open<loop' single<ouyput'systems'
poles'and'zeros'
(c)' It'provides'the'pattern'of' (d)' None'of'these'
movement'of'closed<loop'poles'
when'open<loop'gain'varies'
'
79.''Band<width'is'used'as'a'means'of'specifying'performance'of'a'control'system'
related'to'
(a)' Relative'stability'of'the'system' (b)' The'speed'of'response'
(c)' The'constant'gain' (d)' All'of'these'
'
80.''Which'of'the'following'terms'is'not'specification'of'a'control'system?'
(a)' Band<width' (b)' Time<response'
(c)' Phase'margin' (d)' Nyquist'plot'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
81.''Adding'of'poles'in'the'transfer'function'causes'
(a)' Lag'compensation' (b)' Lead'compensation'
(c)' Lead'lag'compensation' (d)' None'of'these'
'
82.''Adding'of'zeros'in'transfer'function'causes'
(a)' Lag'compensation' (b)' Lead'compensation'
(c)' Lead'lag'compensation' (d)' None'of'these'
'
83.''The'best'method'for'determining'the'stability'and'transient'response'is'
(a)' Bode'plot' (b)' Nyquist'plot'
(c)' Root'locus' (d)' None'of'these'
'
84.''Which'of'the'following'elements'is'not'used'in'an'automatic'control'system?'
(a)' Sensor' (b)' Error'detector'
(c)' Oscillator' (d)' Final'control'element'
'
T
85.''A'unity'feedback'system'has'transfer'function'7 ! = ,'is'
5 5EP
(a)' Natural'frequency'='9' (b)' Natural'Frequency'='3'
(c)' Damping'ratio'='0.6' (d)' Damping'ratio'='0.8'
'
B
86.''The'transfer'function'of'a'unity'feedback'system'is'7 ! = .'The'range'of'
5 5ED 5EN
k'for'stable'operation'is''
(a)' 0<K<30' (b)' K>40'
(c)' k>0' (d)' none'of'these'
'
87.''The'characteristic'equation'of'a'unity'feedback'system'is'given'by'! P + ! " + 4! +
4 = 0'is'
(a)' The'system'has'one'pole'in'RH's< (b)' The'system'has'no'pole'in'RH's<plane'
plane'
(c)' The'system'is'asymptotically' (d)' None'of'these'
stable'
'
88.''In'force<current'analogy,'mass'is'analogous'to'
(a)' Current' (b)' Resistance'
(c)' Capacitance' (d)' Voltage'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
97.''With'feedback'system'
(a)' The'transient'response'gets' (b)' The'transient'response'decays'at'a'
magnified' constant'rate'
(c)' The'transient'response'decays' (d)' The'transient'response'decays'more'
slowly' quickly'
'
98.''An'ideal'potentiometer'should'have'
(a)' A'fine'wire' (b)' Zero'resolution'
(c)' An'infinite'resolution' (d)' None'of'these'
'
99.''The'resolution'of'potentiometer'should'be'
(a)' Zero' (b)' Low'
(c)' Very'high' (d)' Infinity'
'
100.'One'of'the'disadvantages'of'a'servomotor'is'that'
(a)' It'has'low'starting'torque' (b)' It'develops'commutation'problem'
(c)' It'has'low'reliability' (d)' It'can'handle'only'light'loads'
'
101.'A'techno<generator'is'used'for'the'measurement'of'
(a)' Displacement' (b)' Speed'
(c)' Acceleration' (d)' Speed'and'acceleration'
'
102.''The'state<variable'representation'is'preferred'
(a)' To'make'a'plane'simple'and'to' (b)' To'reduce'the'sensitivity'to'the'plant'
control'the'transient'response' parameter'variations'
(c)' To'increase'sensitivity'to'the'plant' (d)' None'of'these''
parameter'variations'
'
103.'The'state'transition'matrix'for'the'system>] = ^] + _`'is'given'by'
(a)' = aR ' (b)' = QbR '
(c)' 1 aR (d)' 1 QaR
= ' = '
2 2
'
104.'Which'of'the'following'system'provides'excellent'transient'as'well'as'steady<state'
response?'
(a)' Proportional'action' (b)' Proportional'+'Integral'action'
(c)' Proportional'+'Differential'action' (d)' Proportional'+'Integral'+'Differential'
action'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
105.'The'value'of'compressed'air'used'in'pneumatic'instrumentation'system'is'
(a)' 1>cV/de" ' (b)' 1.4>cV/de" '
(c)' 2>cV/de" ' (d)' 6>cV/de" '
'
106.'The'medium'in'pneumatic'system'is'
(a)' Liquid' (b)' Air'
(c)' Oil' (d)' Helium'
'
107.'In'pneumatic'systems,'electrical'resistance'is'analogous'to'a''
(a)' Restriction'to'flow' (b)' Volume'of'air'
(c)' Restriction'to'flow' (d)' Volume'of'air'
'
108.'In'pneumatic'systems,'electrical'capacitance'is'analogous'to'
(a)' Restriction'to'flow' (b)' Volume'of'air'
(c)' Filled'helical'tube' (d)' None'of'these'
'
109.'Which'of'the'following'elements'is'not'used'in'an'automatic'control'system?'
(a)' Sensor' (b)' Error'detector'
(c)' Oscillator' (d)' Final'control'element'
'
110.'The'output'of'the'controller'in'a'control'system'is'given'to'
(a)' Sensor' (b)' Comparator'
(c)' Amplifier' (d)' Final'control'element'
'
111.'The'input'to'a'controller'is'a'
(a)' Sensed'signal' (b)' Error'signal'
(c)' Desired'variable'value' (d)' Servo'signal'
'
112.'The'error'signal'is'
(a)' The'sum'of'measured'value'and' (b)' The'difference'between'measured'
set'value' value'and'set'value'
(c)' The'ratio'of'measured'value'and' (d)' The'difference'between'set'value'and'
desired'value' output'of'final'control'elements'
'
113.'Essentially'a'controller'is'a'
(a)' Comparator' (b)' Clipper'
(c)' Amplifier' (d)' Sensor'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'TEst' ' Control'Engineering'MCQs'
114.'Which'of'the'following'sequence'is'correct'for'a'three<term'controller?'
(a)' IDP'controller' (b)' PID'controller'
(c)' PDI'controller' (d)' PID'as'well'as'PID'controller'
'
!
!
!
Answers:'Control'Engineering'MCQs'
!
'1.''(d)' 2.'''(b)' ''3.'(a)'' '4.'(b)' '5.'(a)' '6.'(d)' '7.'(d)' '8.'(d)' '9.'(b)' 10.'(c)'
11.'(a)' 12.'(c)' 13.'(d)' 14.'(c)' 15.'(d)' 16.'(d)' 17.'(d)' 18.'(d)' 19.'(c)' 20.'(a)'
21.'(d)' 22.'(b)' 23.'(b)' 24.'(a)' 25.'(c)' 26.'(c)' 27.'(b)' 28.'(c)' 29.'(b)' 30.'(b)'
31.'(c)'' 32.'(a)' 33.'(b)' 34.'(b)' 35.'(c)'' 36.'(d)' 37.'(a)' 38.'(b)''' 39.'(c)'' 40.'(d)'
41.'(b)' 42.'(c)' 43.'(c)' 44.'(b)' 45.'(c)' 46.'(a)' 47.'(c)' 48.'(b)' 49.'(b)'' 50.'(a)'
51.'(d)' 52.'(d)' 53.'(a)' 54.'(a)' 55.'(c)' 56.'(a)' 57.'(c)' 58.'(a)' 59.'(b)' 60.'(b)'
61.'(a)' 62.'(c)' 63.'(b)' 64.'(c)' 65.'(b)' 66.'(c)' 67.'(c)' 68.'(c)' 69.'(b)' 70.'(b)'
71.'(b)' 72.'(d)' 73.'(d)' 74.'(b)' 75.'(b)' 76.'(b)' 77.'(d)' 78.'(d)' 79.'(b)' 80.'(d)'
81.'(b)' 82.'(a)' 83'(c)' 84'(c)' 85'(b)' 86'(a)' 87'(b)' 88.'(c)' 89.'(a)' 90.'(b)'
91.'(c)' 92.'(b)' 93.'(d)' 94.'(a)' 95.'(d)' 96.'(c)' 97.'(c)' 98.'(c)' 99.'(d)' 100.(a)'
101.(b)' 102.(a)' 103.(a)' 104.(d)' 105.(b)' 106.(b)' 107.(a)' 108.(b)' 109.(c)' 110.(d)'
111.(b)' 112.(b)' 113.(a)' 114.(d)' ' ' ' ' ' '
'
Telecommunication systems
Contents
1 Amplitude modulation 1
2 Superheterodyne receiver 3
3 Signal-to-noise ratio 3
5 Pulse-code modulation 6
1
Page: 2 shop.ssbcrack.com
1 Amplitude modulation
• Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication,
most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by
varying the strength (amplitude) of the carrier in proportion to the waveform being
sent. That waveform may, for instance, correspond to the sounds to be reproduced by a
loudspeaker, or the light intensity of television pixels.
• This contrasts with frequency modulation, in which the frequency of the carrier signal
is varied, and phase modulation, in which its phase is varied, by the modulating signal.
• AM was the earliest modulation method used to transmit voice by radio. It was devel-
oped during the first two decades of the 20th century beginning with Reginald Fessenden’s
radiotelephone experiments in 1900. It remains in use today in many forms of commu-
nication; for example it is used in portable two way radios, VHF aircraft radio and in
computer modems.[citation needed] ”AM” is often used to refer to mediumwave AM radio
broadcasting.
• In amplitude modulation, the amplitude or ”strength” of the carrier oscillations is what
is varied. For example, in AM radio communication, a continuous wave radio-frequency
signal (a sinusoidal carrier wave) has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform
before transmission. The audio waveform modifies the amplitude of the carrier wave and
determines the envelope of the waveform.
In the frequency domain, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated
at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth
to that of the modulating signal, and is a mirror image of the other. Standard AM is
thus sometimes called ”double-sideband amplitude modulation” (DSB-AM) to distinguish
it from more sophisticated modulation methods also based on AM.
2 Superheterodyne receiver
In electronics, a superheterodyne receiver (often shortened to superhet) uses frequency mixing
to convert a received signal to a fixed intermediate frequency (IF) which can be more conve-
niently processed than the original radio carrier frequency. It was invented by US engineer
Edwin Armstrong in 1918 during World War I. Virtually all modern radio receivers use the su-
perheterodyne principle. At the cost of an extra frequency converter stage, the superheterodyne
receiver provides superior selectivity and sensitivity compared with simpler designs.
The diagram above shows the minimum requirements for a single-conversion superheterodyne
receiver design. The following essential elements are common to all superheterodyne circuits:
a receiving antenna; a tuned stage, which may optionally contain amplification (RF amplifier);
a variable frequency local oscillator; a frequency mixer; a band pass filter and intermediate
frequency (IF) amplifier; and a demodulator plus additional circuitry to amplify or process the
original audio signal (or other transmitted information).
Circuit description
To receive a radio signal, a suitable antenna is required. This is often built into a receiver,
especially in the case of AM broadcast band radios. The output of the antenna may be very
small, often only a few microvolts. The signal from the antenna is tuned and may be amplified
in a so-called radio frequency (RF) amplifier, although this stage is often omitted. One or more
tuned circuits at this stage block frequencies that are far removed from the intended reception
frequency. In order to tune the receiver to a particular station, the frequency of the local
oscillator is controlled by the tuning knob (for instance). Tuning of the local oscillator and the
RF stage may use a variable capacitor, or varicap diode. The tuning of one (or more) tuned
circuits in the RF stage must track the tuning of the local oscillator.
Notice that the accompanying diagram shows a fixed-frequency local oscillator, as the symbol
is for a fixed-frequency crystal frequency-determining device. A tuneable receiver would show
a variable-frequency oscillator with operational connection to the tuned circuits of the antenna
and radio-frequency amplifier stages.
3 Signal-to-noise ratio
Signal-to-noise ratio (often abbreviated SNR or S/N) is a measure used in science and engineering
that compares the level of a desired signal to the level of background noise. It is defined as the
ratio of signal power to the noise power, often expressed in decibels. A ratio higher than 1:1
(greater than 0 dB) indicates more signal than noise. While SNR is commonly quoted for
electrical signals, it can be applied to any form of signal (such as isotope levels in an ice core or
biochemical signaling between cells).
The signal-to-noise ratio, the bandwidth, and the channel capacity of a communication
channel are connected by the Shannon-Hartley theorem.
Signal-to-noise ratio is sometimes used informally to refer to the ratio of useful information
to false or irrelevant data in a conversation or exchange. For example, in online discussion
forums and other online communities, off-topic posts and spam are regarded as ”noise” that
interferes with the ”signal” of appropriate discussion.
The concepts of signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range are closely related. Dynamic range
measures the ratio between the strongest un-distorted signal on a channel and the minimum
discernible signal, which for most purposes is the noise level. SNR measures the ratio between an
arbitrary signal level (not necessarily the most powerful signal possible) and noise. Measuring
signal-to-noise ratios requires the selection of a representative or reference signal. In audio
engineering, the reference signal is usually a sine wave at a standardized nominal or alignment
level, such as 1 kHz at +4 dBu (1.228 VRMS). SNR is usually taken to indicate an average
signal-to-noise ratio, as it is possible that (near) instantaneous signal-to-noise ratios will be
considerably different. The concept can be understood as normalizing the noise level to 1 (0
dB) and measuring how far the signal ’stands out’.
A2c (1 + ka2 P )
(SNR)C,AM =
2W N0
where W is the bandwidth and ka is modulation index
Output signal-to-noise ratio (of AM receiver) is given by
A2c ka2 P
(SNR)O,AM =
2W N0
• Frequency modulation
Channel signal-to-noise ratio is given by
shop.ssb cra ck.com
A 2
(SNR)C,FM = c
2W N0
Output signal-to-noise ratio is given by
A2c kf2 P
(SNR)O,FM =
2N0 W 3
Digital signals
When a measurement is digitized, the number of bits used to represent the measurement deter-
mines the maximum possible signal-to-noise ratio. This is because the minimum possible noise
level is the error caused by the quantization of the signal, sometimes called Quantization noise.
This noise level is non-linear and signal-dependent; different calculations exist for different signal
models. Quantization noise is modeled as an analog error signal summed with the signal before
quantization (”additive noise”).
This theoretical maximum SNR assumes a perfect input signal. If the input signal is al-
ready noisy (as is usually the case), the signal’s noise may be larger than the quantization
noise. Real analog-to-digital converters also have other sources of noise that further decrease
the SNR compared to the theoretical maximum from the idealized quantization noise, including
the intentional addition of dither.
Although noise levels in a digital system can be expressed using SNR, it is more common to
use Eb /No , the energy per bit per noise power spectral density.
The modulation error ratio (MER) is a measure of the SNR in a digitally modulated signal.
Statement of the theorem: Considering all possible multi-level and multi-phase encoding
techniques, the Shannon-Hartley theorem states the channel capacity C, meaning the theoretical
tightest upper bound on the information rate (excluding error correcting codes) of clean (or
arbitrarily low bit error rate) data that can be sent with a given average signal power S through
• N is the average noise or interference power over the bandwidth, measured in watts (or
volts squared); and
• S/N is the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR) of the commu-
nication signal to the Gaussian noise interference expressed as a linear power ratio (not as
logarithmic decibels).
5 Pulse-code modulation
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It
is the standard form of digital audio in computers, Compact Discs, digital telephony and other
digital audio applications. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the analog signal is sampled
regularly at uniform intervals, and each sample is quantized to the nearest value within a range
of digital steps.
A PCM stream has two basic properties that determine the stream’s fidelity to the original
analog signal: the sampling rate, which is the number of times per second that samples are
taken; and the bit depth, which determines the number of possible digital values that can be
used to represent each sample.
Modulation
In the diagram above, a sine wave (red curve) is sampled and quantized for PCM. The
sine wave is sampled at regular intervals, shown as vertical lines. For each sample, one of the
available values (on the y-axis) is chosen by some algorithm. This produces a fully discrete
representation of the input signal (blue points) that can be easily encoded as digital data for
storage or manipulation. For the sine wave example at right, we can verify that the quantized
values at the sampling moments are 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 15, 15, 14, etc. Encoding these values as
binary numbers would result in the following set of nibbles: 1000(23 ◊1+22 ◊0+21 ◊0+20 ◊0 =
8 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 8), 1001, 1011, 1101, 1110, 1111, 1111, 1111, 1110, etc. These digital values could
then be further processed or analyzed by a digital signal processor. Several PCM streams could
also be multiplexed into a larger aggregate data stream, generally for transmission of multiple
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streams over a single physical link. One technique is called time-division multiplexing (TDM)
and is widely used, notably in the modern public telephone system.
The PCM process is commonly implemented on a single integrated circuit generally referred
to as an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
Demodulation
To recover the original signal from the sampled data, a ”demodulator” can apply the procedure
of modulation in reverse. After each sampling period, the demodulator reads the next value
and shifts the output signal to the new value. As a result of these transitions, the signal has
a significant amount of high-frequency energy caused by aliasing. To remove these undesirable
frequencies and leave the original signal, the demodulator passes the signal through analog
filters that suppress energy outside the expected frequency range (greater than the Nyquist
frequency fs /2 ). The sampling theorem shows PCM devices can operate without introducing
distortions within their designed frequency bands if they provide a sampling frequency twice
that of the input signal. For example, in telephony, the usable voice frequency band ranges
from approximately 300 Hz to 3400 Hz. Therefore, per the Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem,
the sampling frequency (8 kHz) must be at least twice the voice frequency (4 kHz) for effective
reconstruction of the voice signal.
The electronics involved in producing an accurate analog signal from the discrete data are
similar to those used for generating the digital signal. These devices are Digital-to-analog
converters (DACs). They produce a voltage or current (depending on type) that represents
the value presented on their digital inputs. This output would then generally be filtered and
amplified for use.
• Option 1: take the values of two consecutive samples; if they are analog samples, quan-
tize them; calculate the difference between the first one and the next; the output is the
difference, and it can be further entropy coded.
• Option 2: instead of taking a difference relative to a previous input sample, take the
difference relative to the output of a local model of the decoder process; in this option,
the difference can be quantized, which allows a good way to incorporate a controlled loss
in the encoding.
Applying one of these two processes, short-term redundancy (positive correlation of nearby
values) of the signal is eliminated; compression ratios on the order of 2 to 4 can be achieved if
differences are subsequently entropy coded, because the entropy of the difference signal is much
smaller than that of the original discrete signal treated as independent samples.
• The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also known as line coding, is to transfer
a digital bit stream over a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire such as
a serial bus or a wired local area network.
• The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a narrowband analog signal, for
example a phone call over a wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as a
bit stream over another digital transmission system.
1. Amplitude modulation (AM) (here the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accor-
dance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal)
• Frequency modulation (FM) (here the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in
accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal)
• Phase modulation (PM) (here the phase shift of the carrier signal is varied in accor-
dance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal)
• QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation): a finite number of at least two phases and at
least two amplitudes are used.
In QAM, an inphase signal (or I, with one example being a cosine waveform) and a quadrature
phase signal (or Q, with an example being a sine wave) are amplitude modulated with a finite
number of amplitudes, and then summed. It can be seen as a two-channel system, each channel
using ASK. The resulting signal is equivalent to a combination of PSK and ASK.
In all of the above methods, each of these phases, frequencies or amplitudes are assigned a
unique pattern of binary bits. Usually, each phase, frequency or amplitude encodes an equal
number of bits. This number of bits comprises the symbol that is represented by the particular
phase, frequency or amplitude.
If the alphabet consists of M = 2N alternative symbols, each symbol represents a message
consisting of N bits. If the symbol rate (also known as the baud rate) is fS symbols/second (or
baud), the data rate is N fS bit/second.
For example, with an alphabet consisting of 16 alternative symbols, each symbol represents
4 bits. Thus, the data rate is four times the baud rate. In the case of PSK, ASK or QAM,
where the carrier frequency of the modulated signal is constant, the modulation alphabet is
often conveniently represented on a constellation diagram, showing the amplitude of the I signal
at the x-axis, and the amplitude of the Q signal at the y-axis, for each symbol.
1. Group the incoming data bits into codewords, one for each symbol that will be transmitted.
2. Map the codewords to attributes, for example amplitudes of the I and Q signals (the
equivalent low pass signal), or frequency or phase values.
3. Adapt pulse shaping or some other filtering to limit the bandwidth and form the spectrum
of the equivalent low pass signal, typically using digital signal processing.
4. Perform digital to analog conversion (DAC) of the I and Q signals (since today all of the
above is normally achieved using digital signal processing, DSP).
5. Generate a high frequency sine carrier waveform, and perhaps also a cosine quadrature
component. Carry out the modulation, for example by multiplying the sine and cosine
waveform with the I and Q signals, resulting in the equivalent low pass signal being
1. Bandpass filtering.
2. Automatic gain control, AGC (to compensate for attenuation, for example fading).
3. Frequency shifting of the RF signal to the equivalent baseband I and Q signals, or to an
intermediate frequency (IF) signal, by multiplying the RF signal with a local oscillator
sinewave and cosine wave frequency (see the superheterodyne receiver principle).
4. Sampling and analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) (Sometimes before or instead of the
above point, for example by means of undersampling).
5. Equalization filtering, for example a matched filter, compensation for multipath propaga-
tion, time spreading, phase distortion and frequency selective fading, to avoid intersymbol
interference and symbol distortion.
6. Detection of the amplitudes of the I and Q signals, or the frequency or phase of the IF
signal.
7. Quantization of the amplitudes, frequencies or phases to the nearest allowed symbol values.
8. Mapping of the quantized amplitudes, frequencies or phases to codewords (bit groups).
9. Parallel-to-serial conversion of the codewords into a bit stream.
10. Pass the resultant bit stream on for further processing such as removal of any error-
correcting codes.
As is common to all digital communication systems, the design of both the modulator and
demodulator must be done simultaneously. Digital modulation schemes are possible because
the transmitter-receiver pair have prior knowledge of how data is encoded and represented in
the communications system. In all digital communication systems, both the modulator at the
transmitter and the demodulator at the receiver are structured so that they perform inverse
operations.
Non-coherent modulation methods do not require a receiver reference clock signal that is
phase synchronized with the sender carrier wave. In this case, modulation symbols (rather
than bits, characters, or data packets) are asynchronously transferred. The opposite is coherent
modulation.
8. Wavelet modulation
9. Trellis coded modulation (TCM), also known as trellis modulation
MSK and GMSK are particular cases of continuous phase modulation. Indeed, MSK is a
particular case of the sub-family of CPM known as continuous-phase frequency-shift keying
(CPFSK) which is defined by a rectangular frequency pulse (i.e. a linearly increasing phase
pulse) of one symbol-time duration (total response signaling).
1. Analog-over-analog methods:
2. Analog-over-digital methods:
TDMA is a type of Time-division multiplexing, with the special point that instead of having
one transmitter connected to one receiver, there are multiple transmitters. In the case of the
uplink from a mobile phone to a base station this becomes particularly difficult because the
mobile phone can move around and vary the timing advance required to make its transmission
match the gap in transmission from its peers.
TDMA characteristics
• Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users
• Non-continuous transmission makes handoff simpler
• Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA
• Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference
• Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA
• Advanced equalization may be necessary for high data rates if the channel is ”frequency
selective” and creates Intersymbol interference
• Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more complicated than in
CDMA
• Frequency/slot allocation complexity
• Pulsating power envelope: Interference with other devices
3G systems
Although most major 3G systems are primarily based upon CDMA, time division duplexing
(TDD), packet scheduling (dynamic TDMA) and packet oriented multiple access schemes are
available in 3G form, combined with CDMA to take advantage of the benefits of both technolo-
gies.
While the most popular form of the UMTS 3G system uses CDMA and frequency divi-
sion duplexing (FDD) instead of TDMA, TDMA is combined with CDMA and Time Division
Duplexing in two standard UMTS UTRA
• CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile phone standards such as cdmaOne,
CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne), and WCDMA (the 3G standard used by GSM
carriers), which are often referred to as simply CDMA.
Theorem) of the two signals, resulting in a carrier with narrow sidebands. In the digital case,
the sinusoidal carrier is replaced by Walsh functions. These are binary square waves that form a
complete orthonormal set. The data signal is also binary and the time multiplication is achieved
with a simple XOR function. This is usually a Gilbert cell mixer in the circuitry.
Synchronous CDMA exploits mathematical properties of orthogonality between vectors rep-
resenting the data strings. For example, binary string 1011 is represented by the vector (1, 0,
1, 1). Vectors can be multiplied by taking their dot product, by summing the products of their
respective components (for example, if u = (a, b) and v = (c, d), then their dot product u v
= ac + bd). If the dot product is zero, the two vectors are said to be orthogonal to each other.
Some properties of the dot product aid understanding of how W-CDMA works. If vectors a and
b are orthogonal, then a·b = 0 and:
Cellular Concept
Cellular telephone systems must accommodate a large number of users over a large geographic
area with limited frequency spectrum, i.e., with limited number of channels. If a single trans-
mitter/ receiver is used with only a single base station, then sufficient amount of power may
not be present at a huge distance from the BS. For a large geographic coverage area, a high
powered transmitter therefore has to be used. But a high power radio transmitter causes harm
Operational Channels
In each cell, there are four types of channels that take active part during a mobile call. These
are:
• Forward Voice Channel (FVC): This channel is used for the voice transmission from the
BS to the MS.
• Reverse Voice Channel (RVC): This is used for the voice transmission from the MS to the
BS.
• Forward Control Channel (FCC): Control channels are generally used for controlling the
activity of the call, i.e., they are used for setting up calls and to divert the call to unused
voice channels. Hence these are also called setup channels. These channels transmit and
receive call initiation and service request messages. The FCC is used for control signaling
purpose from the BS to MS.
• Reverse Control Channel (RCC): This is used for the call control purpose from the MS to
the BS. Control channels are usually monitored by mobiles
Making a Call
When a mobile is idle, i.e., it is not experiencing the process of a call, then it searches all the
FCCs to determine the one with the highest signal strength. The mobile then monitors this
particular FCC. However, when the signal strength falls below a particular threshold that is
insufficient for a call to take place, the mobile again searches all the FCCs for the one with the
highest signal strength. For a particular country or continent, the control channels will be the
same. So all mobiles in that country or continent will search among the same set of control
channels. However, when a mobile moves to a different country or continent, then the control
channels for that particular location will be different and hence the mobile will not work.
Each mobile has a mobile identification number (MIN). When a user wants to make a call,
he sends a call request to the MSC on the reverse control channel. He also sends the MIN of the
person to whom the call has to be made. The MSC then sends this MIN to all the base stations.
The base station transmits this MIN and all the mobiles within the coverage area of that base
station receive the MIN and match it with their own. If the MIN matches with a particular
MS, that mobile sends an acknowledgment to the BS. The BS then informs the MSC that the
mobile is within its coverage area. The MSC then instructs the base station to access specific
unused voice channel pair. The base station then sends a message to the mobile to move to the
particular channels and it also sends a signal to the mobile for ringing.
In order to maintain the quality of the call, the MSC adjusts the transmitted power of the
mobile which is usually expressed in dB or dBm. When a mobile moves from the coverage area
of one base station to the coverage area of another base station i.e., from one cell to another
cell, then the signal strength of the initial base station may not be sufficient to continue the call
in progress. So the call has to be transferred to the other base station. This is called handoff.
In such cases, in order to maintain the call, the MSC transfers the call to one of the unused
voice channels of the new base station or it transfers the control of the current voice channels
to the new base station.
Technology
Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to convert
an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fiber, a cable containing
bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed through underground conduits and buildings,
multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal.
The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers, telephone
systems, and cable television companies.
Transmitters
The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such as light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The difference between LEDs and laser diodes is that LEDs
produce incoherent light, while laser diodes produce coherent light. For use in optical commu-
nications, semiconductor optical transmitters must be designed to be compact, efficient, and
reliable, while operating in an optimal wavelength range, and directly modulated at high fre-
quencies.
A transceiver is a device combining a transmitter and a receiver in a single housing (see
picture on right).
Receivers
The main component of an optical receiver is a photodetector, which converts light into electric-
ity using the photoelectric effect. The primary photodetectors for telecommunications are made
from Indium gallium arsenide The photodetector is typically a semiconductor-based photodiode.
Several types of photodiodes include p-n photodiodes, p-i-n photodiodes, and avalanche photo-
diodes. Metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors are also used due to their suitability
for circuit integration in regenerators and wavelength-division multiplexers. Optical-electrical
converters are typically coupled with a transimpedance amplifier and a limiting amplifier to
produce a digital signal in the electrical domain from the incoming optical signal, which may be
attenuated and distorted while passing through the channel. Further signal processing such as
clock recovery from data (CDR) performed by a phase-locked loop may also be applied before
the data is passed on.
Communication*System:*MCQs*
'
1.''Modulation'is'primarily'accomplished'to'
(a)' produce'sidebands' (b)' mix'two'waves'of'different'
frequencies'
(c)' transmit'audioDfrequency'signals' (d)' improve'transmission'efficiency'
over'long'distance'
'
2.''In'AM'wave'
(a)' RF'and'AF'waves'are'sent' (b)' carrier'wave'magnitude'varies'with'
alternately' AF'signal'
(c)' RF'signal'should'be'an'even' (d)' RF'signal'should'be'an'even'multiple'
multiple'of'AF'signal' of'AF'signal'
'
3.''The'disadvantage'of'low'level'modulation'system'is'
(a)' High'modulating'power' (b)' Linear'device'is'to'be'used'after'
modulation'
(c)' amplifier'of'large'power'capacity' (d)' amplifier'of'large'bandwidth'is'to'
is'to'be'used'after'modulation' used'after'modulation'
'
4.''Limitation'of'AM'modulation'is/are'
(a)' Noisy'reception' (b)' Low'transmission'efficiency'and'small'
operating'range'
(c)' Poor'audio'quality' (d)' All'of'the'above'''
'
5.''In'an'AM'system,'for'satisfactory'operation,'carrier'frequency'must'be'n'times'the'
bandwidth'of'message'signal.'What'is'the'value'of'n'?'
(a)' >2'''''''''''''' (b)' >5'
(c)' >10' (d)' >50'
'
6.''In'a'100%'amplitude'modulated'signal,'if'the'total'transmitted'power'is'P,'then'
carrier'power'will'be'
(a)' 2/3'P' (b)' 1/2'P'
(c)' 1/3'P' (d)' 1/4'P'
'
07.''Which'one'of'the'following'is'considered'as'an'AM'signal?' '
(a)' Binary'phase'shift'keying'(BPSK)' (b)' Differential'phase'shift'keying'(DPSK)'
(c)' Differential'encoded'PSK' (d)' Quadrature'PSK'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
'
08.''A'modulator'is'a'device'to'
(a)' Separate'two'frequencies' (b)' Impress'the'information'on'to'a'radio'
frequency'carrier'
(c)' Extract'information'from'the' (d)' Amplify'the'audio'frequency'signal'
carrier'
'
'09.'The'collector'modulation'is'commonly'used'because'of'its'following'advantage(s)'
(a)' Good'linearity'and'high'collector' (b)' Low'modulating'power'requirement'
circuit'efficiency'
(c)' Hundred'percent'modulation'can' (d)' All'of'the'above'
be'achieved' '
'
'
10.''Which'of'the'following'modulated'signals'can'be'detected'by'an'envelope'detector?'
(a)' DSBDsuppressed'carrier' (b)' DSBDfull'carrier'
(c)' Frequency'modulated'signal' (d)' SSBDsupported'carrier'
'
11.'One'of'the'advantage'of'base'modulation'over'collector'modulation'of'a'transistor'
Class'C'amplifier'is'
(a)' the'lower'modulating'power' (b)' higher'power'output'per'transistors'
required'
(c)' better'efficiency' (d)' better'linearity'
'
'
12.'The'demodulation'of'a'delta'modulated'signal'is'achieved'by:'
(a)' integration' (b)' differentiation'
(c)' sampling' (d)' band'pass'filtering'
'
13.'“Slope'overload”'occurs'in'delta'modulation'when'the''
(a)' frequency'of'the'clock'pulses'is' (b)' rate'of''change'of'analog'waveform'is'
too'low' too'large'
(c)' step'size'is'too'small' (d)' analog'signal'varies'very'slowly'with'
time'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
14.''The'most'useful'modulation'technique'for'high'fidelity'audio'broadcasting'on'radio'
in'current'practices'is'
(a)' amplitude'modulation' (b)' frequency'modulation'
(c)' pulse'amplitude'modulation' (d)' pulse'code'modulation'
'
15.''In'frequency'modulation'
(a)' the'frequency'of'the'carrier' (b)' the'amplitude'of'carrier'remains'
remains'constant' constant'
'
(c)' the'amplitude'of'the'carrier'wave' (d)' the'frequency'of'the'signal'is'made'
is'varied' equal'to'the'carrier'frequency'
'
16.'Consider'the'following'statements'about'FM:'
''
1.! Modulation'index'determines'the'number'of'significant'sideband'components.'
2.! Theoretical'bandwidth'is'infinite.'
3.! Carrier'suppression'is'not'possible.'
4.! Sidebands'are'not'symmetric'about'carrier.'
Which'of'the'above'statements'is/are'correct?'
(a)' 1,2,3'and'4' (b)' 1'and'2'only'
(c)' 3'and'4'only' (d)' 3'only'
'
17.'Which'one'of'the'following'factors'is'limited'in'case'of'F.M.?'
(a)' Maximum'frequency'deviation' (b)' Maximum'permissible'modulation'
index'
(c)' Signal'to'noise'voltage'ration' (d)' Minimum'permissible'modulation'
index'
'
18.'Which'of'the'following'are'the'advantages'of'FM'broadcasting'over'AM'
broadcasting?'
1.! Better'S/N'radio'
2.! Not'subject'to'signal'fading'
3.! Power'efficiency'is'superior'
4.! Demodulation'is'simpler'
Select'the'correct'answer'from'the'code'given'below:'
(a)' 1'and'2' (b)' 1,2'and'4'
(c)' 2,3'and'4' (d)' 1'and'3'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
'
19.'Why'does'an'FM'radio'station'perform'better'than'an'AM'station'radiating'the'same'
total'power?'
(a)' FM'is'immune'to'noise' (b)' AM'has'only'two'sidebands'while'FM'
has'more'
(c)' FM'uses'large'bandwidth'for'large' (d)' Capture'effect'appears'in'FM'
modulation'depth' '
'
20.'In'phase'modulation,'phase'deviation'is'proportional'to''
(a)' carrier'amplitude' (b)' carrier'phase'
(c)' message'signal' (d)' message'signal'frequencies'
'
21.'Which'one'of'the'following'in'an'indirect'way'of'generating'FM?'
(a)' Reactance'FET'modulator' (b)' Varactor'diode'modulator'
(c)' Armstrong'modulator' (d)' Reactance'tube'modulator'
'
22.'The'most'common'detector'used'in'an'AM'radio'broadcast'receiver'is'
(a)' envelope'detector' (b)' coherent'detector'
(c)' discriminator' (d)' ratio'detector''
'
23.'What'is'the'automatic'frequency'control'voltage'of'the'FM'transmitter'VCO?'
(a)' DC'voltage' (b)' Sine'wave'voltage'
(c)' Square'wave'voltage' (d)' Ramp'voltage'
'
24.'The'main'advantage'of'preDemphasis'circuit'in'FM'transmitter'is'
(a)' to'increase'the'carrier'power' (b)' to'improve'the'signal'to'noise'ratio'at'
low'audio'frequencies'
(c)' to'increase'the'bandwidth'of'side' (d)' to'improve'the'signal'to'noise'ratio'at'
band' high'audio'frequencies'
25.'PLL'demodulators'are'now'used'in'commercial'receivers'because'of'which'of'the'
following:'
1.! PLL'demodulators'do'not'exhibit'threshold'in'S/N'performance''
2.! No'requirement'of'preDemphasis'and'deDemphasis'
3.! Cheap'PLL'ICs'are'available'
Select'the'correct'answer'using'the'code'given'below:'
(a)' 1'and'2'only' (b)' 2'and'3'only'
(c)' 1'and'3'only' (d)' 1,'2'and'3'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
26.''MSK'(Minimum'Shift'Keying)'is'an'orthogonal'FSK'scheme'that'gets'its'name'from'
the'fact'that'
(a)' the'phase'shift'is'minimum' (b)' the'error'probability'is'minimum'
(c)' the'transmission'power'required' (d)' the'transmission'bandwidth'required'
is'minimum' is'minimum'
'
27.''Which'one'of'the'following'is'a'disadvantage'of'digital'transmission'as'compared'to'
analog'transmission?'
(a)' Digital'signals'cannot'be' (b)' Digital'transmission'is'less'immune'to'
multiplexed'efficiently' channel'noise'
(c)' Digital'signals'needs'to'be'coded' (d)' Digital'transmission'needs'more'
before'transmission' bandwidth'
'
28.''Which'one'of'the'following'pulse'communications'systems'is'digital?'
(a)' PAM' (b)' PCM'
(c)' PPM' (d)' PWM'
'
29.'PPM'signal'is'
(a)' differentiation'of'PWM' (b)' integration'PWM'
(c)' differentiation'of'PAM' (d)' not'related'to'PWM'or'PAM'
'
30.''In'digital'communication'system,'the'data'transmission'rate'is'specified'in'
(a)' MHz' (b)' bits/second'
(c)' bytes/seconds' (d)' bauds'
'
31.'In'differential'PCM,'each'word'indicates'
(a)' difference'between'a'sample' (b)' difference'in'amplitude'between'a'
amplitude'and'a'reference'signal' sample'and'the'previous'sample.'
(c)' addition'of'a'sample'amplitude' (d)' addition'of'amplitude'of'a'sample'
and'a'reference'signal' and'the'previous'sample'
'
32.'Consider'the'following'statements:'
The'thermal'noise'power'generated'by'a'resistor'is'proportional'to''
1.! the'value'of'the'resistor'
2.! the'absolute'temperature'
3.! the'bandwidth'over'which'it'is'measured'
4.! the'Boltzmann’s'constant'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
which'of'the'above'statement'is/are'correct?'
(a)' 1,2'and'3' (b)' 2'only'
(c)' 2'and'3'only' (d)' 2,3'and'4''
'
33.''Quantizing'noise'occurs'in'
(a)' Pulse'width'modulation' (b)' Frequency'division'multiplexing'
(c)' Pulse'code'modulation' (d)' Time'division'multiplexing'
'
34.'For'which'of'the'following'systems,'the'signal'to'noise'ratio'is'the'highest?'
(a)' PAM' (b)' PWM'
(c)' PPM' (d)' PAM'and'PWM'
'
35.''The'most'noise'immune'system'is'
(a)' SSB' (b)' PCM'
(c)' PDM' (d)' PWM'
'
'
36.''Which'one'of'the'following'pairs'is'not'correctly'matched?'
(a)' DSMDSC'modulation:'balanced' (b)' PCM:'PreDemphasis'
modulator'
(c)' FM:'Reactance'modulator' (d)' SSB'modulation:'Weaver’s'method'
'
'
37.''The'types'of'modulation'used'generally'in'TV'transmission'for'video'and'audio'
signals,'respectively,'are'
(a)' FM'and'AM' (b)' FM'and'FM'
(c)' AM'and'AM' (d)' AM'and'FM'
'
38.''Consider'the'following'statements:'
'
1.! An'active'satellite'is'one'carrying'a'receiver,'a'transmitter'and'power'supplies'
2.! A'passive'satellite'is'simply'a'metallized'sphere'reflecting'radio'signals'back'to'the'
earth'
'
Which'of'the'statements'given'above'is/are'correct?'
(a)' 1'only' (b)' 2'only'
(c)' Both'1'and'2' (d)' Neither'1'nor'2'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
39.'What'is'the'reason'for'using'frequencies'of'the'order'of'few'GHz'in'satellite'
communication?'
(a)' Antenna'sizes'are'small'and' (b)' Helical'antennas'can'be'used'at'these'
ionosphere'does'not'reflect' frequencies'
frequencies'
(c)' Frequencies'can'pass'through' (d)' Easy'availability'of'components'at'
ionosphere'without'attenuation' these'frequencies'
'
40.''Which'one'of'the'following'is'correct?'In'satellite'communication'links,'generally,'
(a)' the'uplink'carrier'frequencies'are' (b)' the'uplink'carrier'frequencies'are'
greater'than'downlink'carrier' lesser'than'downlink'carrier'
frequencies' frequencies'
(c)' both'uplink'and'downlink'carrier' (d)' it'is'not'necessary'to'use'carrier'at'all'
frequencies'are'same'
'
41.'Which'one'of'the'following'is'the'correct'statement?'If'the'value'of'a'resistor'
creating'thermal'noise'is'doubled,'the'noise'generated'is'
(a)' halved' (b)' doubled'
(c)' unchanged' (d)' slightly'changed'
'
42.'Which'one'of'the'following'is'the'correct'statement?'If'the'channel'bandwidth'is'
doubled,'the'S/N'ratio'becomes'
(a)' double'of'the'former'S/N'ratio' (b)' double'of'the'former'S/N'ratio'
(c)' half'of'the'former'S/N'ratio' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
43.'Which'one'of'the'following'is'correct?'
(a)' Coding'reduces'the'noise'in'the' (b)' Coding'reduces'the'noise'in'the'signal'
signal'
(c)' Coding'increases'the'information' (d)' Coding'increases'the'channel'band'
rate' bandwidth'
'
44.'The'capacity'of'a'channel'is'given'by'the'
(a)' number'of'digits'used'in'coding' (b)' volume'of'information'it'can'take'
(c)' maximum'rate'of'information' (d)' bandwidth'required'for'information'
transmitted'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
45.''If'large'amount'of'information'is'to'be'transmitted'in'a'small'amount'of'time,'we'
require'
(a)' LowDfrequency'signals' (b)' Narrowband'signals'
(c)' Wideband'signals' (d)' HighDfrequency'signals'
'
'
46.''Cavity'resonators'are'used'in'
(a)' MF'band' (b)' HF'band'
(c)' VHF'band' (d)' SHF'band'
'
47.'What'is'the'main'objective'of'trellis'coding?'
(a)' To'narrow'the'bandwidth' (b)' To'simplify'modulation''
(c)' To'increase'the'data'rate' (d)' To'reduce'the'error'rate'
'
48.'Light'travels'along'the'optical'fibres'by'which'mechanism?'
(a)' Refraction' (b)' Reflection'
(c)' Scattering' (d)' Total'internal'reflection'
'
49.'A'single'mode'fibre'does'not'suffer'from'which'type'of'dispersion?'
(a)' Waveguide'dispersion' (b)' Material'dispersion'
(c)' Intermodal'dispersion' (d)' Polarization'mode'dispersion'
'
50.''Which'of'the'following'introduces'mode'partition'noise?'
(a)' Coaxial'line' (b)' Waveguide'
(c)' Fibre'transmission'line' (d)' Both'coaxial'line'and'waveguide'
'
51.''In'FDM'systems'used'for'telephone,'which'modulation'scheme'is'adopted?'
(a)' AM' (b)' DSBDSC'
(c)' SSBDSC' (d)' FM'
'
52.''Consider'the'following'statements:'If'the'maximum'range'of'a'radar'has'to'be'
doubled,'
(a)' the'peak'transmitted'power'may' (b)' the'antenna'diameter'may'be'
be'increased'16'fold' doubled'
'
(c)' the'sensitivity'of'the'receiver'may' (d)' the'transmitted'pulse'width'may'be'
be'doubled' doubled'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
'
53.''Telemetry'processes'the'information'from'a'remote'location'by'means'of''
(a)' mechanical'means' (b)' electrical'means'
(c)' CRO' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
54.''The'most'commonly'used'transmission'channels'are'
(a)' cables' (b)' radio'links'
(c)' pneumatic' (d)' both'(a)'and'(b)'
'
'
55.'The'position'telemetering'system'using'synchros'is'
(a)' a'pulse'telemetering'system' (b)' a'rf'telemetering'system'
(c)' a'dc'telemetering'system' (d)' an'ac'telemetering'system'
'
56.''Which'one'of'the'following'telemetering'system'is'a'digital'system?'
(a)' Pulse'code'modulation'(PCM)' (b)' Position'telemetering'system'using'
system' synchros'
(c)' DC'voltage'telemetering'system' (d)' Pulse'duration'modulation'(PDM)'
'
'
57.''What'are'the'three'steps'in'generating'PCM'in'the'correct'sequence?'
(a)' Sampling,'quantizing'and' (b)' Encoding,'sampling'and'quantizing'
encoding'
(c)' Sampling'encoding'and'quantizing' (d)' Quantizing,'sampling'and'encoding'
'
58.''Which'one'of'the'following'modulation'techniques'is'the'most'efficient'for'pulse'
telemetry?'
(a)' PAM' (b)' PCM'
(c)' PDM' (d)' PPM'
'
59.'When'system'noise'is'large'and'signal'power'is'low'in'telemetry'system,'what'is'the'
preferred'form'of'modulation?'
(a)' PulseDwidth'modulation' (b)' PulseDamplitude'modulation'
(c)' PulseDcode'modulation' (d)' PulseDposition'modulation'
'
' '
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
60.'Which'signaling'scheme'is'most'affected'by'noise?'
(a)' ASK' (b)' FSK'
(c)' PSK' (d)' QAM'
'
61.''Which'one'of'the'following'modulation'technique'is'most'affected'by'noise?'
(a)' ASK' (b)' PSK'
(c)' FSK' (d)' MSK'
'
62.''Which'one'of'the'following'systems'offers'the'best'trade'off'between'bandwidth'
and'S/N'ratio'
(a)' PAM' (b)' PDM'
(c)' PPM' (d)' PCM'
'
63.'Which'of'the'following'pulse'communication'system'is'inherently'immune'to'noise?'
(a)' PPM' (b)' PCM'
(c)' PWM' (d)' PAM'
'
64.''Compounding'is'used'
(a)' to'overcome'quantisting''noise'in' (b)' in'PWM'receivers'to'reduce'impulse'
PCM' noise'
(c)' to'protect'small'signal'in'PC'from' (d)' none'of'the'above'
quantisting'noise'
'
65.''PDM'is'generated'by'using'
(a)' monostable'multivibrator' (b)' free'running'multivibrator'
(c)' bistable'multivibrator' (d)' JK'flip'flop'
'
66.''If'large'amount'of'information'is'to'be'transmitted'in'a'small'amount'of'time,'we'
require'
(a)' lowDfrequency'signals' (b)' narrowband'signals'
(c)' wideband'signals' (d)' highDfrequency'signals'
'
'
67.''In'comparison'to'PPM,'the'PDM'has'the'disadvantage'of'requiring''
(a)' more'samples'per'second' (b)' powerful'transmitter'
(c)' pulses'of'larger'widths' (d)' none'of'the'above''
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
68.''In'comparison'of'PPM,'which'of'the'following'statements'is/are'true'for'PDM?'
(a)' The'pulse'amplitude'in'PDM' (b)' The'PDM'transmitter'should'be'able'
remains'constant' to'handle'maximum'width'pulse'
(c)' PDM'will'still'work'if' (d)' all'of'the'above'
synchronization'between'
transmitter'and'receiver'fails'
'
69.'PPM'
(a)' needs'constant'transmitter'power' (b)' can'be'generated'from'PDM'
output'
(c)' depends'upon'transmitter' (d)' all'of'the'above'
receiver'synchronization' '
'
70.'Which'of'the'following'pulse'systems'needs'higher'bandwidth?'
(a)' PPM' (b)' PAM'
(c)' PDM' (d)' none'of'these'
'
71.''PCM'
(a)' is'a'digital'system' (b)' is'inherently'most'noise'resistant'
(c)' has'no'carrierDwave'equivalent' (d)' all'of'the'above'
'
72.''Which'of'the'following'pulse'modulations'are'digital?'
1.! PCM'
2.! Differential'PCM'
3.! PWM'
Select'the'correct'answer'using'the'code'given'below:'
(a)' 1'and'2'only' (b)' 2'and'3'only'
(c)' 1'and'3'only' (d)' 1,2'and'3'
'
73.''Which'one'of'the'following'circuits'transmits'two'messages'simultaneously'in'one'
direction?'
(a)' Duplex' (b)' Diplex'
(c)' Simplex' (d)' Quadruplex'
'
74.''A'PWM'signal'can'be'generated'by'
(a)' an'astable'multivibrator'' (b)' a'monostable'multivibrator'
(c)' integrating'a'PPM'signal' (d)' differentiating'a'PPM'signal'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
75.''In'PCM'
(a)' noise'is'removed'by'regenerating' (b)' noiseDfree'signal'is'transmitted'at'
pulses'at'each'repeater'station' each'repeater'station'
(c)' only'noise'on'the'link'between' (d)' all'of'the'above'
repeater'stations'is'to'be' '
considered'
'
76.''Which'one'of'the'following'statement'is'correct?'
Quantising'noise'is'produced'in'
(a)' all'pulse'modulation'systems' (b)' PCM'
(c)' All'modulation'systems' (d)' PDM'
'
77.''The'noise'is'reduced'by'
(a)' using'redundancy' (b)' increasing'the'transmitted'power'
(c)' reducing'the'signaling'rate' (d)' all'of'the'above'
'
78.''Which'one'of'the'following'multiplexing'technique'involves'signal'composed'of'light'
beams?'
(a)' CDM' (b)' FDM'
(c)' TDM' (d)' WDM'
'
79.''In'case'of'data'transmission,'which'one'of'the'following'systems'will'give'the'
maximum'probability'error?'
(a)' ASK' (b)' FSK'
(c)' PSK' (d)' DPSK'
'
80.''A'handshake'signal'in'a'data'transfer'is'transmitted'
(a)' along'with'the'data'bits' (b)' before'the'data'transfer'
(c)' after'the'data'transfer' (d)' either'along'with'the'data'bits'or'
after'the'data'transfer''
'
81.''Which'one'of'the'following'transmission'systems'for'telemetry'has'largest'
bandwidth?'
(a)' FM/FM'radio'transmission'system' (b)' CoDaxial'copper'cables'transmission'
system'
(c)' FiberDoptic'data'transmission' (d)' SynchroDposition'repeater'system'
system'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
82.'In'an'optical'fibre,'the'light'beam'propagates'due'to'which'one'of'the'following?'
(a)' Simple'reflection'of'light'at'a' (b)' Refraction'of'light'in'the'medium'
boundary'between'two'media'
(c)' Total'internal'reflection'at'the' (d)' Scattering'of'light'in'the'medium'
boundary'of'the'fibre' '
'
83.'Losses'in'optical'fibres'can'be'caused'by'which'of'the'following?'
'
1.! Impurities'
2.! Micro'bending'
3.! Stepped'index'operation'
Select'the'correct'answer'using'the'code'given'below:'
(a)' 1'and'3' (b)' 2'and'3'
(c)' 1'and'2' (d)' 3'only'
'
84.''Dispersion'in'an'optical'fiber'used'in'a'communication'link'is'of'which'type?'
(a)' Angular'dispersion' (b)' Modal'dispersion'
(c)' Chromatic'dispersion' (d)' Dispersion'arising'due'to'structural'
irregularities'in'the'fiber'
'
* *
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Communication'System'MCQs'
Answers:*Communication*System*MCQs*
1.##(c)# 2.##(b)# 3.#(a)# 4.#(d)# 5.#(d)# 6.#(a)# 7.#(d)# 8.#(b)# 9.#(a)# 10.#(b)#
11.#(a)# 12.#(a)# 13.#(b)# 14.#(b)# 15.#(b)# 16.#(b)# 17.#(a)# 18.#(a)# 19.#(a)# 20.#(c)#
21.#(c)# 22.#(a)# 23.#(a)# 24.#(d)# 25.#(d)# 26.#(a)# 27.#(d)# 28.#(b)# 29.#(a)# 30.#(d)#
31.#(b)# 32.#(d)# 33.#(c)# 34.#(c)# 35.#(b)# 36.#(b)# 37.#(d)# 38.#(c)# 39.#(a)## 40.#(a)#
41.#(c)# 42.#(c)# 43.#(c)# 44.#(c)# 45.#(c)# 46.#(c)# 47.#(b)# 48.#(d)# 49.#(c)# 50.#(c)#
51.#(c)# 52.#(a)# 53.#(b)# 54.#(d)# 55.#(c)# 56.#(a)# 57.#(a)# 58.#(b)# 59.#(c)# 60.#(a)#
61.#(a)# 62.#(d)# 63.#(b)# 64.#(c)# 65.#(a)# 66.#(b)# 67.#(b)# 68.#(d)# 69.#(d)# 70.#(a)#
71.#(d)# 72.#(a)# 73.#(b)# 74.#(b)# 75.#(d)# 76.#(b)# 77.#(d)# 78.#(d)# 79.#(a)# 80.#(b)#
'
Microwave Engineering
Contents
1 What is a Waveguide 1
1.1 Principle of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Uses of Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Klystron 3
2.1 How it works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1 What is a Waveguide
A waveguide is a structure that guides waves, such as electromagnetic waves or sound waves.
For example you want to propagate a signal at a perticular house, if you relay that signal in
1
Page: 2 shop.ssbcrack.com
• An optical fiber guiding high-frequency light will not guide microwaves of a much lower
frequency. As a rule of thumb, the width of a waveguide needs to be of the same order of
magnitude as the wavelength of the guided wave.
• The conductors generally used in waveguides have small skin depth and hence large sur-
face resistance.
• Due to total reflection at the walls, waves are confined to the interior of a waveguide.
The propagation inside the waveguide, hence, can be described approximately as a ”zigzag”
between the walls. This description is exact for electromagnetic waves in a hollow metal
tube with a rectangular or circular cross-section.
• In a microwave oven a waveguide transfers power from the magnetron, where waves are
formed, to the cooking chamber.
• In a radar, a waveguide transfers radio frequency energy to and from the antenna, where
the impedance needs to be matched for efficient power transmission (see below).
• A waveguide called a stripline can be created on a printed circuit board, and is used to
transmit microwave signals on the board. This type of waveguide is very cheap to
manufacture and has small dimensions which fit inside printed circuit boards.
• Waveguides are used in scientific instruments to measure optical, acoustic and elastic
properties of materials and objects.
• The waveguide can be put in contact with the specimen (as in a medical ultrasonography),
in which case the waveguide ensures that the power of the testing wave is conserved, or
the specimen may be put inside the waveguide (as in a dielectric constant measurement),
so that smaller objects can be tested and the accuracy is better.
2 Klystron
• A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube which is used as an amplifier for high
radio frequencies, from UHF up into the microwave range.
• Low-power klystrons are used as oscillators in terrestrial microwave relay communications
links,
• High-power klystrons are used as output tubes in UHF television transmitters, satellite
communication, and radar transmitters, and to generate the drive power for modern particle
accelerators.
Application
• In modern systems, they are used from UHF (hundreds of MHz) up through hundreds of
gigahertz (as in the Extended Interaction Klystrons in the CloudSat satellite).
• Klystrons can be found at work in radar, satellite and wideband high-power communication
(very common in television broadcasting and EHF satellite terminals), medicine (radiation
oncology), and high-energy physics (particle accelerators and experimental reactors).
Microwave*Engineering*MCQs*
!
1.''Loss'angle'of'a'good'quality'cable'is'about'
(a)' 1°' (b)' 30°'
(c)' 70°' (d)' 90°'
'
2.''Which'of'the'following'lines'is'nonHradiating?'
(a)' Open'two'wire' (b)' Coaxial'
(c)' Both' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
3.''Skin'effect'is'more'pronounced'at'high'frequencies.'
(a)' True' (b)' False'
(c)' Depends'on'the'voltage' (d)' Depends'on'the'current'
'
4.''A'10'km'long'line'has'a'characteristic'impedance'of'400'ohms.'If'line'length'is'
100'km,'the'characteristic'impedance'is'
(a)' 4000'Ω' (b)' 400'Ω'
(c)' 40'Ω' (d)' 4'Ω'
'
5.''The'correct'sequence'of'parts'in'klystron'amplifier'are'
(a)' anode,'catcher'cavity,'cathode,' (b)' cathode,'buncher'cavity,'catcher'
buncher'cavity' cavity,'cavity'
(c)' anode,'buncher'cavity,'catcher' (d)' cathode,'catcher'cavity,'anode,'
cavity,'cathode' buncher'cavity'
'
6.''A'cavity'resonator'is'
(a)' a'hollow'metallic'enclosure' (b)' a'hollow'enclosure'having'
magnetic'material'as'its'walls'
(c)' a'hollow'enclosure'having' (d)' either'(b)'or'(c)'
dielectric'material'as'its'walls' '
'
7.''If'antenna'diameter'is'increased'four'times,'the'maximum'range'is'increased'
by'a'factor'of'
(a)' 2' (b)' 2'
(c)' 4' (d)' 0.2'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
8.''If'the'minimum'range'of'a'radar'is'to'be'doubled,'the'peak'power'has'to'be'
increased'by'a'factor'of'
(a)' 2' (b)' 4'
(c)' 8' (d)' 16'
'
9.''The'Wavelength'correspond'to'Microwave'frequency'range'is'
(a)' 30'to'300GHz' (b)' 3'''to'30'GHz'
(c)' 0.3'to'3'Ghz' (d)' 300'to'3oooGHz'
'
10.'The'main'advantage'of'microwave'is'thatH'
(a)' Highly'Directive' (b)' Moves'at'the'speed'of'light'
(c)' S/N'ratio'greater' (d)' High'penetration'power'
'
'
11.''Reflex'Klystron'is'a'–'
(a)' Ampilfier' (b)' Oscillator'
(c)' Attenuator' (d)' Filter'
'
12.'Klystron'operates'on'the'principle'ofH'
(a)' Amplitude'Modulation' (b)' Frequency'Modulation'
(c)' Pulse'Modulation' (d)' Velocity'modulation'
'
13.'In'multicavity'Klystron'additional'cavities'are'inserted'between'buncher'and'
catcher'cavities'to'achieveH'
(a)' Higher'Gain' (b)' Higher'Efficiency'
(c)' Higher'Frequency' (d)' Higher'Bandwidth'
'
14.'The'modes'in'the'reflex'Klystron'–'
(a)' give'same'frequency'but' (b)' are'caused'by'spurious'frequency'
different'transit'time' modulation'
(c)' are'just'for'theoretical' (d)' result'from'excessive''transit'time'
consideration' across'resonator'gap'
15.''A'reflex'Klystron'function'as'
(a)' Microwave'Oscillator' (b)' Amplifier'
(c)' Phase'shifter' (d)' Both'amplifier'and'phase'shifter'
'
16.'A'space'between'two'cavities'in'two'cavity'klystron'is'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
24.'The'modulation'index'of'an'am'is'changed'from'0'to'1'.the'transmitted'power'
is'
(a)' unchanged' (b)' halved'
(c)' doubled' (d)' increased'by'50%'
'
25.'AM''is'used'for'broadcasting'because'
(a)' it'is'more'noise'immune'than' (b)' compared'with'other'it'requires'
other'information'system' less'transmitting'power'
(c)' its'use'avoids'receiver' (d)' no'other'modulation'system'can'
complexity' provide'the'necessary'bw'for'high'
fidelity'
26.''In'the'spectrum'of'a'FM'wave'
(a)' the'carrier'frequency' (b)' the'amplitude'of'any'side'band'
disappears'when'the' depends'on'the'modulation'index'
modulation'index'is'large'
(c)' the'total'number'of'sidebands' (d)' the'carrier'frequency'cannot'
depends'on'the'modulation' disappear'
index'
'
27.''The'difference'b/w'phase'n'frequency'modulation'
(a)' is'purely'theoretical'because' (b)' ia'too'great'to'make'the'two'
they'are'same'in'practice' system'compatible'
(c)' lies'in'the'poorer'audio' (d)' lies'in'different'definitions'of'the'
response'of'phase'modulation' modulation'index'
'
28.''Indicate'which'of'the'following'is'not'a'advantage'of'FM'over'AM'
(a)' better'noise'immunity'is' (b)' lower'bw'is'required'
provided'
(c)' the'transmitted'power'is'more' (d)' less'modulating'power'is'required'
useful'
'
29.''indicate'which'of'the'following'statements'about'the'advantage'of'the'phase'
discriminator'over'the'slope'detector'is'false'
(a)' much'easier'alignment' (b)' better'linearity'
(c)' greater'limiting' (d)' fewer'tuned'circuit'
'
30.''In'a'ratio'detector'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
36.''For'transmission'line'load'matching'over'a'range'of'frequencies,'it'is'best'to'
use'a'
(a)' balun' (b)' broadband'directional'coupler'
(c)' double'stab' (d)' single'stub'of'adjustable'position'
'
37.''The'main'disadvantage'of'the'two'hole'directional'coupler'is'
(a)' low'directional'coupling' (b)' poor'directivity'
(c)' high'swr' (d)' narrow'bw'
'
38.''To'couple'a'coaxial'line'to'a'parallelHwire',it'is'best'to'use'a'
(a)' slotted'line' (b)' balun'
(c)' directional'coupler' (d)' quarter'wave'transformer'
'
39.'Indicate'which'of'the'following'term'applies'to'troposcatter'propagation'
(a)' sids' (b)' fading'
(c)' atmospheric'storm' (d)' Faraday'rotation'
'
40.''VLF'waves'are'used'for'some'types'of'services'because'
(a)' of'the'low'power'required' (b)' the'transmitting'antennas'are'of'
convenient'size'
(c)' they'r'very'reliable' (d)' they'penetrate'the'ionosphere'
easily'
'
41.'High'frequency'waves'are'
(a)' absorbed'by'the'f2'layer' (b)' reflected'by'the'd'layer'
(c)' capable'of'use'for'long'distance' (d)' are'affected'by'solar'cycle'
communication'on'the'moon'
'
'
'42.''A'ship'to'ship'communication'plagnued'by'fading'.the'best'solution'seems'to'
be'the'use'of'
(a)' a'more'directional'antenna' (b)' a'broad'band'antenna'
(c)' frequency'diversity' (d)' space'diversity'
'
'43.''A'range'of'microwave'frequency'more'easily'passed'by'the'atmosphere'than'
the'others'is'called'a'
(a)' window' (b)' critical'frequency'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
conducting'surface' conducting'plane'
'
'51.''Diffraction'of'em'waves'
(a)' is'caused'by'reflections'from' (b)' arises'only'with'spherical'wave'
the'ground' fronts'
(c)' will'occur'when'the'waves'pas' (d)' may'occur'around'the'edges'of'a'
through'a'large'slot' sharp'obstacle'
'
52.''When'mw'signals'follow'the'curvature'of'the'earth',this'is'known'as'
(a)' the'Faraday'effect' (b)' ducting'
(c)' tropospheric'scatter' (d)' ionospheric'reflection'
'
'53.''Helical'antenna'r'often'used'for'satellite'tracking'at'vhf'due'to'
(a)' troposcatter' (b)' superrefraction'
(c)' ionospheric'refraction' (d)' the'faraday'effect'
'
54.''An'ungrounded'antenna'near'the'ground''
(a)' acts'as'a'single'antenna'of' (b)' is'unlikely'to'need'an'earth'mat'
twice'the'height'
(c)' acts'as'an'antenna'array' (d)' must'be'horizontally'polarised'
'
55.''Which'of'the'following'antenna'is'best'excited'from'a'wave'guide?'
(a)' biconical' (b)' horn'
(c)' helical' (d)' discone'
'
'56.''Indicate'the'antenna'that'is'not'wideband'
(a)' dicone' (b)' folded'dipole'
(c)' helical' (d)' marconi'
'
57.''Which'one'of'the'following'is'not'apply'to'the'yagi'uda'antenna'
(a)' good'bw' (b)' parasitic'elements'
(c)' folded'dipole' (d)' high'gain'
'
58.''An'antenna'that'is'circularly'polarised'is'the'
(a)' helical' (b)' small'circular'loop'
(c)' parabolic'reflector' (d)' yagi'uda'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
'59.''The'standard'reference'antenna'for'the'directive'gain'is'the'
(a)' infinitesimal'dipole' (b)' isotropic'antenna'
(c)' elementary'doublet' (d)' half'wave'dipole'
'
60.''Top'loading'is'done'with'an'antenna'in'order'to'increase'its'
(a)' effective'height' (b)' bw'
(c)' beam'width' (d)' i/p'capacitance'
'
61.''cassegrain'feed'is'used'with'a'parabolic'reflector'to'
(a)' increase'the'gain'of'the'system' (b)' increase'the'beamwith'of'the'
system'
(c)' reduce'the'size'of'the'main' (d)' allow'the'feed'to'be'placed'at'a'
reflector' convenient'point'
'
62.''Zoning'is'used'with'a'dielectric'antenna'in'order'to'
(a)' reduce'the'bulk'of'the'lens' (b)' increase'the'bw'of'the'lens'
(c)' permit'point'to'point'focusing' (d)' correct'the'curvature'of'the'
wavefront'from'a'horn'that'is'too'
short'
'
63.''A'helical'antenna'is'used'in'satellite'tracking'because'of'its'
(a)' circular'polarisation' (b)' maneuverability'
(c)' broad'bw' (d)' good'front'to'back'ratio'
'
'
'64.''The'discone'antenna'is'
(a)' a'useful'direction'finding' (b)' used'as'a'radar'receiving'antenna'
antenna'
(c)' circularly'polarised'like'other' (d)' useful'as'a'uhf'receiving'antenna'
circular'antennas'
'
'65.'One'of'the'following'is'not'a'omnidirectional'antenna'
(a)' half'wave'dipole' (b)' logHpereodic'
(c)' discone' (d)' marconi'
'
'66.''When'em'wave'are'propagated'in'a'waveguide'
(a)' they'travel'along'the'broader' (b)' the'reflected'from'the'wall'but'do'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
walls'of'the'guide' not'travel'along'them'
(c)' they'travel'through'the' (d)' they'travel'along'all'4'walls'of'the'
dielectric'without'touching'the' waveguide'
wall'
'
67.''Waveguides'r'used'mainly'for'microwave'signals'because'
(a)' they' depend' on' straight' line' (b)' losses'would'be'too'heavy'at'
propagation' which' applies' to' lower'frequencies'
microwaves'only' '
(c)' there' are' no' generators' (d)' they'would'be'too'bulky'at'lower'
powerful' enough' to' excite' frequency'
them'at'lower'frequency'
'
'68.''The'wavelength'of'a'wave'in'a'waveguide'
(a)' is'greater'than'in'free'space' (b)' depends'only'on'the'waveguide'
dimensions'and'the'free'space'
wavelength'
(c)' is'inversely'proportional'to'the' (d)' is'directly'proportional'to'the'
phase'velocity' group'velocity'
'
69.''Compared'with'the'equivalent'transmission'lines',3ghz'waveguides(indicate'
false'statement)'
(a)' r'less'lossy' (b)' can'carry'high'powers'
(c)' r'less'bulky' (d)' have'lower'attenuation'
'
'70.''When'a'particular'mode'is'excited'in'a'waveguide',there'appears'an'extra'
electric'component'in'the'direction'of'propagation.'The'resulting'mode'is'
(a)' transverse'electric' (b)' transverse'magnetic'
(c)' longitudinal' (d)' transverse'electromagnetic'
'
'71.''When'em'waves'are'reflected'at'an'angle'from'a'wall,their'wavelength'along'
the'wall'is'
(a)' same'as'in'free'space' (b)' the'same'as'the'wavelength'
perpendicular'to'the'wall'
(c)' shorter'because'of'the'doppler' (d)' greater'in'the'actual'direction'of'
effect' propagation'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
72.''As'a'result'of'reflections'from'a'plane'conducting'wall',em'waves'acquire'an'
apparent'velocity'greater'than'the'velocity'of'light'in'space.'This'is'called'the'
(a)' velocity'of'propagation' (b)' normal'velocity'
(c)' group'velocity' (d)' phase'velocity'
'
'73.'Indicate'the'false'statement'.when'the'free'space'wavelength'of'a'signal'
equals'the'cutoff'wavelength'of'the'guide'
(a)' the'group'velocity'becomes' (b)' phase'velocity'becomes'infinite'
zero'
(c)' the'characteristic'impedence'of' (d)' the'wavelength'within'the'
the'guide'becomes'infinite' waveguide'becomes'infinite'
'
'74.''The'dominant'mode'of'propagation'is'preferred'with'rectangular'wave'
guides'because(indicate'the'false'statement)'
(a)' it'leads'to'the'smallest' (b)' it'resulting'impedance'can'be'
waveguide'dimensions' matched'directly'to'coaxial'lines'
(c)' it'is'easier'ti'exite'than'the' (d)' propagation'of'it'without'any'
other'modes' spurious'generation'can'be'
ensured'
'
75.'A'choke''flange'may'be'used'to'couple'two'waveguides'
(a)' to'help'in'alignment'of'the' (b)' because'it'is'simpler'than'any'
waveguides' other'join'
(c)' to'compensate'for' (d)' to'increase'the'bw'of'the'system'
discontinuity'at'the'join'
'
'76.''In'order'to''couple'two'generators'to'a'waveguide'system'without'coupling'
them'to'each'other',one'could'not'use'a'
(a)' rat'race' (b)' e'plane't'
(c)' hybrid'ring' (d)' magic't'
'
77.''Which'of'the'following'waveguide'tuning'is'not'easily'adjustable'
(a)' screw' (b)' stub'
(c)' iris' (d)' plunger'
'
78.''A'piston'attenuator'is'a'
(a)' vane'attenuator' (b)' waveguide'below'cutoff'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
connected'to'a'receiver'
'
85.''For'some'application'circular'waveguide'may'be'preferred'over'rectangular'
one'because'of'
(a)' the'smaller'cross'section' (b)' lower'attenuation'
needed'at'any'frequency'
(c)' freedom'from'spurious'modes' (d)' rotation'of'polarisation'
'
86.''Indicate'which'of'the'following'cannot'be'followed'by'the'word'waveguide'
(a)' elliptical' (b)' flexible'
(c)' coaxial' (d)' ridged'
'
87.''In'order'to'reduce'cross'sectional'dimensions,the'waveguide'to'use'is'
(a)' circular' (b)' ridged'
(c)' rectangular' (d)' flexible'
'
88.''For'low'attenuation'best'transmission'medium'is'
(a)' flexible'waveguide' (b)' ridged'waveguide'
(c)' rectangular'waveguide' (d)' coaxial'line'
'
'89.''A'microwave'tube'amplifier'uses'an'axial'magnetic'field'and'a'radial'electric'
field'.'This'is'a'
(a)' reflex'klystron' (b)' coaxial'magnetron'
(c)' travelling'wave'magnetron' (d)' cfa'
'
'
90.''One'of'the'reason'why'vaccum'tubes'eventually'fail'at'''microwave'
frequencies'is'that'their'
(a)' nf'increase' (b)' transit'time'become'too'short'
(c)' shunt'capacitive'reactances' (d)' series'inductive'reactances'
become'too'large' become'too'small'
'
91.'Indicate'the'false'statement'.transit'time'in'microwave'tube'will'be'reduced'if'
(a)' the'electrodes'are'brought' (b)' a'higher'anode'current'is'used'
together'
(c)' multiple'or'coaxial'leads'r'used' (d)' the'anode'voltage'is'made'large'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
92.''The'multicavity'klystron'
(a)' is'not'a'good'low'level' (b)' has'a'high'repeller'voltage'to'
amplifier'because'of'noise' ensure'a'rapid'transit'time'
(c)' is'not'suitable'for'pulsed' (d)' needs' a' long' transit' time' through'
operation' the' buncher' cavity' to' ensure'
current'modulation'
'
93.''Indicate'the'false'statement.'Klystron'amplifiers'may'use'intermediate'
cavities'to'
(a)' prevent' the' oscillations' that' (b)' increase'the'bw'
occurs'in'two'cavity'klystron'
(c)' improve'the'power'gain' (d)' increase'the'efficiency'of'the'
klystron'
'
94.'The'cavity'magnetron'use'strapping'to'
(a)' prevent'mode'jumping' (b)' prevent'cathod'back'heating'
(c)' ensure'bunching' (d)' improve'the'phase'focusing'
'
95.''A'magnetic'field'is'used'in'the'cavity'magnetron'to'
(a)' prevent'anode'current'in'the' (b)' ensure'that'the'oscillations'r'
absence'of'oscillations' pulsed'
(c)' help'in'focusing'the'electron' (d)' ensure'that'the'electrones'will'
beam,'thus'preventing' orbit'around'the'cathod'
spreading'
'
'96.'The'primary'purpose'PF'the'helix'in'the'TWT'is'
(a)' prevent'the'electron'beam' (b)' reduce'axial'velocity'of'the'rf'field'
spreading'in'the'long'tube'
(c)' ensure'broadband'operation' (d)' reduce'the'noise'figure'
'
97.'The'attenuator'in'the'TWT'is'used'for'
(a)' help'focusing' (b)' prevent'oscillations'
(c)' prevent'saturatuion' (d)' increase'gain'
'
98.'Periodic'permanent'magnet'focusing'is'used'with'TWT'to'
(a)' allow'pulsed'operation' (b)' improve'electron'bunching'
(c)' avoid'the'bulk'of'an' (d)' allow'coupled'cavity'operation'at'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
electromagnet' the'high'frequency'
'
99.''A'magnetron'whose'oscillating'frequency'is'electronically'adjustable'over'a'
wide'range'is'called'
(a)' coaxial'magnetron' (b)' ditcher'tuned'magnetron'
(c)' frequency'agile'magnetron' (d)' vtm'
'
100.'A'ruby'maser'amplifier'must'be'cooled'
(a)' because'maser'amplifiers' (b)' to'increase'bw'
generats'a'lot'of'heat'
(c)' because'it'can'not'operate'at' (d)' to'improve'the'noise'performance'
room'temp'
'
'
'
101.'The'transmission'system'using'two'ground'planes'is'
(a)' microstrip' (b)' elliptical'waveguide'
(c)' parallel'wire'line' (d)' stripline'
'
102.'Surface'acoustic'wave'propagate'in'
(a)' gallium'arsenide' (b)' indium'phosphste'
(c)' stripline' (d)' quartz'crystal'
'
103.'Saw'devices'may'be'used'as'
(a)' transmission'media'like' (b)' filters'
stripline'
(c)' UHF'amplifiers' (d)' oscillator'at'milimiter'frequency'
'
104.'Indicate'the'false'statement.'Fet's'r'preferred'to'bipolar'transistor'at'the'
highest'frequencies'because'they'are'
(a)' less'noisy' (b)' lend'themselves'more'readily'to'
integration'
(c)' are'capable'of'higher' (d)' can'provide'higher'gain'
efficiencies'
'
105.'The'biggest'advantage'of'the'trapatt'diode'over'the'impatt'diode'is'it's'
(a)' lower'noise' (b)' higher'efficiency'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
Answers:*Microwave*Engineering*MCQs*
!
'
1.!!(a)! 2.!(b)! 3.!(a)! 4.!(b)! 5.!(b)! 6.!(a)! 7.!(c)! 8.!(d)! 9.!(b)! 10.!(a)!
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
11.!(b)! 12.!(d)! 13.!(a)! 14.!(a)! 15.!(a)! 16.!(a)! 17.!(b)! 18.!(c)! 19.!(b)! 20.!(a)!
21.!(d)! 22.!(d)! 23.!(b)! 24.!(d)! 25.!(c)! 26.!(b)! 27.!(d)! 28.!(b)! 29.!(c)! 30.!(a)!
31.!(b)! 32.!(c)! 33.!(d)! 34.!(b)! 35.!(a)! 36.!(c)! 37.!(d)! 38.!(b)! 39.!(b)! 40.!(c)!
41.!(d)! 42.!(c)! 43.!(a)! 44.!(d)! 45.!(c)! 46.!(d)! 47.!(b)! 48.!(b)! 49.!(a)! 50.!(a)!
51.!(d)! 52.!(b)! 53.!(d)! 54.!(c)! 55.!(b)! 56.!(d)! 57.!(d)! 58.!(a)! 59.!(b)! 60.!(a)!
61.!(d)! 62.!(a)! 63.!(a)! 64.!(d)! 65.!(b)! 66.!(b)! 67.!(d)! 68.!(a)! 69.!(c)! 70.!(b)!
71.!(d)! 72.!(d)! 73.!(c)! 74.!(b)! 75.!(c)! 76.!(b)! 77.!(c)! 78.!(b)! 79.!(c)! 80.!(d)!
81.!(a)! 82.!(c)! 83.!(d)! 84.!(b)! 85.!(b)! 86.!(c)! 87.!(b)! 88.!(c)! 89.!(d)! 90.!(a)!
91.!(c)! 92.!(a)! 93.!(a)! 94.!(a)! 95.!(d)! 96.!(b)! 97.!(b)! 98.!(c)! 99.!(d)! 100.!(c)!
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Microwave'Engineering'MCQs'
101.(d)! 102.!(d)! 103.!(b)! 104.!(b)! 105.!(b)! 106.!(d)! 107.!(a)! 108.!(d)! 109.!(a)! 110.!(d)!
!
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Antenna and Wave Propagation
Contents
1 Antenna parameters 2
1.1 Self impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Mutual impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Wave propagation 7
1
Page: 2
1 Antenna parameters
Antennas are metallic structures designed for radiating and receiving electromagnetic energy. An antenna
acts as a transitional structure between the guiding device.
Antenna: That part of a transmitting or receiving system that is designed to radiate or receive
electromagnetic waves The radiation from an antenna can be explained with the help of Figure shown below
a voltage source connected to a two conductor transmission line. When a sinusoidal voltage is applied across
the transmission line, an electric field is created which is sinusoidal in nature and these results in the creation
of electric lines of force which are tangential to the electric field. The magnitude of the electric field is
indicated by the bunching of the electric lines of force. The free electrons on the conductors are forcibly
displaced by the electric lines of force and the movement of these charges causes the flow of current which in
turn leads to the creation of a magnetic field.
Effective length
For antennas which are not defined by a physical area, such as monopoles and dipoles consisting of thin rod
conductors, the aperture bears no obvious relation to the size or area of the antenna. An alternate measure
of antenna gain that has a greater relationship to the physical structure of such antennas is effective length
Ief f measured in meters, which is defined for a receiving antenna as:
Ief f = V0 /Es
where,
V0 is the open circuit voltage appearing across the antenna’s terminals.
Es is the electric field strength of the radio signal, in volts per meter, at the antenna.
The longer the effective length the more voltage and therefore the more power the antenna will receive.
Note, however, that an antenna’s gain or Aef f increases according to the square of lef f , and that this
proportionality also involves the antenna’s radiation resistance.
Effective Aperture
Antenna aperture or effective area is a measure of how effective an antenna is at receiving the power of radio
waves. The aperture is defined as the area, oriented perpendicular to the direction of an incoming radio wave,
which would intercept the same amount of power from that wave as is produced by the antenna receiving
it. At any point, a beam of radio waves has an irradiance or power flux density (PFD) which is the amount
of radio power passing through a unit area. If an antenna delivers an output power of Po watts to the load
connected to its output terminals when irradiated by a uniform field of power density PFD watts per square
meter, the antenna’s aperture Aef f in square meters is given by
Po
Aef f =
PFD
So the power output of an antenna in watts is equal to the power density of the radio waves in watts per
square meter, multiplied by its aperture in square meters. The larger an antenna’s aperture is, the more
power it can collect from a given field of radio waves. To actually obtain the predicted power available Po ,
the polarization of the incoming waves must match the polarization of the antenna, and the load (receiver)
must be impedance matched to the antenna’s feed point impedance.
⁄2
Aef f =
4fi
G=
4fiAef f
⁄2
Beamwidth
Half Power Beam Width (HPBW) of an antenna
The main beam is the angular region where primarily the radiation goes. The effective width of the antenna
mainÔ beam called the HPBW is defined as the angular separation between directions where the field reduces
to 1/ 2 of its maximum value. Since the power
Ô density of a wave is proportional to the square of the electric
field, when the electric field reduces to 1/ 2 of its maximum value, the power density reduces to 1/2 of its
maximum value. That is, the power density reduces by 3-dB. The HPBW therefore is also referred to as
the 3-dB Beam width. There two HPBWs, one for the E-plane pattern and other for the H-plane pattern.
For the Hertz dipole, the E-plane HPBW is 900 and the H-plane HPBW is not defined since the radiation
pattern is constant in the H-plane. The HPBW is a better measure of the effective width of the main beam of
the antenna compared to BWFN because there are situations when the effective width of the antenna beam
changes but the BWFN remains same.
Polarization
The polarization of the EM field describes the orientation of its vectors at a given point and how it varies
with time. In other words, it describes the way the direction and magnitude of the field vectors (usually E)
change in time. Polarization is associated with TEM time-harmonic waves where the H vector relates to the
E vector simply by
E
H = r̄ ◊
÷
In antenna theory, we are concerned with the polarization of the field in the plane orthogonal to the
direction of propagation-this is the plane defined by the vectors of the far field. The polarization is the locus
traced by the extremity of the time-varying field vector at a fixed observation point.
According to the shape of the trace, three types of polarization exist for harmonic fields: linear, circular
and elliptical. Any polarization can be represented by two orthogonal linear polarizations, (Ex , Ey ) or (EH , EV ),
whose fields are out of phase by an angle of ”L .
Directivity
The directivity of an antenna is the maximum value of its directive gain. Directive gain is represented
as D(◊„) and compares the radiation intensity (power per unit solid angle) that an antenna creates in a
particular direction against the average value over all directions:
U
D(◊, „) =
Gain
Analogously to the directivity factor, the gain G is the ratio of the radiation intensity Fmax obtained in the
main direction of radiation to the radiation intensity Fi0 that would be generated by a loss-free isotropic
radiator with the same input power Pt0
G = Fmax /Fi0
Where, G = Fmax /Fi0
In contrast to the directivity factor, the antenna efficiency ÷ is taken into account in the above equation
since the following applies:
G = ÷D
Gain and directivity factor are often expressed in a logarithmic form:
Radiation Resistance
In general, an antenna radiates power into free space in the form of electromagnetic waves. So the power
dissipated is given by,
W Õ = I 2 .R
Assuming all the power dissipated in the form of electromagnetic waves, then we can write,
WÕ
R=
R2
The resistance which relates power radiated by radiating antenna and the current flowing through the
antenna is a fictitious resistance. Such resistance is called radiation resistance of antenna and it is denoted
by Rrad or Rr or Ro .
The radiation resistance is a fictitious resistance such that when it is connected in series with antenna
dissipates same power as the antenna actually radiates. But practically the energy supplied to the antenna
is not completely radiated in the form of electromagnetic waves, but there are certain radiation losses due to
the loss resistance denoted by Rloss . Thus the total power is given by,
W = I 2 (Rrad + Rloss )
Note: The radiation resistance of antenna depends on antenna configuration, ratio of length and diameter
of conductor used, location of the antenna with respect to ground and other objects.
Antenna efficiency
In antenna theory, radiation efficiency, which is often abbreviated to just efficiency is a figure of merit for
an antenna. It is a measure of the electrical losses that occur in the antenna. Radiation efficiency is defined
as ”The ratio of the total power radiated by an antenna to the net power accepted by the antenna from the
When the antenna is lossless and isolated from ground and other objects, the impedance offered by
antenna to the transmission line is represented by two terminal networks with impedance ZL as shown in
the figure above. ZL represents that the antenna impedance acts as load to the transmission line driving
antenna. With a lossless and isolated antenna, the antenna terminal impedance is same as the self impedance
of the antenna, which is represented by Z11 .
The self impedance of the antenna is a complex quantity given by,
1.2
shop.ssb cra ck.com
Mutual impedance
While considering the self impedance of antenna, we assumed that the antenna is lossless and isolated from
the other objects and ground. But many times in the large antenna systems, any antenna may be placed in
the close vicinity of other active antennas. In such cases, the antenna terminal impedance is not simply equal
to the self impedance of the antenna but another impedance gets introduced due to the currents flowing in
other active antennas placed close to the antenna considered. Such impedance is called mutual impedance
of antenna. Before discussing mutual impedance of antenna, let us consider the coupled circuits with two
circuits kept very closed to each other. When current flows in circuit-1, the voltage is induced at the open
terminals of circuit-2. Similarly the current flowing in circuit-2 induces voltage at the open terminals of
circuit-1
Thus the mutual impedance of the coupled circuit is defined as negative ratio of the voltage induced at
the open terminals of once circuit to the current in other circuit. Mathematically we can write,
V2 1
Z21 = ≠
I1
V1 2
Z12 = ≠
I2
Let us consider two antennas kept very closed to each other (such antennas may be called coupled
antennas) as shown in below
Exactly on the similar lines to the coupled circuits, the mutual impedance of the antenna is given by
V2 1
Z21 = ≠
I1
V1 2
Z12 = ≠
I2
But according to reciprocity theorem, we can write mutual impedance of antenna as,
V21 V12
Zm = =
I1 I2
Mutual impedance depends on:
2 Wave propagation
Reflection
Reflection of light is an everyday occurrence. Mirrors are commonplace and can be seen in houses and many
other places. Shop windows also provide another illustration for this phenomenon, as do many other areas.
Radio waves are similarly reflected by many surfaces. When reflection occurs, it can be seen that the angle
of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection for a conducting surface as would be expected for light. When
a signal is reflected there is normally some loss of the signal, either through absorption, or as a result of some
of the signal passing into the medium.
A variety of surfaces can reflect radio signals. For long distance communications, the sea provides one of
the best reflecting surfaces. Other wet areas provide good reflection of radio signals. Desert areas are poor
reflectors and other types of land fall in between these two extremes. In general, though, wet areas provide
better reflectors.
For relatively short range communications, many buildings, especially those with metallic surfaces provide
excellent reflectors of radio energy. There are also many other metallic structures such as warehouses that
give excellent reflecting surfaces. As a result of this signals travelling to and from cellular phones often travel
via a variety of paths. Similar effects are noticed for Wi-Fi and other short range wireless communications.
An office environment contains many surfaces that reflect radio signals very effectively.
Refraction
It is also possible for radio waves to be refracted. The concept of light waves being refracted is very familiar,
especially as it can be easily demonstrated by placing a part of stick or pole in water and leaving the remaining
section in air. It is possible to see the apparent change or bend as the stick enters the water. Mirages also
demonstrate refraction and a very similar effect can be noticed on hot days when a shimmering effect can
be seen when looking along a straight road. Radio waves are affected in the same way. It is found that the
direction of an electromagnetic wave changes as it moves from an area of one refractive index to another.
The angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are linked by Snell’s Law that states:
n1 sin(◊1 ) = n2 sin(◊2 )
For radio signals there are comparatively few instances where the signals move abruptly from a region
with one refractive index, to a region with another. It is far more common for there to be comparatively
gradual change. This causes the direction of the signal to bend rather than undergo an immediate change in
direction.
Diffraction
Radio signals may also undergo diffraction. It is found that when signals encounter an obstacle they tend to
travel around them. This can mean that a signal may be received from a transmitter even though it may
be ”shaded” by a large object between them. This is particularly noticeable on some long wave broadcast
The determining factor in whether a ground wave component is classified as a space wave or a surface
wave is simple. A surface wave travels along the surface of the Earth. A space wave travels over the surface.
The surface wave reaches the receiving site by travelling along the surface of the ground as shown in figure
below. A surface wave can follow the contours of the Earth because of the process of diffraction. When a
surface wave meets an object and the dimensions of the object do not exceed its wavelength, the wave tends
to curve or bend around the object. The smaller the object, the more pronounced the diffractive action will
be.
As a surface wave passes over the ground, the wave induces a voltage in the Earth. The induced voltage
takes energy away from the surface wave, thereby weakening, or attenuating, the wave as it moves away
from the transmitting antenna. To reduce the attenuation, the amount of induced voltage must be reduced.
This is done by using vertically polarized waves that minimize the extent to which the electric field of the
wave is in contact with the Earth. When a surface wave is horizontally polarized, the electric field of the
wave is parallel with the surface of the Earth and, therefore, is constantly in contact with it. The wave is
Sky wave
Skywave refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted back toward Earth from the ionosphere,
an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere. Since it is not limited by the curvature of the Earth,
skywave propagation can be used to communicate beyond the horizon, at intercontinental distances. It is
mostly used in the short-wave frequency bands.
As a result of skywave propagation, a signal from a distant AM broadcasting station, a short-wave station,
or during sporadic E propagation conditions (principally during the summer months in both hemispheres)-a
low frequency television station can sometimes be received as clearly as local stations. Most long-distance
short-wave (high frequency) radio communication between 3 and 30 MHz is a result of skywave propagation.
Troposcatter propagation
Tropospheric scatter (also known as troposcatter) is a method of communicating with microwave radio signals
over considerable distances - often up to 300 km, and further depending on terrain and climate factors.
This method of propagation uses the tropospheric scatter phenomenon, where radio waves at particular
frequencies are randomly scattered as they pass through the upper layers of the troposphere. Radio signals
are transmitted in a tight beam aimed at the highest point on the horizon in the direction of the receiver
station. As the signals pass through the troposphere, some of the energy is scattered back toward the Earth,
allowing the receiver station to pick up the signal.
Normally, signals in the microwave frequency range used, around 2 GHz, travel in straight lines, and so
are limited to line of sight applications, in which the receiver can be ’seen’ by the transmitter. So commu-
nication distances are limited by the visual horizon to around 30-40 miles. Troposcatter allows microwave
communication beyond the horizon.
Because the troposphere is turbulent and has a high proportion of moisture the tropospheric scatter radio
signals are refracted and consequently only a proportion of the radio energy is collected by the receiving
antennas. Frequencies of transmission around 2 GHz are best suited for tropospheric scatter systems as at
this frequency the wavelength of the signal interacts well with the moist, turbulent areas of the troposphere,
improving signal to noise ratios.
Antenna&and&Wave&Propagation&MCQs&
Antenna&Propagation!
1.'If'an'antenna'is'too'short'for'the'wavelength'being'used,'the'effective'length'can'be'
increased'by'adding:'
2.''Which'of'the'following'antennas'is'used'for'testing'and'adjusting'a'transmitter'for'
proper'modulation,'amplifier'operation'and'frequency'accuracy?'
(a)' Elementary' (b)' Real'
(c)' Isotropic' (d)' Dummy'
'
3.''The'power'fed'to'a'twoNbay'turnstile'antenna'is'100'watts.'If'the'antenna'has'a'2'dB'
power'gain,'what'is'the'effective'radiated'power?'
4.''Which'of'the'following'antennas'receive'signals'in'the'horizontal'plane'equality'well'
from'all'directions?'
5.''The'parasitic'element'of'an'antenna'system'will'
' '
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
6.''A'vertical'loop'antenna'has'a'
7.''What'is'the'electrical'wavelength'of'a'500'MHz'signal?'
8.''If'the'antenna'current'is'doubled,'the'field'strength'at'a'particular'position'is'
9.''Which'one'of'the'following'antennas'radiates'equally'in'all'directions?'
10.''Actual'height'of'antenna'should'be'at'least'
11.''Which'antenna'is'not'properly'terminated?'
12.''______'is'an'antenna'array'which'is'highly'directional'at'right'angles'to'the'plane'of'
the'array?'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
13.''The'purpose'of'stacking'elements'on'an'antenna.'
14.''A'theoretical'reference'antenna'that'provides'a'comparison'for'antenna'
measurements.'
15.''A'Hertz'antenna'is'operating'on'a'frequency'of'2182'kHz'and'consists'of'a'horizontal'
wire'that'is'hanged'between'two'towers.'What'is'the'frequency'of'its'third'harmonic?'
16.'Increasing'the'electrical'length'of'an'antenna'means'
17.''What'is'antenna'bandwidth?'
18.''To'lengthen'an'antenna'electrically,'add'a'
' '
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
19.''What'is'the'usual'electrical'length'of'a'driven'element'in'an'HF'beam'antenna?'
20.''What'happens'to'the'bandwidth'of'an'antenna'as'it'is'shortened'through'the'use'of'
loading'coils?'
21.'It'is'useful'to'refer'to'an'isotropic'radiator.'
22.''A'disadvantage'of'using'a'trap'antenna.'
23.''The'input'terminal'impedance'at'the'center'of'a'folded'dipole'antenna'is'
24.'For'a'shortened'vertical'antenna,'where'should'a'loading'coil'be'placed'to'minimize'
losses'and'produce'the'most'effective'performance?'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
'
25.'The'effect'of'adding'parasitic'elements'of'a'Hertz'dipole'is'to'
26.''The'antenna'efficiency'of'an'HF'grounded'vertical'antenna'can'be'made'
comparable'to'that'of'a'halfNwave'antenna'
27.''An'antenna'“efficiency”'is'computed'by'using'one'of'the'following'equations.'
28.''Factors'that'determine'the'radiation'resistance'of'an'antenna'
29.'''_____'is'the'angle'between'the'halfNpower'radiation'points'
' '
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
30.'What'is'the'ratio'of'the'maximum'radiation'intensity'to'the'average'radiation'
intensity?'
31.''Good'grounding'is'important'for'
32.''Which'one'of'the'following'is'very'useful'as'a'multiband'HF'receiving'antenna.'
33.''Which'one'of'the'following'is'not'a'reason'for'the'use'of'an'antenna'coupler.'
34.''Which'antenna'is'not'a'wideband?'
35.''One'of'the'following'makes'an'antenna'physically'long'but'electrically'short'
36.''When'antennas'are'closed'to'the'ground,'_______'polarization'is'ideal'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
37.''Any'energy'which'radiates'in'the'form'of'radio'waves,'infrared'waves,'light'waves,'
xNrays,'etc.'
38.''Which'one'is'an'antenna'coupling'unit?'
39.'''______'polarization'is'employed'in'FM'broadcasting'
40.''To'achieve'maximum'possible'energy'transfer'between'transmitting'and'receiving'
stations'at'practical'distances,'_______'are'used.'
41.''Impedance'transformation'between'a'balanced'and'unbalanced'impedances.'
42.'''_______'is'an'instrument'that'measures'the'radiated'field'from'an'antenna.'
43.''This'resistance'is'a'hypothetical'concept'that'accounts'for'the'fact'that'rF'power'is'
radiated'by'the'antenna.'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
'
44.''Antenna'theory'recognizes'a'point'of'reference'called'the'_________.'
45.'Quarter'wavelength'vertical'antenna'is'basically'a'dipole'placed'vertically,'with'the'
other'half'of'the'dipole'being'the'____________.'
46.'The'change'in'velocity'resulting'from'a'stray'capacitance'is'called'_________.'
47.''Orientation'of'the'electric'field'signal'propagated'from'the'antenna.'
48.''Is'not'included'in'the'group.'
49.''Impedance'for'free'space'is'_______.'
50.'''________'is'elective'means'to'generate'circular'polarization.'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
51.''Is'used'to'increase'the'current'at'the'base'of'the'antenna,'and'also'to'make'the'
current'distribution'more'uniform.'
52.''The'variation'of'the'slot'antenna'is'_________.'
53.'The'property'of'an'antenna'that'causes'it'to'receive'signal'better'from'one'direction'
than'from'another.'
54.''A'helical'antenna'is'used'for'satellite'tracking'because'of'its'
55.''The'rhombic'antenna'is'primarily'used'for'
56.''Calculate'the'angle'of'declination'for'an'antenna'using'a'polar'mount'at'a'latitude'
of'45'degrees'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
58.''A'popular'half'–'wave'antenna'is'the'
59.''______'is'the'ratio'of'the'power'radiated'by'an'antenna'to'the'sum'of'the'power'
radiated'and'the'power'dissipated.'
60.''When'the'energy'is'applied'to'the'antenna'at'a'point'of'high'–'circulating'current,'it'
is'called'_____.'
62.'Zoning'is'used'with'a'dielectric'antenna'in'order'to'
64.''In'high'frequency'radio'transmission,'the'lower'the'radio'frequency'the'
_______________'of'the'antenna.'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
Wave&Propagation&
65.''Indicate'which'one'of'the'following'terms'applies'to'troposcatter'propagation'
67.''HighNfrequency'waves'are'
68.''A'range'of'microwave'frequencies'more'easily'passed'by'the'atmosphere'than'are'
the'others'is'called'a'
69.'Frequencies'in'the'UHF'range'normally'propagate'by'means'of'
70.''Tropospheric'scatter'is'used'with'frequencies'in'the'following'range'
' '
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
71.''The'ground'wave'eventually'disappears'as'one'moves'away'from'the'transmitter'
because'of'
72.''In'electromagnetic'waves,'polarization'means___.'
73.'An'electromagnetic'waves'travel'in'free'space,'only'one'of'the'following'can'happen'
to'them.'
74.'Diffraction'of'electromagnetic'waves'
76.''Electromagnetic'waves'transport'
' '
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
77.''Light'of'which'the'following'colors'has'the'shortest'wavelength'
78.'''The'quality'in'sound'that'corresponds'to'color'in'light'is'
79.''When'a'beam'of'light'enters'one'medium'from'another,'a'quality'that'never'
changes'is'its'
80.''Relative'to'the'angle'of'incidence,'the'angle'of'refraction'
81.''A'light'ray'enters'one'medium'from'another'along'the'normal.'The'angle'of'
refraction'is'
' '
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
83.''Microwave'signals'propagate'by'way'of'the'
84.''The'ionosphere'causes'radio'signals'to'be'
85.'Ground'wave'communications'is'most'effective'in'what'frequency'range?'
86.'Which'of'the'following'uses'surface'wave'propagation?'
87.'The'ability'of'the'ionosphere'to'reflect'a'radio'wave'back'to'the'earth'is'determined'
by'
88.'A'means'beyond'the'line'of'sight'propagation'of'UHF'signals.'
89.'Transequatorial'propagation'is'best'during'
90.''What'is'a'doubleNhop'signal?'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
92.''Polarization'named'for'_________'component'of'the'wave?'
93.''What'polarization'is'employed'in'an'AM'broadcasting?'
94.''What'propagation'condition'is'usually'indicated'when'a'VHF'signal'is'received'from'
a'station'500'miles'away?'
95.''Why'does'the'radio'path'horizon'distance'exceed'the'geometric'horizon?'
96.''What'is'a'wavefront?'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
97.''When'the'electric'field'is'parallel'to'the'surface'of'the'earth,'what'is'the'polarization'
of'the'electromagnetic'wave?'
98.''________'states'that'a'semirough'surface'will'reflect'as'if'it'were'a'smooth'surface'
whenever'the'cosine'of'the'angle'of'incidence'is'greater'than'1/8d,'where'd'is'the'depth'
of'the'surface'irregularity'and'I'is'the'wavelength'of'the'incident'wave.'
99.''Energy'that'has'neither'been'radiated'into'space'nor'completely'transmitted'
'
100.'At'frequencies'below'1.5'MHz,'what'propagation'provides'the'best'coverage?'
101.''A'special'condition'which'occurs'when'the'density'of'the'lower'atmosphere'is'such'
that'electromagnetic'waves'are'trapped'between'it'and'earth’s'surface'
! !
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Antenna'and'Wave'Propagation'MCQs'
Answers:&Antenna&and&Wave&Propagation&MCQs&
1.''(b)' 2.'(d)' 3.'(b)' 4.'(d)' 5.'(d)' 6.'(d)' 7.'(a)' 8.'(a)' 9.'(b)' 10.'(c)'
11.'(a)' 12.'(a)' 13.'(d)' 14.'(b)' 15.'(b)' 16.'(c)' 17.'(d)' 18.'(d)' 19.'(c)' 20.'(a)'
21.'(a)' 22.'(a)' 23.'(b)' 24.'(b)' 25.'(c)' 26.'(a)' 27.'(d)' 28.'(b)' 29.'(b)' 30.'(b)'
31.'(c)' 32.'(c)' 33.'(d)' 34.'(d)' 35.'(b)' 36.'(b)' 37.'(b)' 38.'(b)' 39.'(a)' 40.'(b)'
41.'(b)' 42.'(a)' 43.'(c)' 44.'(c)' 45.'(c)' 46.'(a)' 47.'(b)' 48.'(d)' 49.'(a)' 50.'(c)'
51.'(b)' 52.'(b)' 53.'(b)' 54.'(a)' 55.'(b)' 56.'(d)' 57.'(a)' 58.'(d)' 59.'(c)' 60.'(c)'
61.'(c)' 62.'(a)' 63.'(c)' 64.'(a)' 65.'(a)' 66.'(c)' 67.'(d)' 68.'(a)' 69.'(d)' 70.'(c)'
71.'(d)' 72.'(b)' 73.'(b)' 74.'(d)' 75.'(a)' 76.'(d)' 77.'(c)' 78.'(d)' 79.'(b)' 80.'(d)'
81.'(d)' 82.'(a)' 83.'(a)' 84.'(c)' 85.'(b)' 86.'(d)' 87.'(d)' 88.'(c)' 89.'(b)' 90.'(d)'
91.'(d)' 92.'(a)' 93.'(d)' 94.'(c)' 95.'(d)' 96.'(d)' 97.'(b)' 98.'(a)' 99.'(c)' 100.(a)'
101.(a)' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
'
'
Instrumentation
Contents
1 Accuracy, precision and repeatability 2
3 Oscilloscope 2
4 Signal generators 3
5 Spectrum analyzer 4
6 Transducers 5
7 Transducer construction 6
8 Characteristics of transducer 7
1
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3 Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope, or scope for short, is a device for drawing calibrated graphs of voltage vs time very quickly
and conveniently.
Instrumentation Instrumentation
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At the left side of the instrument, the CRT screen is divided into a one centimeter grid, ruled on the
inside surface of the tube. Each solid line is one division for the horizontal and vertical deflection. The dotted
lines are provided for pulse rise-time measurements. Moving across the panel, we come to the power switch
and the CRT controls. The trace rotation and probe adjust are used only when repairing the instrument.
The intensity control should be set to give a visible trace, but excessive brightness will defocus the spot
and may damage the screen. Both the intensity and focus may need to be adjusted when the sweep rate is
changed drastically. The beam finder is provided as an aid to setting the scope. When pushed, it reduces the
deflection voltages enough that the beam will always appear on the screen. The position controls are then
used to center the spot, and you should obtain a display suitable for final adjustments when the beam finder
button is released.
The vertical system accepts input signals and develops appropriate deflection voltages for the CRT.
Because this is a two-channel scope there are two identical sets of vertical controls, one for each trace.
Voltages are applied between a grounded terminal labeled GND and either CH 1 or CH 2 for the channel
desired. The coupling switch allows the input circuit to accept all signals when set at DC, or only the time-
varying part when set for AC. The middle position, GND, connects the vertical amplifier input to ground,
so that you can see where the zero-voltage height is on the screen. (Using the GND setting does not connect
the external input terminal to ground, so your circuit will not be disturbed.) The position control allows you
to place the trace on the screen as desired, for example aligning the zero-voltage position with one of the grid
lines.
4 Signal generators
Signal generators, also known variously as function generators, RF and microwave signal generators, etc.
They are electronic devices that generate repeating or non-repeating electronic signals (in either the analog
or digital domains).
There are many different types of signal generators:
1. function generator : A function generator is a device which produces simple repetitive waveforms.
Such devices contain an electronic oscillator, a circuit that is capable of creating a repetitive waveform.
Simple function generators usually generate triangular waveform whose frequency can be controlled
smoothly as well as in steps.[3] This triangular wave is used as the basis for all of its other outputs.
Instrumentation Instrumentation
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The triangular wave is generated by repeatedly charging and discharging a capacitor from a constant
current source. This produces a linearly ascending or descending voltage ramp. As the output voltage
reaches upper and lower limits, the charging and discharging is reversed using a comparator, producing
the linear triangle wave. By varying the current and the size of the capacitor, different frequencies
may be obtained. Sawtooth waves can be produced by charging the capacitor slowly, using a current,
but using a diode over the current source to discharge quickly - the polarity of the diode changes the
polarity of the resulting sawtooth, i.e. slow rise and fast fall, or fast rise and slow fall.
2. Arbitrary waveform generators: It is a piece of electronic test equipment used to generate electrical
waveforms. These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot (once only) in which case some kind
of triggering source is required (internal or external). The resulting waveforms can be injected into a
device under test and analyzed as they progress through it, confirming the proper operation of the
device or pinpointing a fault in it.
Unlike function generators, AWGs can generate any arbitrarily defined waveshape as their output. The
waveform is usually defined as a series of ”waypoints” (specific voltage targets occurring at specific
times along the waveform) and the AWG can either jump to those levels or use any of several methods
to interpolate between those levels.
• Analog signal generators based on a sine-wave oscillator were common before the inception
of digital electronics, and are still used. There was a sharp distinction in purpose and design of
radio-frequency and audio-frequency signal generators.
• Vector signal generators are the signal generators are that capable of generating digitally-
modulated radio signals that may use any of a large number of digital modulation formats
• Logic signal generators also known as ’data pattern generator’ or more often ’digital pattern
generator’, this type of signal generators produces logic types of signals - that is logic 1s and 0s in
the form of conventional voltage levels.
5 Spectrum analyzer
A spectrum analyzer measures the magnitude of an input signal versus frequency within the full frequency
range of the instrument. The primary use is to measure the power of the spectrum of known and unknown
signals. The input signal that a spectrum analyzer measures is electrical, however, spectral compositions of
other signals, such as acoustic pressure waves and optical light waves, can be considered through the use of
an appropriate transducer. Optical spectrum analyzers also exist, which use direct optical techniques such
as a monochromator to make measurements.
Form factor
Spectrum analyzers tend to fall into four form factors: benchtop, portable, handheld and networked.
• Benchtop: This form factor is useful for applications where the spectrum analyzer can be plugged
into AC power, which generally means in a lab environment or production/manufacturing area.
Instrumentation Instrumentation
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• Portable: This form factor is useful for any applications where the spectrum analyzer needs to be
taken outside to make measurements or simply carried while in use.
• Handheld: This form factor is useful for any application where the spectrum analyzer needs to be
very light and small. Handheld analyzers offer a limited capability relative to larger systems.
• Networked: This form factor does not include a display and these devices are designed to enable a new
class of geographically-distributed spectrum monitoring and analysis applications. The key attribute
is the ability to connect the analyzer to a network and monitor such devices across a network. While
many spectrum analyzers have an Ethernet port for control, they typically lack efficient data transfer
mechanisms and are too bulky and/or expensive to be deployed in such a distributed manner.
6 Transducers
A transducer is any device that converts one form of energy into another.
Piezoelectric effect is a phenomenon of physics characterized by the conversion of pressure energy into
electrical energy.
Converse effect is the production of mechanical (ultrasound) energy when an electrical impulse is applied
to certain crystals or composite materials.
Types of crystals:
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• Isotropic refers to the characteristic of a substance possessing molecular symmetry, or equal physical
properties, along all axes.
• Anisotropic crystals do not have centers of symmetry, so their properties, and response to external
forces, are different in different directions. When a voltage is applied to an anisotropic piezoelectric
crystal, the element will contract or expand depending on the polarity of the voltage. When such a
crystal is compressed by a pressure wave such as a returning echo, a voltage will be produced across
the piezoelectric element.
7 Transducer construction
• Damping material: The damping block, which usually is made of an epoxy-like material, is glued to
the inner surface of the crystal. It serves to absorb the ”reverse” ultrasound waves that are transmitted
to the back of the crystal.
Quality factor
The Q-factor is a unitless number that represents the ability of the transducer to emit a ”clean” or ”quality”
ultrasound frequency.
Instrumentation Instrumentation
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8 Characteristics of transducer
• accuracy: It is the conformity of an indicated value to an accepted standard, or true value. It defines
the limit the errors will not exceed when the instrument is used under stated operating conditions.
• resolution: The smallest difference between measured values that can be discriminated. For example,
it corresponds to the last stable figure on a digital display.
• calibration: The degree to which an instrument is known to conform to an accepted standard is termed
as its calibration. Both the accuracy and reliability of an instrument depends on its construction and
on how well it holds its calibration.
• repeatability: The repeatability is the agreement among a number of consecutive measurements of the
output for the same value of the input â under the same operating conditions and when approached
from the same direction.
• reproducibility: It is known as the agreement among repeated measurements of the output for the
same value of the input over a period of time under the same operating conditions and when approached
from either direction.
• hysteresis: The effect in which a measured value differs for the same value of the input if the input is
applied in an increasing direction versus a decreasing direction, is called hysteresis
• linearity: For successive equal increments of the input, the linearity is the deviation of the plotted
transducer output from a straight line. This is often defined in terms of a percentage of the maximum
or full scale output.
• sensitivity: It is the ratio of the change in the magnitude of the output to the change in the input
which caused it after the steady state has been reached.
max
DR = 10log10
min
• response time (tr ) it is the time interval between a change in the measured quantity and the time an
instrument reads a new equilibrium value.
• dead time (td ): time during which a new signal or variation in a signal cannot be detected due to
some physical characteristic of the system or the transducer
• rise time (tr ): the time taken by the instrument to respond to a step change in a measured quantity,
often defined as the time taken to change from 10
• settling time (ts ): the time required for an instrument to attain a stable reading within a stated
percentage of its equilibrium output, often taken to be the time to the first minimum of the oscillation.
Instrumentation Instrumentation
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
Instrumentation,MCQs,
'
1.'The'use'of'_____'instruments'is'merely'confined'within'laboratories'as'standardizing'
instruments.'
(a)' 'absolute' (b)' indicating'
(c)' recording' (d)' integrating'
'
2.'Which'of'the'following'instruments'indicate'the'instantaneous'value'of'the'electrical'
quantity'
being'measured'at'the'time'at'which'it'is'being'measured'?'
(a)' Absolute'instruments' (b)' Indicating'instruments'
(c)' Recording'instruments' (d)' Integrating'instruments'
'
3.'_____'instruments'are'those'which'measure'the'total'quantity'of'electricity'delivered'
in'a'
particular'time.'
(a)' Absolute' (b)' Indicating'
(c)' Recording' (d)' Integrating'
'
4.'Which'of'the'following'are'integrating'instruments?'
(a)' Ammeters' (b)' Voltmeters'
(c)' Wattmeters' (d)' AmpereMhour'and'wattMhour'meters'
'
5.'Resistances'can'be'measured'with'the'help'of'
(a)' wattmeters' (b)' voltmeters'
(c)' ammeters' (d)' ohmmeters'and'resistance'bridges'
'
6'According'to'application,'instruments'are'classified'as'
(a)' switch'board' (b)' portable'
(c)' both'(a)'and'(b)' ' '
'
7.'Which'of'the'following'essential'features'is'possessed'by'an'indicating'instrument?'
(a)' Deflecting'device' (b)' Controlling'device'
(c)' 'Damping'device' (d)' )'All'of'the'above'
'
8.'A'_____'device'prevents'the'oscillation'of'the'moving'system'and'enables'the'latter'
to'
reach'its'final'position'quickly'
(a)' deflecting' (b)' controlling'
(c)' damping' (d)' any'of'the'above'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
9.'The'spring'material'used'in'a'spring'control'device'should'have'the'following'
property.'
(a)' Should'be'nonMmagnetic' (b)' Most'be'of'low'temperature'coM
efficient'
(c)' Should'have'low'specific' (d)' 'All'of'the'above'
resistance'
'
10.'Which'of'the'following'properties'a'damping'oil'must'possess'?'
(a)' 'Must'be'a'good'insulator' (b)' Should'be'nonMevaporating'
(c)' Should'not'have'corrosive'action' (d)' All'of'the'above'
upon'the'metal'of'the'vane' '
'
11.'A'movingMcoil'permanentMmagnet'instrument'can'be'used'as'_____'by'using'a'low'
resistance'shunt.'
(a)' ammeter' (b)' voltmeter'
(c)' 'fluxMmeter' (d)' ballistic'galvanometer'
'
12.'A'movingMcoil'permanentMmagnet'instrument'can'be'used'as'fluxMmeter'
(a)' by'using'a'low'resistance'shunt' (b)' by'using'a'high'series'resistance'
(c)' by'eliminating'the'control'springs' (d)' by'making'control'springs'of'large'
moment'of'inertia'
'
13.'Which'of'the'following'devices'may'be'used'for'extending'the'range'of'instruments?'
(a)' 'Shunts' (b)' Multipliers'
(c)' Current'transformers' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
14.'An'induction'meter'can'handle'current'upto'
(a)' 10'A' (b)' 30'A'
(c)' 60'A' (d)' 100'A'
'
15.'For'handling'greater'currents'induction'wattmeters'are'used'in'conjunction'with'
(a)' potential'transformers' (b)' current'transformers'
(c)' power'transformers' (d)' either'of'the'above'
'
16.'Induction'type'single'phase'energy'meters'measure'electric'energy'in'
(a)' kW' (b)' Wh'
(c)' kWh' (d)' VAR'
'
17.'Most'common'form'of'A.C.'meters'met'with'in'every'day'domestic'and'industrial'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
Installations'are'
(a)' mercury'motor'meters' (b)' 'commutator'motor'meters'
(c)' induction'type'single'phase' (d)' all'of'the'above'
energy'meters'
'
18.'Which'of'the'following'meters'are'not'used'on'D.C.'circuits'
(a)' Mercury'motor'meters' (b)' Commutator'motor'meters'
(c)' Induction'meters' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
19.'Which'of'the'following'is'an'essential'part'of'a'motor'meter'?'
(a)' An'operating'torque'system' (b)' A'braking'device'
(c)' Revolution'registering'device' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
20.'A'potentiometer'may'be'used'for'
(a)' measurement'of'resistance' (b)' measurement'of'current'
(c)' calibration'of'ammeter' (d)' all'of'the'above'
'
21__________'is'an'instrument'which'measures'the'insulation'resistance'of'an'electric'
circuit'relative'to'
earth'and'one'another,'
(a)' Tangent'galvanometer' (b)' Meggar'
(c)' Current'transformer' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
'22.'The'household'energy'meter'is'
(a)' an'indicating'instrument' (b)' a'recording'instrument'
(c)' an'integrating'instrument' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
23.'The'pointer'of'an'indicating'instrument'should'be'
(a)' very'light' (b)' very'heavy'
(c)' either'(a)'or'(b)' (d)' neither'(a)'nor'(b)'
'
24.The'chemical'effect'of'current'is'used'in'
(a)' D.C.'ammeter'hour'meter' (b)' D.C.'ammeter'
(c)' D.C.'energy'meter' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
25.'In'majority'of'instruments'damping'is'provided'by'
(a)' fluid'friction' (b)' spring'
(c)' eddy'currents' (d)' all'of'the'above'
'
26.'An'ammeter'is'a'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
35.'The'resistance'in'the'circuit'of'the'moving'coil'of'a'dynamometer'wattmeter'should'
be'
(a)' 'almost'zero' (b)' low'
(c)' high' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
36.'A'dynamometer'wattmeter'can'be'used'for' '
(a)' 'both'D.C.'and'A.C.' (b)' D.C.'only'
(c)' A.C.'only' (d)' any'of'the'above'
'
37.'An'induction'wattmeter'can'be'used'for'
(a)' both'D.C.'and'A.C.' (b)' D.C.'only'
(c)' A.C.'only' (d)' any'of'the'above'
'
38.'The'pressure'coil'of'a'wattmeter'should'be'connected'on'the'supply'side'of'the'
current'coil'
When'
(a)' load'impedance'is'high' (b)' load'impedance'is'low'
(c)' supply'voltage'is'low' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
39.'In'a'low'power'factor'wattmeter'the'pressure'coil'is'connected'
(a)' to'the'supply'side'of'the'current' (b)' to'the'load'side'of'the'current'coil'
coil'
(c)' in'any'of'the'two'meters'at' (d)' none'of'the'above'
connection'
'
40.'In'a'low'power'factor'wattmeter'the'compensating'coil'is'connected'
(a)' in'series'with'current'coil' (b)' in'parallel'with'current'coil'
(c)' in'series'with'pressure'coil' (d)' in'parallel'with'pressure'coil'
'
41.'In'a'3Mphase'power'measurement'by'two'wattmeter'method,'both'the'watt'meters'
had'
identical'readings.'The'power'factor'of'the'load'was'
(a)' unity' (b)' 0.8'lagging'
(c)' 0.8'leading' (d)' zero'
'
42.'In'a'3Mphase'power'measurement'by'two'wattmeter'method'the'reading'of'one'of'
the'
wattmeter'was'zero.'The'power'factor'of'the'load'must'be'
(a)' unity' (b)' 0.5'
(c)' 0.3' (d)' zero'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
43.'The'adjustment'of'position'of'shading'bands,'in'an'energy'meter'is'done'to'provide'
(a)' friction'compensation' (b)' creep'compensation'
(c)' braking'torque' (d)' 'none'of'the'above'
'
44.'An'ohmmeter'is'a'
(a)' moving'iron'instrument' (b)' moving'coil'instrument'
(c)' dynamometer'instrument' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
45.'When'a'capacitor'was'connected'to'the'terminal'of'ohmmeter,'the'pointer'indicated'
a'low'
resistance'initially'and'then'slowly'came'to'infinity'position.'This'shows'that'capacitor'is'
(a)' shortMcircuited' (b)' all'right'
(c)' faulty' (d)' '
'
46.'For'measuring'a'very'high'resistance'we'should'use'
(a)' Kelvin's'double'bridge' (b)' Wheat'stone'bridge'
(c)' Meggar' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
47.'The'electrical'power'to'a'meggar'is'provided'by'
(a)' battery' (b)' permanent'magnet'D.C.'generator'
(c)' AC.'generator' (d)' any'of'the'above'
'
48.'In'a'meggar'controlling'torque'is'provided'by'
(a)' spring' (b)' gravity'
(c)' coil' (d)' 'eddy'current'
'
49.'The'operating'voltage'of'a'meggar'is'about'
(a)' 6'V' (b)' 12'V'
(c)' 40'V' (d)' 100'V'
'
50.'Murray'loop'test'can'be'used'for'location'of'
(a)' ground'fault'on'a'cable(b)'short' (b)' both'the'ground'fault'and'the'shortM
circuit'fault'on'a'cable' circuit'fault'
(c)' none'of'the'above' (d)' '
'
51.'Which'of'the'following'devices'should'be'used'for'accurate'measurement'of'low'
D.C.'
voltage'?'
(a)' Small'range'moving'coil'voltmeter' (b)' D.C.'potentiometer'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
'
'
59.'To'measure'an'A.'C.'voltage'by'using'an'A.C.'potentiometer,'it'is'desirable'that'the'
supply'
for'the'potentiometer'in'taken'
(a)' from'a'source'which'is'not'the' (b)' from'a'battery'
same'as'the'unknown'voltage'
(c)' from'the'same'source'as'the' (d)' any'of'the'above'
unknown'voltage'
'
60.'The'stator'of'phase'shifting'transformer'for'use'in'conjunction'with'an'A.C.'
potentiometer'
usually'has'a'
(a)' singleMphase'winding' (b)' twoMphase'winding'
(c)' )'threeMphase'winding' (d)' any'of'the'above'
'
61.'In'an'AC.'coMordinate'potentiometer,'the'currents'in'the'phase'and'quadrature'
Potentiometer'are'adjusted'to'be'
(a)' out'of'phase'by'90°' (b)' out'of'phase'by'60°'
(c)' out'of'phase'by'30°' (d)' out'of'phase'by'0°'
'
62.'A'universal'RLC'bridge'uses'
(a)' 'Maxwell' bridge' configuration' for' (b)' Maxwell'Wein'bridge'for'
measurement' of' inductance' and' measurement'of'inductance'and'
De' Santas' bridge' for' modified'De'Santy's'bridge'for'
measurement'of'capacitance' measurement'of'capacitance'
'
(c)' Maxwell'Wein'bridge'for' (d)' Any'of'the'above'
measurement'of'inductance'and'
Wein'bridge'for'measurement'of'
capacitance'
'
63.'For'measurements'on'high'voltage'capacitors,'the'suitable'bridge'is'
(a)' Wein'bridge' (b)' Modified'De'Santy's'bridge'
(c)' Schering'bridge' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
64.'In'an'Anderson'bridge,'the'unknown'inductance'is'measured'in'terms'of'
(a)' known'inductance'and'resistance' (b)' 'known'capacitance'and'resistance'
(c)' known'resistance' (d)' known'inductance'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
65.'Wagner'earthing'device'is'used'to'eliminate'errors'due'to'
(a)' electrostatic'coupling' (b)' electromagnetic'coupling'
(c)' both'(a)'and'(b)' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
66.'For'measurement'of'mutual'inductance'we'can'use'
(a)' Anderson'bridge' (b)' Maxwell's'bridge'
(c)' Heaviside'bridge' (d)' Any'of'the'above'
'
67.'For'measurement'of'inductance'having'high'value,'we'should'use'
(a)' Maxwell's'bridge' (b)' Maxwell'Wein'bridge'
(c)' Hay's'bridge' (d)' Any'of'the'above'
'
68.'If'the'current'in'a'capacitor'leads'the'voltage'by'80°,'the'loss'angle'of'the'capacitor'is'
(a)' 10°' (b)' 80°'
(c)' 120°' (d)' 170°'
'
'
69.'In'a'Schering'bridge'the'potential'of'the'detector'above'earth'potential'is'
(a)' a'few'volts'only' (b)' 1'kV'
(c)' 5'kV' (d)' 10'kV'
'
70.'To'avoid'the'effect'of'stray'magnetic'field'in'A.C.'bridges'we'can'use'
(a)' magnetic'screening' (b)' Wagner'earthing'device'
(c)' wave'filters' (d)' any'of'the'above'
'
71.'If'an'inductance'is'connected'in'one'arm'of'bridge'and'resistances'in'the'remaining'
three'
Arms'
(a)' the'bridge'can'always'be'balanced' (b)' the'bridge'cannot'be'balanced'
(c)' the'bridge'can'be'balanced'if'the' ' '
resistances'have'some'specific'
values'
'
72.'A'power'factor'meter'has'
(a)' one'current'circuit'and'two' (b)' one'current'circuit'and'one'pressure'
pressure'circuits' circuit'
(c)' two'current'circuits'and'one' (d)' none'of'the'above'
pressure'circuit'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
73.'The'two'pressure'coils'of'a'single'phase'power'factor'meter'have'
(a)' the'same'dimensions'and'the' (b)' the'same'dimension'but'different'
same'number'of'turns' number'of'turns'
(c)' the'same'number'of'turns'but' (d)' none'of'the'above'
different'dimensions'
'
74.'In'a'single'phase'power'factor'meter'the'phase'difference'between'the'currents'in'
the'two'
pressure'coils'is'
(a)' exactly'0°' (b)' approximately'0°'
(c)' exactly'90°' (d)' approximately'90°'
'
75.'In'a'dynamometer'3Mphase'power'factor'meter,'the'planes'of'the'two'moving'coils'
are'at'
(a)' 0°' (b)' 60°'
(c)' 90°' (d)' 120°'
'
76.'In'a'vibrating'reed'frequency'meter'the'natural'frequencies'of'two'adjacent'reeds'
have'a'
difference'of'
(a)' 0.1'Hz' (b)' 0.25'Hz'
(c)' 0.5'Hz' (d)' 1.5'Hz'
'
77.'In'a'Weston'frequency'meter,'the'magnetic'axes'of'the'two'fixed'coils'are'
(a)' parallel' (b)' perpendicular'
(c)' inclined'at'60°' (d)' inclined'at'120°'
'
78.'A'Weston'frequency'meter'is'
(a)' moving'coil'instrument' (b)' moving'iron'instrument'
(c)' dynamometer'instrument' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
79.'A'Weston'synchronoscope'is'a'
(a)' moving'coil'instrument' (b)' moving'iron'instrument'
(c)' dynamometer'instrument' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
80.'In'a'Weston'synchronoscope,'the'fixed'coils'are'connected'across'
(a)' busMbars' (b)' 'incoming'alternator'
(c)' a'lamp' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
81.'In'Weston'synchronoscope'the'moving'coil'is'connected'across'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
90.'Damping'of'the'Ballistic'galvanometer'is'made'small'to'
(a)' get'first'deflection'large' (b)' make'the'system'oscillatory'
(c)' make'the'system'critically' (d)' get'minimum'overshoot'
damped'
'
91.'If'an'instrument'has'cramped'scale'for'larger'values,'then'it'follows'
(a)' square'law' (b)' logarithmic'law'
(c)' uniform'law' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
'
92.'Volt'box'is'a'component'to'
(a)' extend'voltage'range' (b)' measure'voltage'
(c)' compare'voltage'in'a'box' (d)' none'of'the'above'
'
93.'E.m.f.'of'a'Weston'cell'is'accurately'measured'by'
(a)' electrostatic'voltmeter' (b)' hot'wire'voltmeter'
(c)' isothermal'voltmeter' (d)' )'electrodynamic'voltmeter'
'
94.'A'sensitive'galvanometer'produces'large'deflection'for'a'
(a)' small'value'of'current' (b)' large'value'of'current'
(c)' large'value'of'power' (d)' large'value'of'voltage'
'
95.'A'multirange'instrument'has'
(a)' multiple'shunt'or'series' (b)' multicoil'arrangement'
resistances'inside'the'meter'
(c)' variable'turns'of'coil' (d)' multi'range'meters'inside'the'
measurement'system'
'
96.'The'rectifier'instrument'is'not'free'from'
(a)' temperature'error' (b)' wave'shape'error'
(c)' frequency'error' (d)' all'of'the'above'
'
97.'Alternating'current'is'measured'by'
(a)' induction'ammeter' (b)' permanent'magnet'type'ammeter'
(c)' electrostatic'ammeter' (d)' moving'iron'repulsion'type'voltmeter'
'
98.'Most'sensitive'galvanometer'is'
(a)' elastic'galvanometer' (b)' vibration'galvanometer'
(c)' Duddlb'galvanometer' (d)' spot'ballistic'galvanometer'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
'
99.'Instrument'transformers'are'
(a)' potential'transformers' (b)' current'transformers'
(c)' both'(a)'and'(b)' (d)' power'transformers'
'
100.'An'instrument'transformer'is'used'to'extend'the'range'of'
(a)' induction'instrument' (b)' 'electrostatic'instrument'
(c)' moving'coil'instrument' (d)' any'of'the'above'
'
101.'Wattmeter'cannot'be'designed'on'the'principle'of'
(a)' electrostatic'instrument' (b)' thermocouple'instrument'
(c)' moving'iron'instrument' (d)' electrodynamic'instrument'
'
102.'In'an'energy'meter'braking'torque'is'produced'to'
(a)' safe'guard'it'against'creep' (b)' brake'the'instrument'
(c)' bring'energy'meter'to'stand'still' (d)' maintain'steady'speed'and'equal'to'
driving'torque'
'
103.'Various'adjustments'in'an'energy'meter'include'
(a)' 'light'load'or'friction' (b)' lag'and'creep'
(c)' overload'and'voltage' (d)' all'of'the'above'
compensation'
'
'
104.'The'power'of'a'nMphase'circuit'can'be'measured'by'using'a'minimum'of'
(a)' (n'M'1)'wattmeter'elements' (b)' n'wattmeter'elements'
(c)' (n'+'1)'wattmeter'elements' (d)' 2n'wattmeter'elements'
'
105.'Two'holes'in'the'disc'of'energy'meter'are'drilled'at'the'opposite'sides'of'the'
spindle'to'
(a)' improve'its'ventilation' (b)' eliminate'creeping'at'no'load'
(c)' increase'its'deflecting'torque' (d)' increase'its'braking'torque'
'
106.'Which'of'the'following'is'measured'by'using'a'vector'voltmeter?'
(a)' Amplifier'gain'and'phase'shift' (b)' 'Filler'transfer'functions'
(c)' Complex'insertion'loss' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
107.'The'principle'on'which'vector'voltmeter'is'based'is'
(a)' that'it'works'on'the'principle'of' (b)' that'it'measures'the'response'of'
complex'variation' linear'ramp'voltage'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Instrumentation'MCQs'
11.((a)( 12.((c)( 13.((d)( 14.((d)( 15.((b)( 16.((c)( 17.((c)( 18.((c)( 19.((d)( 20.((d)(
21.((b)( 22.((c)( 23.((a)( 24.((a)( 25.((c)( 26.((a)( 27.((a)( 28.((c)( 29.((a)( 30.((a)(
31.((a)( 32.((c)( 33.((a)( 34.((c)( 35.((c)( 36.((a)( 37.((b)( 38.((a)( 39.((a)( 40.((c)(
41.((a)( 42.((b)( 43.((a)( 44.((b)( 45.((b)( 46.((c)( 47.((b)( 48.((c)( 49.((d)( 50.((c)((
51.((b)( 52.((c)( 53.((b)( 54.((b)( 55.((b)( 56.((b)( 57.((a)( 58.((a)( 59.((c)( 60.((b)(
61.((a)( 62.((b)( 63.((c)( 64.((b)( 65.((a)( 66.((c)( 67.((c)( 68.((a)( 69.((a)( 70.((a)(
71.((b)( 72.((a)( 73.((a)( 74.((c)( 75.((d)( 76.((c)( 77.((b)( 78.((b)( 79.((c)( 80.((b)(
81.((a)( 82.((b)( 83.((b)( 84.((c)( 85.((d)( 86.((b)( 87.((b)( 88.((c)( 89.((a)( 90.((a)(
91.((b)( 92.((a)( 93.((a)( 94.((a)( 95.((a)( 96.(c)( 97.((a)( 98.((d)( 99.((c)( 100.((a)(
'
'
'
Network Theory Design
Contents
1 Thevenin’s Theorem 2
2 Norton’s theorem 3
3 Reciprocity theorem 5
4 Superposition theorem 5
5 Compensation theorem 6
6 Millers theorem 7
7 Tellegen’s theorem 8
9
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8.1 Example: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1
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1 Thevenin’s Theorem
1. Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks, (say) A and B, connected by two
wires. Network A is the network to be simplified; B will be left untouched.
2. Disconnect network B. Define a voltage voc as the voltage now appearing across the terminals of network
A.
3. Turn off or ”zero out” every independent source in network A to form an inactive network. Leave
dependent sources unchanged.
4. Connect an independent voltage source with value vo c in series with the inactive network. Do not
complete the circuit; leave the two terminals disconnected.
5. Connect network B to the terminals of the new network A. All currents and voltages in B will remain
unchanged.
Example:
Consider the circuit shown in Figure shown below. Determine the Thevenin equivalent of network A.
• The practical current source that results is transformed back into a practical voltage source
Note:
• The only restriction that we must impose on A or B is that all dependent sources in A have their control
variables in A, and similarly for B.
2 Norton’s theorem
1. Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two networks, A and B, connected by two wires.
Network A is the network to be simplified; B will be left untouched. As before, if either network
contains a dependent source, its controlling variable must be in the same network.
2. Disconnect network B, and short the terminals of A. Define a current isc as the current now flowing
through the shorted terminals of network A.
3. Turn off or ”zero out” every independent source in network A to form an inactive network. Leave
dependent sources unchanged.
4. Connect an independent current source with value isc in parallel with the inactive network.
5. Connect network B to the terminals of the new network A. All currents and voltages in B will remain
unchanged.
Example:
Find the Norton equivalent circuits for the network faced by the 1K resistor in figure below
From the wording of the problem statement, network B is the 1k resistor, so network A is everything
else. Choosing to find the Thevenin equivalent of network A first, we apply superposition, noting that no
current flows through the 3k resistor once network B is disconnected. With the current source set to zero,
Voc |4v = . With the voltage source set to zero,
The Norton equivalent is found by a simple source transformation of the Thevenin equivalent, resulting
8
in a current source of 5000 = 1.6mA in parallel with a 5k resistor.
Removing the 1k resistor and shorting the terminals of network A, we find Is c as shown in figure
4 2
Isc = Isc |4V +Isc |2mA = + (2) = 0.8 + 0.8 = 1.6mA
2+3 2+3
3 Reciprocity theorem
Reciprocity theorem states that if an emf E in one branch of a reciprocal network produces a current I in
another, then if the emf E is moved from the first to the second branch, it will cause the same current in the
first branch, where the emf has been replaced by a short circuit.
4 Superposition theorem
1. Select one of the independent sources. Set all other independent sources to zero. This means voltage
sources are replaced with short circuits and current sources are replaced with open circuits. Leave
dependent sources in the circuit.
2. Relabel voltages and currents using suitable notation (e.g., v, i2 ). Be sure to relabel controlling variables
5. Add the partial currents and/or voltages obtained from the separate analyses. Pay careful attention to
voltage signs and current directions when summing.
6. Do not add power quantities. If power quantities are required, calculate only after partial voltages
and/or currents have been summed.
Example:
Use the superposition principle to deter- mine the value of ix .
Solution:
First open-circuit the 3 A source.
iÕx = 2A
Next, short-circuit the 10 V source
v” = 2(≠i”x )
Solving, we find
ix = ≠0.6A
and thus,
ix = ix + ix = 2 + (≠0.6) = 1.4A
5 Compensation theorem
According to this theorem, any resistance in a network may be replaced by a voltage source that has zero
internal resistance and a voltage equal to the voltage drop across the replace resistance due to the current
which was flowing through it. This imaginary voltage source is directed opposite to the voltage source of
that replaced resistance. Think about a resistive branch of any complex network that’s resistance value is
R. Let’s assume current I is flowing through that resistor R and voltage drops due to this current across the
resistor is V = I.R. According to compensation theorem, this resistor can be replaced by a voltage source
that’s generated voltage will be V ( = IR) and will be directed against the direction of network voltage or
direction of current I.
Here in the network for 16 V source, all the currents flowing through the different resistive branches are
shown in the first figure. The current through the right most branch in the figure is 2A and its resistance is
2 . If this right most branch of the network is replaced by a voltage source V = 2 ◊ 2A = 4V directed as
shown in the second figure, then current through the other branches of the network will remain the same as
shown in the second figure.
6
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Millers theorem
The Miller theorem establishes that in a linear circuit, if there exists a branch with impedance Z, connecting
two nodes with nodal voltages V1 and V2, we can replace this branch by two branches connecting the
corresponding nodes to ground by impedances respectively Z/(1 - K) and KZ/(K - 1), where K = V2/V1.
The Miller theorem may be proved by using the equivalent two-port network technique to replace the two-port
to its equivalent and by applying the source absorption theorem.
Miller theorem implies that an impedance element is supplied by two arbitrary (not necessarily dependent)
voltage sources that are connected in series through the common ground. In practice, one of them acts as
a main (independent) voltage source with voltage V1 and the other - as an additional (linearly dependent)
voltage source with voltage V2 = KV1 . The idea of Miller theorem (modifying circuit impedances seen from
the sides of the input and output sources) is revealed below by comparing the two situations - without and
with connecting an additional voltage source V2 .
If V2 was zero (there was not a second voltage source or the right end of the element with impedance Z
was just grounded), the input current flowing through the element would be determined, according to Ohm’s
law, only by V1
Iin0 = VZ1
and the input impedance of the circuit would be
Zin0 = IVin0
1
=Z
As a second voltage source is included, the input current depends on both the voltages. According to its
polarity, V2 is subtracted from or added to V1 ; so, the input current decreases/increases
Iin = V1 ≠V
Z
2
= (1≠K)
Z V1 = (1 ≠ K)Iin0
and the input impedance of the circuit seen from the side of the input source accordingly increases /
decreases
Zin = IVin1 = 1≠K
Z
So, Miller theorem expresses the fact that connecting a second voltage source with proportional voltage
V2 = KV1 in series with the input voltage source changes the effective voltage, the current and respectively,
the circuit impedance seen from the side of the input source. Depending on the polarity, V2 acts as a
supplemental voltage source helping or opposing the main voltage source to pass the current through the
impedance.
7 Tellegen’s theorem
The Tellegen theorem is applicable to a multitude of network systems. The basic assumptions for the systems
are the conservation of flow of extensive quantities (Kirchhoff’s current law, KCL) and the uniqueness of the
potentials at the network nodes (Kirchhoff’s voltage law, KVL). The Tellegen theorem provides a useful tool
to analyze complex network systems including electrical circuits, biological and metabolic networks, pipeline
transport networks, and chemical process networks.
Consider an arbitrary lumped network whose graph G has b branches and nt nodes. In an electrical
network, the branches are two-terminal components and the nodes are points of interconnection. Suppose
that to each branch of the graph we assign arbitrarily a branch potential difference Wk and a branch current
Fk f or k = 1, 2, . . . , b, and suppose that they are measured with respect to arbitrarily picked associated
reference directions. If the branch potential differences W1 , W2 , . . . , Wb satisfy all the constraints imposed by
KVL and if the branch currents F1 , F2 , . . . , Fb satisfy all the constraints imposed by KCL, then
b
ÿ
W k Fk = 0
k=1
Tellegen’s theorem is extremely general; it is valid for any lumped network that contains any elements, lin-
ear or nonlinear, passive or active, time-varying or time-invariant. The generality is extended when Wk and Fk
are linear operations on the set of potential differences and on the set of branch currents (respectively) since
linear operations don’t affect KVL and KCL.
Incidence matrix: The nt ◊nf matrix Aa is called node-to-branch incidence matrix for the matrix elements
aij being Y
AF = 0
The uniqueness condition for the potentials (KVL) in vector-matrix form:
W = AT w
where wk are the absolute potentials at the nodes to the reference node P0 .
Using KVL:
vs2 RL
PL = i2L RL =
(Rs + RL )2
To find the value of R L that absorbs maximum power from the given practical source, we differentiate
with respect to RL :
Rs = R L
Definition
An independent voltage source in series with a resistance Rs , or an independent current source in parallel
with a resistance Rs , delivers maximum power to a load resistance RL such that RL = Rs .
maximum power transfer requirement that RL = Rs = RT H will provide
vs2 v2
Pmax |deliveredtoload = = TH
4Rs 4RT H
8.1 Example:
Choose a load resistance so that maximum power is transferred to it from the amplifier, and calculate the
Solution:
Since it is the load resistance we are asked to determine, the maximum power theorem applies. The first
step is to find the Thevenin equivalent of the rest of the circuit. We first determine the Thevenin equivalent
resistance, which requires that we remove RL and short-circuit the independent source as in figure below
Since vfi = 0, the dependent current source is an open circuit, and RT H = 1k . This can be verified by
connecting an independent 1 A current source across the 1 k resistor; vfi will still be zero, so the dependent
source remains inactive and hence contributes nothing to RT H .
In order to obtain maximum power delivered into the load, RL should be set to RT H = 1k .
To find vT H we consider the circuit shown in figure, which is figure with RL removed.
3864
vfi = (2.5 ◊ 10≠3 sin440t)( )
300 + 3864
so that our Thevenin equivalent is a voltage ≠69.6sin440tmV in series with 1 k .
The maximum power is given by
vT2 H
Pm ax = = 1.211sin2 440tµW
4RT H
The impulse response for each voltage is the inverse Laplace transform of the corresponding transfer
function. It represents the response of the circuit to an input voltage consisting of an impulse or Dirac delta
function.
The impulse response for the inductor voltage is
After the above switch is closed Kirchoff’s voltage law can be applied which gives:
di
Vs = Ri + L
dt
Then rearranging the above we obtain the following equation:
di R
= ≠ dt
i≠(R)
Vs L
We now integrate each side and using x and y as variables for the integration we get:
⁄ i(t) ⁄ t
dx R
=≠ dt
0 x ≠ ( VRs ) L 0
i(t) ≠ ( VRs ) R
ln =≠ t
I0 ≠ ( VRs ) L
where I0 is the current at time t=0 and i(t) is the current at any time after 0. Taking inverse logs and
rearranging gives us the following equation:
Vs Vs
i(t) = + (I0 ≠ )e≠(R/L)t
R R
When the initial energy in the inductor is 0, I0 is zero hence the above becomes:
Vs Vs
i(t) = ≠ e≠(R/L)t
R R
i(t) = Ae≠kt + Bt = C
It contains two parts:
1. The Complementary Function (CF), Ae≠kt , is the transient. -kt depends on the circuit parameters
L and R only, so dictating that the time for transient decay is dependent only on the circuit itself.
2. The Particular Integral (PI), Bt + C, a ramp output, is the steady state. Note again, the type of
steady state solution (long-term output) depends directly upon the type of applied voltage (input).
Note:
• If b and c are both zero (zero applied voltage), the steady state is zero. (Zero input implies zero steady
state output)
• If b = 0 and c is not zero, the steady state solution is constant. (Constant input implies constant steady
state output)
• If b is not zero, the steady state solution is a ramp. (Ramp input implies ramp steady state output)
The equation that describes the response of the system is obtained by applying KVL around the mesh
vR + vL + vc = V s
The current flowing in the circuit is
dvc
i=C
dt
And thus the voltages vR and vL are given by
dvc
vR = iR = RC
dt
di d2 vc
vL = L = LC 2
dt dt
Therefore,
d2 vc R dvc 1 1
2
+ + vc = vs
vcp = Vs
Assuming a homogeneous solution is of the form Aest and by substituting we get
R 1
s2 + s+ =0
L LC
By defining we get
R 1
–= , Ê0 = Ô
2L LC
Transfer function:
Vc (s) 1
=
Vs (s) LCs2 + RCs + 1
The resonant frequency here is defined as the frequency at which the amplitude of the impedance or the
admittance of the circuit has a minimum.
1
f= Ô
2fi LC
d2 v(t) R dv(t) 1 1
+ + v(t) = vs (t)
dt2 L dt LC LC
Assuming that the input is a complex exponential whose real part is the given vs (t) provides:
vs (t) = 2ejÊt
The output is assumed to have the phasor form:
v(t) = V̄ ejÊt
where V̄ contains the (unknown) magnitude and phase of the output voltage.
R 1 1
≠(jÊ)2 V̄ ejÊt + (jÊ)V̄ ejÊt + (jÊ)V̄ ejÊt = 2ejÊt
L LC LC
dividing through by ejÊt and noting that j 2 = ≠1, results in
so that
shop.ssb cra ck.com [
1
LC
R
≠ Ê 2 + j Ê]V̄ =
L
2
LC
2/LC
V̄ = 1
LC ≠ Ê2 + j R
LÊ
2/LC
| V |= Ò
1
( LC ≠ Ê 2 )2 + ( R
L Ê)
2
RÊ/L
” V = ≠tan≠1 ( 1 )
LC≠ Ê2
the voltage and current at the input terminals are V1 and I1 , and V2 and I2 are specified at the output
port. The directions of I1 and I2 are both customarily selected as into the network at the upper conductors.
Since the network is linear and contains no independent sources within it, I1 may be considered to be
the superposition of two components, one caused by V1 and the other by V2 . When the same argument is
applied to I2 , we may begin with the set of equations
I1 = y11 V1 + y12 V 2
I2 = y21 V1 + y22 V 2
where the y’s are no more than proportionality constants, or unknown coefficients, for the present. How-
ever, it should be clear that their dimensions must be A/V, or S. They are therefore called the y (or admit-
tance) parameters.
Define column (2x1) matrix I,
5 6
I
I= 1
I2
Define square (2x2) matrix y,
5 6
y y12
y = 11
y21 y22
Define column (2x1) matrix V,
5 6
V
V = 1
V2
Thus, we may write the matrix equation, I = yV
Therefore,
shop.ssb cra ck.com 5 6 5
I1
I2
y V
= 11 1
y21 V1
y12 V2
y22 V2
6
Each of the y parameters may be described as a current-voltage ratio with either V1 = 0 (the input
terminals short-circuited) or V2 = 0 (the output terminals short-circuited):
I1
y11 = |V
V1 2=0
I1
y12 = |V
V2 1=0
I2
y21 = |V
V1 2=0
I2
y22 = |V
V2 1=0
Because each parameter is an admittance which is obtained by short- circuiting either the output or the
input port, the y parameters are known as the short-circuit admittance parameters. The specific name of
y11 is the short-circuit input admittance, y22 is the short-circuit output admittance, and y12 and y21 are the
short-circuit transfer admittances.
Impedance parameters
let us consider the voltage V1 as the response produced by two current sources I1 and I2 . We thus write
for V1
V1 = z11 I1 + z12 I2
similarly for V2
V2 = z21 I1 + z22 I2
Matrix V = ZI gives
5 6 5 6 5 6
V1 z z12 I1
= 11
V2 z21 z22 I2
The most informative description of the z parameters, is obtained by setting each of the currents equal
to zero.
V1
Z11 = |I
I1 2=0
Hybrid parameters
The hybrid parameters are defined by writing the pair of equations relating V1 , I1 , V2 and I2 as if V1 and I2
were the independent variables:
V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 V2
5 6 5 6
V1 I
=h 1
I2 V2
The nature of the parameters is made clear by first setting V2 = 0. Thus,
h11 = VI11 |V2=0 , short-circuit input impedance
h21 = II21 |V2=0 , short-circuit forward current gain
Let I1 = 0
h12 = VV12 |I1=0 , open-circuit reverse voltage gain
h22 = VI22 |I1=0 , open-circuit output admittance
Since the parameters represent an impedance, an admittance, a voltage gain,and a current gain, they are
called the ’hybrid’ parameters.
”(t ≠ t0 ) = 0, t ”= t0
⁄ t0 +Á
”(t ≠ t0 )dt = 1
where Á is a small constant. Thus, this ’function’ has a non-zero value only at the point t0 . For t0 > 0≠ ,
we therefore find the Laplace transform to be
⁄ Œ
L[”(t ≠ t0 )] = e≠st ”(t ≠ t0 )dt = e≠st
0≠
Exponential Function
⁄ Œ
1
L[e≠–t u(t)] = e≠–t e≠st =
0≠ s+–
Ramp Function
⁄ Œ
1
L[tu(t)] = te≠st dt =
0≠ s2
Shifting property
L[eat f (t)] = F (s ≠ a)
Time-Shift property
⁄ Œ ⁄ Œ
L[f (t ≠ a)u(t ≠ a)] = e≠st f (t ≠ a)u(t ≠ a)dt = e≠st f (t ≠ a)dt = e≠as F (s)
0≠ a≠
14
shop.ssb cra ck.com
Application of Fourier series
• The Fourier theorem states that provided a function f (t) satisfies certain key properties, it may be
represented by the infinite series
Network(Theory(Design(MCQs(
!
1.''One'coulomb'charge'is'equal'to'the'charge'on'
(a)' ! 6.24&×10*+ &,-,./0123& (b)' 4 6.24×&1056 &,-,./0123&
(c)' . 6.24×10*+ &!/173& (d)' (9)&212,&1;&/ℎ,&!41=,&
'
2.''The'correct'relation'between'energy'and'charge'is'
(a)' Energy'='voltage'/'charge' (b)' Charge'='Energy'x'voltage'
L.M
(c)' Energy& = &voltage& charge ' (d)' Energy'='voltage'x'charge'
'
3.''In'a'practical'voltage'source,'the'terminal'voltage'
(a)' cannot'be'less'than'source' (b)' cannot'be'higher'than'source'
voltage' voltage'
(c)' is'always'less'than'source' (d)' is'always'equal'to'source'voltage'
voltage'
'
4.''An'ideal'current'source'has'
(a)' infinite'source'resistance' (b)' zero'source'resistance'
(c)' large'value'of'source'resistance' (d)' finite'value'of'source'resistance'
'
05.'Kirchhoff’s'laws'are'applicable'to'
(a)' dc'only' (b)' as'sinusoidal'wave'only'
(c)' dc'and'ac'sinusoidal'waves' (d)' all'wave'shapes'
'
06.'When'determining'The'venin’s'resistance'of'a'circuit'
(a)' all'sources'must'be'open' (b)' all'sources'must'be'short'circuited'
circuited'
(c)' all' voltage' sources' must' be' (d)' all'sources'must'be'replaced'by'
open' circuited' and' all' current' their'internal'resistances'
sources'must'be'short'circuited'
'
07.'A'source'is'delivering'maximum'power'to'a'resistance'through'a'network.'The'
ratio'of'
power'delivered'to'the'source'power'
(a)' is'always'0.5' (b)' may'be'0.5'or'less'
(c)' may'be'0.5'or'less'or'more' (d)' may'be'0.5'or'more'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Network'Theory'Design'MCQs'
08.'Three'resistance'of'15Ω'each'are'connected'in'delta.'The'resistance'of'
equivalent'star'will'
have'a'value'of'
(a)' 12Ω' (b)' 5Ω'
(c)' '5/3Ω' (d)' 45Ω'
'
09.'In'a'purely'inductive'circuit'the'current'…….the'voltage'by'…..'
(a)' lags,'0°''' (b)' leads,'90°'''
(c)' 'lags,'90°' (d)' lags,'45°'
'
10.'In'a'purely'capacitive'circuit,'the'current..…..the'voltage'by…….'
(a)' lags,'0°' (b)' leads,'90°'
(c)' lags,'90°' (d)' lags,'45°'
'
'
11.'A'bulb'rated'at'60W,'120V'is'used'for'30'minutes.'The'charge'associated'with'
this'
operation'is'
(a)' 3600'C' (b)' 900'C'
(c)' 7200'C' (d)' 60C'
'
12.'For'an'ideal'transformer,'
(a)' both'z'and'y'parameters'exist.' (b)' neither'z'nor'y'parameters'exist.'
(c)' z]parameters'exist,'but'not'the' (d)' y]parameters'exist,'but'not'the'z]
y]parameters.' parameters.'
'
13.''Superposition'theorem'is'applicable'only'to'networks'that'are:'
(a)' linear' (b)' nonlinear'
(c)' time]invariant' (d)' passive'
'
'14.'The'rms'value'of'the'a]c'voltage'v(t)'='200sin'314't'is:'
(a)' 200'V' (b)' 314'V'
(c)' 157.23'V' (d)' 141.42'V'
'
15.''Maximum'power'is'delivered'from'a'source'of'complex'impedance'NO 'to'a'
connected'load'of'Scomplex'impedance'NP 'when'
(a)' (A)'NP & = & NQ ' (b)' (B)'│NP │& = │NQ │'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Network'Theory'Design'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Network'Theory'Design'MCQs'
!
1.!!(a)! 2.!(d)! 3.!(b)! 4.!(a)! 5.!(d)! 6.!(d)! 7.!(b)! 8.!(b)! 9.!(c)! 10.!(b)!
11.!(b)! 12.!(a)! 13.!(a)! 14.!(d)! 15.!(d)! 16.!(b)! 17.!(b)! 18.!(b)! 19.!(b)! 20.!(d)!
!
'
'
Switching Theory
Contents
1 Traffic 2
2 Switching systems 2
1
Page: 2
1 Traffic
The traffic is defined as the occupancy of server, its basic purpose is to determine the conditions under which
adequate service is provided to subscribers while making economical use of the resources.
Statistics
The statistical description of a traffic is important for the analysis and design of any switching network.
• Calling rate
This is the average number of requests for connection that are made per unit time. If the instant in
time that a call request arises is a random variable, the calling rate may be stated as the probability
that a call request will occur in a certain short interval of time.
If ’n’ is the the average number of call to and from a terminal during a period T seconds, the calling
rate is defined as
n
⁄=
T
• Holding time
The average holding time or service time ’h’ is the average duration of occupancy of a traffic path by a
call. For voice traffic, it is the average holding time per call in hours or 100 seconds and for data traffic,
average transmission per message in seconds. The reciprocal of the average holding time referred to as
service (µ) in calls per hour is given as
1
µ=
h
nh ⁄
A= = ⁄h =
T µ
2 Switching systems
The communication switching system enables the universal connectivity. The universal connectivity is realized
when any entity in one part of the world can communicate with any other entity in another of the world. In
many ways telecommunications will act as a substitute for the increasingly expensive physical transportation.
The telecommunication links and switching were mainly designed for voice communication, with the
appropriate equipments they can be used to transmit data. Therefore it needs new facilities including very
high bandwidth switch data networks and large communication satellites with small, cheap earth antennas.
• Symmetric network
Symmetric network is the one where number of inlets is equal the number of outlets of a switching
system.
if user-A wants to use the network it need to first ask for the request to obtain the one and then user-A
can communicate with user-C. During the connection phase if user-B tries to call/communicate with user-D
or any other user it will get busy signal from the network.
Packet switching
In packet switching network unlike CS network, it is not required to establish the connection initially. The
connection/channel is available to use by many users. But when capacity or number of users increases then
it will lead to congestion in the network. Packet switched networks are mainly used for data and voice
applications requiring non-real time scenarios.
If user-A wants to send data/information to user-C and if user-B wants to send data to user-D, it is
simultaneously possible. Here information is padded with header which contains addresses of source and
destination. This header is sniffed by intermediate switching nodes to determine their route and destination.
• Offered traffic A
• Carried traffic Ac (flow traffic)
• Block traffic Ab (loss traffic)
Parameters:
• Call completion rate CCR: It is defined as the ratio of the number of the calls to the number of
call attempts.
• Busy hour call attempts: The number of call attempts in the busy hour is called busy hour call
attempts BHCA.
Average busy hour calls = BHCA x CCR
P1 µ1 ≠ ⁄o Po f or K = 0
dPk (t)
= Pk≠1 (t)⁄k≠1 ≠ ⁄k Pk (t) f or k Ø 1
dt
dPk (t)
= ≠⁄0 P0 (t)....f or k = 0
dt
For constant birth rate ⁄
dPk (t)
= Pk≠1 (t)⁄ ≠ ⁄Pk (t) f or k Ø 1
dt
dPk (t)
= ≠⁄P0 (t)....f or k = 0
dt
Now, we assume certain boundary conditions i.e. at time t = 0, the system is in state zero or no birth
have taken place. So, we have
Pk (0) = 1 f or K = 0
Pk (0) = 0 f or K ”= 0
Therefore,
Po (t) = e≠⁄t
Thus for k = 1
dp1 (t)
= ≠⁄P1 (t) + ⁄e≠⁄t
dt
P1 (t) = ⁄te≠⁄t f or k = 2
(⁄t)2 e≠⁄t
P2 (t) =
2!
Thus, the general solution or equation is,
(⁄t)2 e≠⁄t
P2 (t) =
k!
• The rejected traffic by a particular resources may be hand. by another resources in Telecommunication
switching network.
• After sometime the rejected traffic may return to the same resources.
• The overflow traffic is actually serviced when the resources become available but it is virtually seen
that the traffic is serviced by the resources. Here call is accepted and allowed to proceed with his
information exchange process.
Considering these three cases, there are three models of loss systems -
9 Delay systems
Markovian queuing model
An M/M/c queue is a stochastic process whose state space is the set 0, 1, 2, 3, ... where the value corresponds
to the number of customers in the system, including any currently in service.
• Arrivals occur at rate ⁄ according to a Poisson process and move the process from state i to i+1.
• Service times have an exponential distribution with parameter Î in the M/M/c queue.
• There are c servers, which serve from the front of the queue. If there are less than c jobs, some of the
servers will be idle. If there are more than c jobs, the jobs queue in a buffer.
• The buffer is of infinite size, so there is no limit on the number of customers it can contain.
Markov process, named after the Russian mathematician Andrey Markov, is a time-varying random
phenomenon for which a specific property the Markov property holds.
Markov Chain: If we assume that the state space, I, is discrete, then the Markov process is known as
a Markov Chain
DTMC(Discrete Time Markov Chain): If the parametric space , T, is also discrete, then the Markov
chain is known as a discrete time Markov chain. In this case we let T= 0,1,2,.... For a DTMC the Markov
property can be stated as
pn = (1 ≠ fl)fln fl<1
Transient solution
The transient probabilities pn(t)=PrX(t)=n for an M/M/1 queue are given by
(y/2)n+2k
In (y) = Œ
k=0
k | (n + k) |
Finite capacity
In an M/M/c/K queue only K customers can queue at any one time. Any further arrivals to the queue are
considered ”lost”. We assume that K Ø c. The model has transition rate matrix
on the state space 0, 1, 2, ..., c, ..., K. In the case where c = K, the M/M/c/c queue is also known as the
Erlang-B model.
Queue discipline
The queue discipline describes the method used to determine the order in which customers are served. The
most common queue discipline is the FCFS discipline (first come, first served), in which customers are served
in the order of their arrival. Under the LCFS discipline (last come, first served), the most recent arrivals
are the first to enter service. If the next customer to enter service is randomly chosen from those customers
waiting for service it is referred to as the SIRO discipline (service in random order).
Finally we consider priority queuing disciplines. A priority discipline classifies each arrival into one of
Multiple server
A larger number of operational waiting line systems include multiple servers. These models can be very
complex, so in this section we present only the most basic multiple-server (or channel) waiting line structure.
This system includes a single waiting line and a service facility with several independent servers in parallel.
An example of a multiple-server system is an airline ticket and check-in counter, where passengers line up
in a roped-off single line waiting for one of several agents for service. The same waiting line structure is
frequently found at the post office, where customers in a single line wait for service from several postal clerks.
The formulas for determining the operating characteristics for the multiple-server model are based on the
same assumptions as the single-server model–Poisson arrival rate, exponential service times, infinite calling
population and queue length, and FIFO queue discipline. Also, recall that in the single-server model, m > l;
however, in the multiple-server model, sm > l, where s is the number of servers. The operating characteristics
formulas are as follows.
The probability that there are no customers in the system (all servers are idle) is
The probability that a customer arriving in the system must wait for service (i.e., the probability that all
the servers are busy) is
Switching)Theory)MCQs)
1.'''Internet'uses'
(a)' Packet'switching' (b)' Circuit'switching'
(c)' Telephone'switching' (d)' Telex'switching'
'
2.''The'example'of'electromechanical'switching'system'''
(a)' Crossbar'switching'system'' (b)' Reed'relay'switching'system''
(c)' Magneto'switching'system'' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
3.''Which'type'of'switching'is'inefficient'of'transferring'long'messages?''
(a)' Circuit'switching'' (b)' Message'switching''
(c)' Packet'switching'' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
4.''The'another'name'of'message'switching'is''
(a)' Line'switching'' (b)' Store'and'forward'switching''
(c)' Revers'switching' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
5.''In'case'of'speed'of'dialing,'which'type'of'switch'is'advantageous'''
(a)' Crossbar'switch'' (b)' Stronger'switch''
(c)' Reed'relay'switch'' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
6.''The'expression'for'blocking'probability'of'STT'switch'is'
(a)' ( (b)' % (
% ' ! = 1− '
! = 1− 1− ' &
&
(c)' %* ' ( (d)' ! = 1 − , ' ( '
! =) 1 − 1 − '
+
'
!
Answers:!Switching!Theory!MCQs!
'
1.!!(a)! 2.!(a)! 3.!(b)!! 4.!(b)! 5.!(c)! 6.!(a)! ! ! ! !
'
Information Technology
Contents
1 Operating system 2
2 RDBMS 7
3 Software engineering 20
4 Programming in C 27
5 Object-oriented programming 33
1
Page: 2 shop.ssbcrack.com
1 Operating system
Process
A process is more than just a copy of a program in memory. An executable program is like
a recipe. It’s a series of instructions which the computer reads in order to accomplish a task.
When a cook prepares a dish, he reads the recipe, gathers all the materials the recipe calls for,
and combines them as the recipe dictates. This is similar to the way that a program is run.
When you run a program on your computer the operating system gathers resources (like
memory and CPU time) and begins following the instructions listed in the executable. The
OS must keep track of which instruction it’s performing at any given moment, and the current
state of the program. All of this information, including the program itself, the list of resources
allocated to it, and its state information, are part of a process.
In multi-tasking operating systems, like Windows (95 and later), Linux, and MacOS, multiple
processes can be run by the operating system at the same time, with each process taking turns
running on the CPU. The operating system allocates time for each process to run on the CPU,
and switches between each so quickly that they appear to run simultaneously. MS-DOS, which
preceded Microsoft Windows, only ran one process one at a time.
Processes are used to carry out every task that needs to be performed by the computer.
The operating system itself is a process. It spawns (or starts) processes that run the display,
interact with the keyboard, run the mouse, and interact with disk drives. There are processes
that are started by the user such as word processors, spreadsheets, web browsers, and e-mail
clients. Some of these programs consist of multiple co-operating processes; for example, a web
server might have multiple processes to handle multiple incoming requests at the same time.
Interprocess Communication
shop.ssb cra ck.com
When designing an Operating System is Inter-Process Communication, or IPC. Essentially,
when more than one process is running and sharing the same computer, there might be times
when the processes need to communicate with another process or multiple processes might want
to share the same resource. When this happens, care should be taken not to create certain
dangerous conditions, namely, race conditions, where two processes attempt to use the same
resource at the same time. Which ever is fastest gets first crack at it, but the other process then
gets next crack and so on, confusing the resource. A deadlock occurs when two devices both
lock into a waiting mode, waiting for the other to complete before they start, and so neither can
complete, and other rarer and less predictable errors that are even harder to debug can occur
as well.
Threads
Although threads are sometimes not considered real processes because they do not carry all
the heavy freight of a full process, concurrency using threads is just as fraught with problems
as Inter-Process Communication. The primary difference is that a thread does not attach all
the resources that a full process must. The specific difference lies in the context fields of the
process. Instead of having their own context, threads inherit the context of the main process,
they were spawned from, and so care must be taken that they do not change variables used by
other threads without some communication synchronization happening.
Threads are sometimes called lightweight processes. Both processes and threads provide an
execution environment, but creating a new thread often requires fewer resources than creating
a new process.
Threads exist within a process - every process has at least one. Threads share the process’s
resources, including memory and open files. This makes for efficient, but potentially problematic,
communication.
Concurrency
Concurrency encompasses a host of design issues, including communication among processes,
sharing and competing for resources (such as memory, files, and I/O access), synchronization of
the activities of multiple processes, and allocation of processor time to processes. If more than
one thread exists in system at once, these threads can execute independently or in cooperation.
Problems with concurrent execution can be expressed as follows:
• Concurrent processes (or threads) often need access to shared data and shared resources.
• If there is no controlled access to shared data, it is possible to end up with an inconsistent
view of this data.
• Maintaining data consistency requires mechanisms to ensure the orderly execution of co-
operating processes.
• Race conditions may arise due to different order of the relative execution of various pro-
grams
Deadlock
Deadlock refers to a specific condition when two or more processes are each waiting for another
to release a resource, or more than two processes are waiting for resources in a circular chain.
Deadlock is a common problem in multiprocessing where many processes share a specific type
of mutually exclusive resource known as a software, or soft, lock. Computers intended for the
time-sharing and/or real-time markets are often equipped with a hardware lock (or hard lock)
which guarantees exclusive access to processes, forcing serialization. Deadlocks are particularly
troubling because there is no general solution to avoid (soft) deadlocks.
• Mutual exclusion condition: a resource that cannot be used by more than one process
at a time.
• Hold and wait condition: processes already holding resources may request new re-
sources.
• No pre-emption condition: only a process holding a resource may release it.
• Circular wait condition: two or more processes form a circular chain where each process
waits for a resource that the next process in the chain holds.
Livelock
Livelock is similar to a deadlock, except that the states of the processes involved in the livelock
constantly change with regard to one another, none progressing. Livelock is a special case of
resource starvation; the general definition only states that a specific process is not progressing.
CPU scheduling
Because only one process per CPU can run at any one time, multitasking operating systems
use a concept called multiprogramming to schedule time for each process to run on a CPU. A
scheduler is responsible for giving each process time on the CPU. When the current time slice
expires, the scheduler puts the current process to sleep and the next process is given CPU time.
Some scheduling systems include:
• First Come First Served: The first come, first served (commonly called FIFO â ä first
in, first out) process scheduling algorithm is the simplest process scheduling algorithm. It is
rarely used in modern operating systems, but is sometimes used inside of other scheduling
systems.
• Shortest Process Next:Shortest Process Next (SPN) scheduling, also called Shortest
Job First (SJF) scheduling, assigns the process estimated to complete fastest to the CPU
as soon as CPU time is available.
• Shortest Remaining Time: The Shortest Remaining Time (SRT) scheduling system
is a more intelligent version of SPN that allows shorter processes to skip ahead as they
appear, instead of only processing the shortest process at the time that CPU time becomes
available.
• Round Robin Scheduling: Round Robin scheduling is an older method of CPU time
sharing. Each process is given a certain amount of CPU time (a time slice), and if it is
not finished by the end of the time slice, the process is moved to the back of the process
queue, and the next process in line is moved to the CPU.
A common variant on Round Robin allows a process to give up the remainder of its
time slice if it doesn’t need it. This might be because it is waiting for a particular event,
or because it is completed.
• Priority Scheduling: In Priority Scheduling, each process is given a priority, and higher
priority methods are executed first, while equal priorities are executed First Come First
Served or Round Robin.
Memory management
Memory Management is a term used to describe how the operating system handles the available
RAM. It is managed at multiple levels.
Segmented memory
On top of the physical memory is the segmented memory. It uses the Memory Management Unit
(MMU) to translate a logical address (specifying a segment and an offset) into a physical address
(or linear address). This allowed early computers to address more than 64 KiB of memory. Most
operating systems today don’t use a segmented memory model, preferring to use paging.
Paged memory
A paged memory model uses the MMU to translate virtual addresses to physical addresses.
With paging, one can map multiple 4 KiB-sized chunks (called pages) to any virtual address. For
example, data at offset 0◊1000 in physical memory might be mapped to address 0◊C0000000 (at
offset 3 GiB) in virtual memory, even though the system may have only 32 MiB of physical RAM
available. Accessing the data at address 0 ◊ C0000000 internally accesses the data at physical
address 0 ◊ 1000. This provides processes with their own virtual address space which contains
only the code and data required by that single process, and everything else is hidden. This way,
a process can’t corrupt another process’ code or data, improving security and reliability.
Allocated memory
With paging, memory is managed in 4 KiB-sized chunks. Most applications require the ability
to be able to get only a fraction of that size, to store data. The memory allocator gets a big
chunk of memory and divides this into much smaller chunks. which it gives to the applications
when requested.
Virtual memory
Virtual memory is a memory management technique that offers two main benefits:
Virtual memory is very useful and is implemented in most operating systems by using the
memory management unit (MMU) in the CPU.
The second is accomplished by the MMU setting up a small, contiguous portion of the
hard drive and treating it like physical RAM. That is, the operating system will place memory
segments or pages into the file as if it were loading it into actual RAM. Thus, it has a place to
hold ”unused” pages of memory until they are needed and have a place to ”Swap Out” memory
segments that are no longer needed in memory.
File systems
A file system is a way of organizing information on a physical drive or other media (e.g, RAM)
for access. In general, file systems can be divided into several groups:
• Charsets support - for example, FAT does not allow use of some symbols in file names,
while NTFS does.
• Long file names - for ext4, 256 chars; FAT16 8+3 chars max
Abstraction
One of the main points and features of a filesystem is abstraction. With a filesystem, we can
organize our data into files, directories, and other constructs, and manipulate them in various
ways. To open a file, you need only its path; it’s not necessary to figure out the exact location
on disk and instruct the hard drive controller to move the read head to that position.
This data abstraction is important for reasons like portability, security and convenience.
Allocation
The main idea behind allocation is effective utilization of file space and fast access of the
files. There are three types of allocation - Contiguous allocation, Linked allocation and Indexed
allocation.
I/O systems
I/O Subsystem is responsible to provide many services related to I/O - scheduling, buffering,
caching, error handling, spooling and device reservation.
I/O Hardware
Daisy chain: When device A has a cable that plugs into device B, and device B has a
cable that plugs into device C, and device C plugs into a port on the computer, this arrangement
is called a daisy chain. It usually operates as a bus.
Controller: A controller is a collection of electronics that can operate a port, a bus, or a
device. A serial-port controller is an example of a simple device controller. This is a single chip
in the computer that controls the signals on the wires of a serial port.
I/O port: An I/O port typically consists of four registers, called the status , control, data-in,
and data-out registers.
Polling: Polling is a process by which a host waits for controller response.It is a looping
process, reading the status register over and over until the busy bit of status register becomes
clear. The controller uses/sets the busy bit when it is busy working on a command, and clears
the busy bit when it is ready to accept the next command. The host signals its wish via the
command-ready bit in the command register. The host sets the command-ready bit when a
command is available for the controller to execute.
Direct Memory Access (DMA) : Many computers avoid burdening the main CPU with
programmed I/O by offloading some of this work to a special purpose processor. This type of
processor is called, a Direct Memory Access(DMA) controller. A special control unit is used
to transfer block of data directly between an external device and the main memory, without
intervention by the processor. This approach is called Direct Memory Access(DMA).
Interrupts: Interrupts allow devices to notify the CPU when they have data to transfer or
when an operation is complete, allowing the CPU to perform other duties when no I/O transfers
need its immediate attention.
2 RDBMS
A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables you to store,
modify, and extract information from a database. There are many different types of DBMSs,
ranging from small systems that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on main-
frames.
RDMS Relational Database Management System and pronounced as separate letters, a type
of database management system (DBMS) that stores data in the form of related tables. Rela-
tional databases are powerful because they require few assumptions about how data is related
or how it will be extracted from the database. As a result, the same database can be viewed in
many different ways.
An important feature of relational systems is that a single database can be spread across
several tables. This differs from flat-file databases, in which each database is self-contained in a
single table.
ER-model
ER, Entity relationship model defines the conceptual view of database. It works around real
world entity and association among them. At view level, ER model is considered well for
designing databases.
Entity
A real-world thing either animate or inanimate that can be easily identifiable and distinguishable.
For example, in a school database, student, teachers, class and course offered can be considered
as entities. All entities have some attributes or properties that give them their identity.
An entity set is a collection of similar types of entities. Entity set may contain entities with
Attributes
Entities are represented by means of their properties, called attributes. All attributes have
values. For example, a student entity may have name, class, age as attributes.
There exist a domain or range of values that can be assigned to attributes. For example, a
student’s name cannot be a numeric value. It has to be alphabetic. A student’s age cannot be
negative.
Types of Attributes:
• Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided further. For example,
student’s phone-number is an atomic value of 10 digits.
• Composite attributes are made of more than one simple attribute. For example, a
student’s complete name may have first-name and last-name.
• Derived attributes are attributes, which do not exist physical in the database, but there
values are derived from other attributes presented in the database.
• Single valued attributes contain on single value. For example: social security number.
• Multi-value attribute may contain more than one values. For example, a person can
have more than one phone numbers.
Key is an attribute or collection of attributes that uniquely identifies an entity among entity
set.
Super Key: Set of attributes (one or more) that collectively identifies an entity in an entity
set.
Candidate Key:Minimal super key is called candidate key that is, supers keys for which
no proper subset are a superkey. An entity set may have more than one candidate key.
Primary Key: This is one of the candidate key chosen by the database designer to uniquely
identify the entity set.
Relationship
The association among entities is called relationship. For example, employee entity has relation
works with department.
Relationship of similar type is called relationship set. Like entities, a relationship too can
have attributes. These attributes are called descriptive attributes.
Mapping
Cardinality defines the number of entities in one entity set which can be associated to the
number of entities of other set via relationship set.
One-to-one: one entity from entity set A can be associated with at most one entity of
entity set B and vice versa.
Many-to-one: More than one entities from entity set A can be associated with at most one
entity of entity set B but one entity from entity set B can be associated with more than one
entity from entity set A.
Many-to-many: one entity from A can be associated with more than one entity from B
and vice versa.
Relational model
In the relational model of a database, all data is represented in terms of tuples, grouped into
relations. A database organized in terms of the relational model is a relational database.
The purpose of the relational model is to provide a declarative method for specifying data
and queries: users directly state what information the database contains and what information
they want from it, and let the database management system software take care of describing
data structures for storing the data and retrieval procedures for answering queries.
Relational algebra is a procedural query language, which takes instances of relations as
input and yields instances of relations as output. It uses operators to perform queries. An
operator can be either unary or binary. They accept relations as their input and yields relations
as their output. Relational algebra is performed recursively on a relation and intermediate
results are also considered relations.
Fundamental operations of Relational algebra:
• Set operators: The relational algebra uses set union, set difference, and Cartesian prod-
uct from set theory, but adds additional constraints to these operators.
For set union and set difference, the two relations involved must be union-compatibleâ that
is, the two relations must have the same set of attributes. Because set intersection can be
defined in terms of set difference, the two relations involved in set intersection must also
be union-compatible.
Cartesian productis a mathematical operation which returns a set (or product set or
simply product) from multiple sets. That is, for sets A and B, the Cartesian product A
à B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) where a â A and b â B.
A ◊ B = (a, b) | a Á A and b Á B
• Union Operation (U): Union operation performs binary union between two given rela-
tions and is defined as -
r U s = [t | t Á r or t Á s]
• Set Difference ( - ): The result of set difference operation is tuples which present in one
relation but are not in the second relation.
Notation: r - s
• Rename operation ( fl ): Results of relational algebra are also relations but without any
name. The rename operation allows us to rename the output relation. rename operation
is denoted with small greek letter rho.
Notation: fl ◊ (E)
Note:
The fundamental assumption of the relational model is that all data is represented as math-
ematical n-ary relations, an n-ary relation being a subset of the Cartesian product of n domains.
In the mathematical model, reasoning about such data is done in two-valued predicate logic,
meaning there are two possible evaluations for each proposition: either true or false (and in
particular no third value such as unknown, or not applicable, either of which are often associ-
ated with the concept of NULL). Data are operated upon by means of a relational calculus or
relational algebra, these being equivalent in expressive power.
The relational model of data permits the database designer to create a consistent, logical
representation of information. Consistency is achieved by including declared constraints in the
database design, which is usually referred to as the logical schema. The theory includes a process
of database normalization whereby a design with certain desirable properties can be selected
from a set of logically equivalent alternatives. The access plans and other implementation
and operation details are handled by the DBMS engine, and are not reflected in the logical
model. This contrasts with common practice for SQL DBMSs in which performance tuning
often requires changes to the logical model.
Database design
The problem with data is that it changes. Not just its individual items’ values change, but their
structure and use, especially when kept over extended periods of time. Even for public records
that may have been kept for hundreds of years, there are occasionally changes in what data
elements are captured and recorded and how. Therefore, a method to avoid problems due to
duplication of data values and modification of structure and content has been developed. This
method is called normalization.
Normalization
Normalization is the formalization of the design process of making a database compliant with
the concept of a Normal Form. It addresses various ways in which we may look for repeating
data values in a table. There are several levels of the Normal Form, and each level requires that
the previous level be satisfied.
The normalization process is based on collecting an exhaustive list of all data items to be
maintained in the database and starting the design with a few ”superset” tables. Theoretically,
it may be possible, although not very practical, to start by placing all the attributes in a single
table. For best results, start with a reasonable breakdown.
First Normal Form (1NF): A table is 1NF if every cell contains a single value, not a list
of values. This properties is known as atomic. 1NF also prohibits repeating group of columns
such as item1 , item2 , .., itemN . Instead, you should create another table using one-to-many
relationship.
Second Normal Form (2NF): A table is 2NF, if it is 1NF and every non-key column
is fully dependent on the primary key. Furthermore, if the primary key is made up of several
columns, every non-key column shall depend on the entire set and not part of it.
Third Normal Form (3NF): A table is 3NF, if it is 2NF and the non-key columns are
independent of each others. In other words, the non-key columns are dependent on primary key,
only on the primary key and nothing else. For example, suppose that we have a Products table
with columns product-ID (primary key), name and unit price. The column discount rate shall
not belong to Products table if it is also dependent on the unit price, which is not part of the
primary key.
Boyce/Codd Normal Form: Reduce third normal form entities to Boyce/Codd normal
form (BCNF) by ensuring that they are in third normal form for any feasible choice of candidate
key as primary key. In short, Boyce/Codd normal form (BCNF) addresses dependencies between
columns that are part of a Candidate Key. Some of the normalizations performed above may
Integrity Rules
• Entity Integrity Rule: The primary key cannot contain NULL. Otherwise, it cannot
uniquely identify the row. For composite key made up of several columns, none of the
column can contain NULL. Most of the RDBMS check and enforce this rule.
• Referential Integrity Rule: Each foreign key value must be matched to a primary key
value in the table referenced (or parent table). You can insert a row with a foreign key in
the child table only if the value exists in the parent table.
If the value of the key changes in the parent table (e.g., the row updated or deleted), all
rows with this foreign key in the child table(s) must be handled accordingly. You could
either (a) disallow the changes; (b) cascade the change (or delete the records) in the child
tables accordingly; (c) set the key value in the child tables to NULL.
• Business logic Integrity: Beside the above two general integrity rules, there could be
integrity (validation) pertaining to the business logic, e.g., zip code shall be 5-digit within
a certain ranges, delivery date and time shall fall in the business hours; quantity ordered
shall be equal or less than quantity in stock, etc. These could be carried out in validation
rule (for the specific column) or programming logic.
SQL is the standard language for Relation Database System. All relational database man-
agement systems like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, postgres and SQL Server
use SQL as standard database language.
When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the best
way to carry out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the task.
There are various components included in the process. These components are Query Dis-
patcher, Optimization Engines, Classic Query Engine and SQL Query Engine, etc. Classic query
engine handles all non-SQL queries but SQL query engine won’t handle logical files.
File structures
A file is sequence of records stored in binary format. A disk drive is formatted into several
blocks, which are capable for storing records. File records are mapped onto those disk blocks.
• Hash File Organization: This mechanism uses a Hash function computation on some
field of the records. As we know, that file is a collection of records, which has to be mapped
on some block of the disk space allocated to it. This mapping is defined that the hash
computation. The output of hash determines the location of disk block where the records
may exist.
• Clustered File Organization: Clustered file organization is not considered good for
large databases. In this mechanism, related records from one or more relations are kept in
a same disk block, that is, the ordering of records is not based on primary key or search
key. This organization helps to retrieve data easily based on particular join condition.
Other than particular join condition, on which data is stored, all queries become more
expensive.
Sequential files
A sequential file is the most primitive of all file structures. It has no directory and no linking
• Easy to implement
• Provides fast access to the next record using lexicographic order.
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to update - inserting a new record may require moving a large proportion of the
file
• Random access is extremely slow
1. Primary Index: If index is built on ordering ’key-field’ of file it is called Primary Index.
Generally it is the primary key of the relation.
2. Secondary Index: If index is built on non-ordering field of file it is called Secondary
Index.
3. Clustering Index: If index is built on ordering non-key field of file it is called Clustering
Index.
Ordering field is the field on which the records of file are ordered. It can be different from
primary or candidate key of a file. There types are - Sparse index and dense index.
In sparse index, index records are not created for every search key. An index record here
contains search key and actual pointer to the data on the disk. In dense index, there is an
index record for every search key value in the database. This makes searching faster but requires
more space to store index records itself. Index record contains search key value and a pointer
to the actual record on the disk.
Multilevel Index
Index records are comprised of search-key value and data pointers. This index itself is stored
on the disk along with the actual database files. As the size of database grows so does the size
of indices. There is an immense need to keep the index records in the main memory so that
the search can speed up. If single level index is used then a large size index cannot be kept in
memory as whole and this leads to multiple disk accesses.Multi-level Index helps breaking down
the index into several smaller indices in order to make the outer most level so small that it can
be saved in single disk block which can easily be accommodated anywhere in the main memory.
B + Tree
B tree is multi-level index format, which is balanced binary search trees. As mentioned ear-
lier single level index records becomes large as the database size grows, which also degrades
performance.
All leaf nodes of B+ tree denote actual data pointers. B + tree ensures that all leaf nodes
remain at the same height, thus balanced. Additionally, all leaf nodes are linked using link list,
which makes B+ tree to support random access as well as sequential access.
Internal nodes:
• Internal (non-leaf) nodes contains at least â n/2â pointers, except the root node.
• At most, internal nodes contain n pointers.
Leaf nodes:
• Leaf nodes contain at least â n/2â record pointers and â n/2â key values
• At most, leaf nodes contain n record pointers and n key values
• Every leaf node contains one block pointer P to point to next leaf node and forms a linked
list.
Inserting B + Tree
If leaf node overflows:
ACID Properties
• Atomicity: Though a transaction involves several low level operations but this property
states that a transaction must be treated as an atomic unit, that is, either all of its
operations are executed or none. There must be no state in database where the transaction
is left partially completed. States should be defined either before the execution of the
transaction or after the execution/abortion/failure of the transaction.
• Consistency: This property states that after the transaction is finished, its database
must remain in a consistent state. There must not be any possibility that some data is
incorrectly affected by the execution of transaction. If the database was in a consistent
state before the execution of the transaction, it must remain in consistent state after the
execution of the transaction.
• Durability: This property states that in any case all updates made on the database will
persist even if the system fails and restarts. If a transaction writes or updates some data
in database and commits that data will always be there in the database. If the transaction
commits but data is not written on the disk and the system fails, that data will be updated
once the system comes up.
• Isolation: In a database system where more than one transaction are being executed
simultaneously and in parallel, the property of isolation states that all the transactions will
be carried out and executed as if it is the only transaction in the system. No transaction
will affect the existence of any other transaction.
States of Transactions
A transaction in a database can be in one of the following state:
• Active: In this state the transaction is being executed. This is the initial state of every
transaction.
• Partially Committed: When a transaction executes its final operation, it is said to
be in this state. After execution of all operations, the database system performs some
checks e.g. the consistency state of database after applying output of transaction onto the
database.
• Failed: If any checks made by database recovery system fails, the transaction is said to
be in failed state, from where it can no longer proceed further.
Concurrency control
In a multiprogramming environment where more than one transactions can be concurrently
executed, there exists a need of protocols to control the concurrency of transaction to ensure
atomicity and isolation properties of transactions.
Concurrency control protocols, which ensure serializability of transactions, are most desir-
able. Concurrency control protocols can be broadly divided into two categories:
• Binary Locks: a lock on data item can be in two states; it is either locked or unlocked.
• Simplistic: Simplistic lock based protocols allow transaction to obtain lock on every
object before ’write’ operation is performed. As soon as ’write’ has been done, transactions
may unlock the data item.
• Pre-claiming: In this protocol, a transactions evaluations its operations and creates a list
of data items on which it needs locks. Before starting the execution, transaction requests
the system for all locks it needs beforehand. If all the locks are granted, the transaction
executes and releases all the locks when all its operations are over. Else if all the locks are
not granted, the transaction rolls back and waits until all locks are granted.
• Two phase locking: This locking protocol is divides transaction execution phase into
• Strict two phase locking: The first phase of Strict-2PL is same as 2PL. After acquiring
all locks in the first phase, transaction continues to execute normally. But in contrast to
2PL, Strict-2PL does not release lock as soon as it is no more required, but it holds all
locks until commit state arrives. Strict-2PL releases all locks at once at commit point.
3 Software engineering
Information gathering
The Information system designed for an organization must meet the requirements of the end
users of the organization. To obtain what an end user expects from the Information System the
designer must gain complete knowledge of the organization’s working. It is important for the
student to know the information gathering techniques so that no information is overlooked and
the nature and functions of an organization are clearly understood. The main purpose of gath-
ering information is to determine the information requirements of an organization. Information
requirements are often not stated precisely by management.
• Domain analysis: Every software falls into some domain category. The expert people
in the domain can be a great help to analyze general and specific requirements.
Brainstorming: An informal debate is held among various stakeholders and all their
inputs are recorded for further requirements analysis.
Prototyping: Prototyping is building user interface without adding detail functionality
for user to interpret the features of intended software product. It helps giving better idea
of requirements. If there is no software installed at clientâ ès end for developerâ ès
reference and the client is not aware of its own requirements, the developer creates a
prototype based on initially mentioned requirements. The prototype is shown to the
client and the feedback is noted. The client feedback serves as an input for requirement
gathering.
Software requirements analysis may be divided into five areas of effort: (1) problem recog-
nition, (2) evaluation and synthesis, (3) modeling (4) specification, and (5) review.
Analysis methods are related by a set of operational principles:
• The models that depict information, function, and behavior must be partitioned in a
manner that uncovers detail in a layered (or hierarchical) fashion.
• The analysis process should move from essential information toward implementation detail
Modeling
Functional models: Software transforms information, and in order to accomplish this, it must
perform at least three generic functions: input, processing, and output. When functional models
of an application are created, the software engineer focuses on problem specific functions. The
functional model begins with a single context level model (i.e., the name of the software to be
built). Over a series of iterations, more and more functional detail is provided, until a thorough
delineation of all system functionality is represented.
Behavioral models: Most software responds to events from the outside world. This stimu-
lus/response characteristic forms the basis of the behavioral model. A computer program always
exists in some state, an externally observable mode of behavior (e.g., waiting, computing, print-
ing, polling) that is changed only when some event occurs. For example, software will remain
in the wait state until (1) an internal clock indicates that some time interval has passed, (2) an
external event (e.g., a mouse movement) causes an interrupt, or (3) an external system signals
the software to act in some manner. A behavioral model creates a representation of the states
of the software and the events that cause a software to change state.
Models created during requirements analysis serve a number of important roles:
• The model aids the analyst in understanding the information, function, and behavior of a
system, thereby making the requirements analysis task easier and more systematic.
• The model becomes the focal point for review and, therefore, the key to a determination
of completeness, consistency, and accuracy of the specifications.
• The model becomes the foundation for design, providing the designer with an essential
representation of software that can be ”mapped” into an implementation context.
Partitioning
Feasibility analysis
Information systems development projects are usually subjected to one or more feasibility anal-
yses prior to and during their life. In an information systems development project context,
feasibility is the measure of how beneficial the development or enhancement of an informa-
tion system would be to the business. Feasibility analysis is the process by which feasibility is
measured.
Information systems development projects are subjected to at least three interrelated feasi-
bility types-operational feasibility, technical feasibility, and economic feasibility.
• Operational feasibility is the measure of how well particular information systems will
work in a given environment.
• Technical feasibility is the measure of the practicality of a specific technical information
system solution and the availability of technical resources.
• Economic feasibility is the measure of the cost-effectiveness of an information system
solution.
• Logical DFD - This type of DFD concentrates on the system process, and flow of data
in the system.For example in a Banking software system, how data is moved between
different entities.
• Physical DFD - This type of DFD shows how the data flow is actually implemented in the
system. It is more specific and close to the implementation.
DFD Components:
• Entities: Entities are source and destination of information data. Entities are represented
by a rectangles with their respective names.
Levels of DFD
• Level 0: Highest abstraction level DFD is known as Level 0 DFD, which depicts the
entire information system as one diagram concealing all the underlying details. Level 0
DFDs are also known as context level DFDs.
• Level 1: The Level 0 DFD is broken down into more specific, Level 1 DFD. Level 1 DFD
depicts basic modules in the system and flow of data among various modules. Level 1
DFD also mentions basic processes and sources of information.
• Level 2: At this level, DFD shows how data flows inside the modules mentioned in Level
1.
Higher level DFDs can be transformed into more specific lower level DFDs with deeper
Structure Charts
Structure chart is a chart derived from Data Flow Diagram. It represents the system in more
detail than DFD. It breaks down the entire system into lowest functional modules, describes
functions and sub-functions of each module of the system to a greater detail than DFD.
Symbols used in construction of structure charts:
• Jump: An arrow is shown pointing inside the module to depict that the control will jump
in the middle of the sub-module.
• Loop: A curved arrow represents loop in the module. All sub-modules covered by loop
repeat execution of module.
• Data flow: A directed arrow with empty circle at the end represents data flow.
• Control flow: A directed arrow with filled circle at the end represents control flow.
input/output design
• Architectural design
The architectural design of a system emphasizes on the design of the systems architecture
which describes the structure, behavior, and more views of that system.
• Logical design
The logical design of a system pertains to an abstract representation of the data flows,
inputs and outputs of the system. This is often conducted via modelling, using an over-
abstract (and sometimes graphical) model of the actual system. In the context of systems
design are included. Logical design includes ER Diagrams i.e. Entity Relationship Dia-
grams.
• Physical design
The physical design relates to the actual input and output processes of the system. This is
laid down in terms of how data is input into a system, how it is verified/authenticated, how
it is processed, and how it is displayed as In Physical design, the following requirements
about the system are decided.
1. Input requirement
2. Output requirements
3. Storage requirements
4. Processing Requirements
5. System control and backup or recovery.
Coding
shop.ssb cra ck.com
Coding is also known as programming phase. The implementation of software design starts in
terms of writing program code in the suitable programming language and developing error-free
executable programs efficiently.
Testing
An estimate says that 50 percentage of whole software development process should be tested.
Errors may ruin the software from critical level to its own removal. Software testing is done
while coding by the developers and thorough testing is conducted by testing experts at various
levels of code such as module testing, program testing, product testing, in-house testing and
testing the product at user’s end. Early discovery of errors and their remedy is the key to
reliable software.
Integration
Software may need to be integrated with the libraries, databases and other program(s). This
stage of SDLC is involved in the integration of software with outer world entities.
Implementation
This means installing the software on user machines. At times, software needs post-installation
configurations at user end. Software is tested for portability and adaptability and integration
related issues are solved during implementation.
4 Programming in C
The C is a general-purpose, procedural, imperative computer programming language developed
in 1972 by Dennis M. Ritchie at the Bell Telephone Laboratories to develop the UNIX operating
system.
The C is the most widely used computer language, it keeps fluctuating at number one scale
of popularity along with Java programming language, which is also equally popular and most
widely used among modern software programmers.
C was adopted as a system development language because it produces code that runs nearly
as fast as code written in assembly language. Some examples of the use of C might be:
• Operating Systems
• Language Compilers
• Assemblers
• Text Editors
• Print Spoolers
Basic syntax
• Tokens in C
A C program consists of various tokens and a token is either a keyword, an identifier, a
constant, a string literal, or a symbol. For example, the following C statement consists of
five tokens:
• Semicolons (;)
In C program, the semicolon is a statement terminator. That is, each individual statement
must be ended with a semicolon. It indicates the end of one logical entity.
• Comments
Comments are like helping text in your C program and they are ignored by the compiler.
They start with /* and terminates with the characters */.
• Identifiers
A C identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, or any other user-defined
item. An identifier starts with a letter A to Z or a to z or an underscore followed by zero
or more letters, underscores, and digits (0 to 9).
• Keyword
Keyword are the reserved words may not be used as constant or variable or any other
identifier names.
Data types
• Basic Types: They are arithmetic types and consists of the two types: (1) integer types
and (2) floating-point types.
Following table gives you details about standard Integer types with its storage sizes and
value ranges:
Following table gives you details about standard Floating-point types with storage sizes
and value ranges and their precision:
• Enumerated types: They are again arithmetic types and they are used to define vari-
ables that can only be assigned certain discrete integer values throughout the program.
– Function returns as void: There are various functions in C which do not return
value or you can say they return void. A function with no return value has the return
type as void. For example void exit (int status)
– Function arguments as void: There are various functions in C which do not accept
any parameter. A function with no parameter can accept as a void. For example, int
rand(void)
– Pointers to void: A pointer of type void * represents the address of an object, but
not its type. For example a memory allocation function void *malloc( size t size );
returns a pointer to void which can be casted to any data type.
• Derived types: They include (1) Pointer types, (2) Array types, (3) Structure types, (4)
Union types and (5) Function types.
Variable
A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can manipulate.
Each variable in C has a specific type, which determines the size and layout of the variable’s
memory; the range of values that can be stored within that memory; and the set of operations
that can be applied to the variable.
The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the underscore character.
It must begin with either a letter or an underscore. Upper and lowercase letters are distinct
because C is case-sensitive. Based on the basic types explained in previous chapter, there will
be the following basic variable types:
Constants
The constants refer to fixed values that the program may not alter during its execution. These
fixed values are also called literals.
Constants can be of any of the basic data types like an integer constant, a floating constant,
a character constant, or a string literal. There are also enumeration constants as well.
The constants are treated just like regular variables except that their values cannot be
modified after their definition.
There are two simple ways in C to define constants:
C Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical
manipulations. C language is rich in built-in operators and provides the following types of
operators:
• Arithmetic Operators
Following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then:
• Relational Operators
Following table shows all the relational operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:
• Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operator works on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables for &,
|, and ·.
• Assignment Operators
There are following assignment operators supported by C language:
• Misc Operators
There are few other important operators including sizeof and ? : supported by C Language.
Decision making
C programming language provides following types of decision making statements.
Loops
C programming language provides the following types of loop to handle looping requirements.
Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When execution
leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed.
Function
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. Every C program has at least
one function, which is main(), and all the most trivial programs can define additional functions.
A function declaration tells the compiler about a function’s name, return type, and param-
eters. A function definition provides the actual body of the function.
A function definition in C programming language consists of a function header and a function
body. Here are all the parts of a function:
• Return Type: A function may return a value. The return type is the data type of
the value the function returns. Some functions perform the desired operations without
returning a value. In this case, the return type is the keyword void.
• Function Name: This is the actual name of the function. The function name and the
parameter list together constitute the function signature.
Parameters: A parameter is like a place holder. When a function is invoked, you pass
a value to the parameter. This value is referred to as actual parameter or argument.
The parameter list refers to the type, order, and number of the parameters of a function.
Parameters are optional; that is, a function may contain no parameters.
• Function Body: The function body contains a collection of statements that define what
the function does.
5 Object-oriented programming
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept
of ”objects”, which are data structures that contain data, in the form of fields, often known
as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. A distinguishing
feature of objects is that an object’s procedures can access and often modify the data fields of
the object with which they are associated (objects have a notion of ”this”). In object-oriented
programming, computer programs are designed by making them out of objects that interact
with one another.
Object
An object can be considered a ”thing” that can perform a set of related activities. The set of
activities that the object performs defines the object’s behavior. For example, the Hand (object)
can grip something, or a Student (object) can give their name or address.
Class
A class is simply a representation of a type of object. It is the blueprint, or plan, or template,
that describes the details of an object. A class is the blueprint from which the individual objects
are created. Class is composed of three things: a name, attributes, and operations.
Encapsulation
The encapsulation is the inclusion-within a program object-of all the resources needed for the
object to function, basically, the methods and the data. In OOP the encapsulation is mainly
achieved by creating classes, the classes expose public methods and properties. A class is kind
of a container or capsule or a cell, which encapsulate a set of methods, attribute and properties
Association
Association is a (*a*) relationship between two classes. It allows one object instance to cause
another to perform an action on its behalf. Association is the more general term that define
the relationship between two classes, where as the aggregation and composition are relatively
special.
Difference between Association, Aggregation, and Composition:
Association is a *has-a* relationship between two classes where there is no particular own-
ership in place. It is just the connectivity between the two classes. When you define a variable
of one class in another class, you enable first to associate functions and properties of the second
class. Then again both Aggregation and Composition are types of Association.
Aggregation is a weak type of Association with partial ownership. For an Aggregation
relationship, we use the term *uses* to imply a weak *has-a* relationship. This is weak compared
to Composition. Then again, weak meaning the linked components of the aggregator may survive
the aggregations life-cycle without the existence of their parent objects. For example, a school
department *uses* teachers. Any teacher may belong to more than one department. And so, if
a department ceases to exist, the teacher will still exist.
On the other hand, Composition is a strong type of Association with full ownership. This
is strong compared to the weak Aggregation. For a Composition relationship, we use the term
*owns* to imply a strong *has-a* relationship. For example, a department *owns* courses,
which means that the any course’s life-cycle depends on the department’s life-cycle. Hence, if a
department ceases to exist, the underlying courses will cease to exist as well.
Whenever there is no ownership in place, we regard such a relationship as just an Association
and we simply use the *has-a* term, or sometimes the verb describing the relationship. For
example, a teacher *has-a* or *teaches* a student. There is no ownership between the teacher
and the student, and each has their own life-cycle.
What is an Interface
In summary the Interface separates the implementation and defines the structure, and this
concept is very useful in cases where you need the implementation to be interchangeable. Apart
from that an interface is very useful when the implementation changes frequently. Some say you
should define all classes in terms of interfaces, but I think recommendation seems a bit extreme.
Interface can be used to define a generic template and then one or more abstract classes to
define partial implementations of the interface. Interfaces just specify the method declaration
(implicitly public and abstract) and can contain properties (which are also implicitly public and
Polymorphism
Polymorphisms is a generic term that means ’many shapes’. More precisely Polymorphisms
means the ability to request that the same operations be performed by a wide range of different
types of things.
At times, I used to think that understanding Object Oriented Programming concepts have
made it difficult since they have grouped under four main concepts, while each concept is closely
related with one another. Hence one has to be extremely careful to correctly understand each
concept separately, while understanding the way each related with other concepts.
Method Overriding
Method overriding is a language feature that allows a subclass to override a specific implemen-
tation of a method that is already provided by one of its super-classes.
A subclass can give its own definition of methods but need to have the same signature as the
method in its super-class. This means that when overriding a method the subclass’s method
has to have the same name and parameter list as the super-class’ overridden method.
Class Diagram
Class diagrams are widely used to describe the types of objects in a system and their relation-
ships. Class diagrams model class structure and contents using design elements such as classes,
packages and objects. Class diagrams describe three different perspectives when designing a
system, conceptual, specification, and implementation. These perspectives become evident as
the diagram is created and help solidify the design.
The Class diagrams, physical data models, along with the system overview diagram are in my
opinion the most important diagrams that suite the current day rapid application development
requirements.
UML notations:
Package diagrams are used to reflect the organization of packages and their elements.
1. Creational Patterns
2. Structural Patterns
3. Behavioral Patterns
Information*Technology*MCQs*
*
Operating*System*
!
1.'''The'part'of'machine'level'instruction,'which'tells'the'central'processor'what'has'to'
be'done,'is'
(a)' Operation'code' (b)' Address'
(c)' Locator' (d)' FlipGFlop'
'
2.'''To'avoid'the'race'condition,'the'number'of'processes'that'may'be'simultaneously'
inside'their'critical'section'is'
(a)' 8' (b)' 1'
(c)' 16' (d)' 0'
'
3.''A'system'program'that'combines'the'separately'compiled'modules'of'a'program'into'
a'form'suitable'for'execution'
(a)' assembler' (b)' linking'loader'
(c)' cross'compiler' (d)' load'and'go'
'
4.'''The'strategy'of'allowing'processes'that'are'logically'runnable'to'be'temporarily'
suspended'is'called'
(a)' preemptive'scheduling' (b)' non'preemptive'scheduling'
(c)' shortest'job'first' (d)' first'come'first'served'
'
5.'''Which'of'the'following'systems'software'does'the'job'of'merging'the'records'from'
two'files'into'one?'
Security'software'
(a)' Utility'program' (b)' Networking'software'
(c)' Documentation'system' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
6.'''Fork'is'
(a)' the'dispatching'of'a'task' (b)' the'creation'of'a'new'job'
(c)' the'creation'of'a'new'process' (d)' increasing'the'priority'of'a'task'
'
7.'''Thrashing'
(a)' is'a'natural'consequence'of'virtual' (b)' can'always'be'avoided'by'swapping'
memory'systems'
(c)' always'occurs'on'large'computers' (d)' can'be'caused'by'poor'paging'
algorithms'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
8.'''Which'of'the'following'instruction'steps,'would'be'written'within'the'diamondG
shaped'box,'of'a'flowchart?'
(a)' S'='B'G'C' (b)' IS'A<10'
(c)' PRINT'A' (d)' DATA'X,4Z'
'
9.'''Which'of'the'following'addressing'modes,'facilitates'access'to'an'operand'whose'
location'is'defined'relative'to'the'beginning'of'the'data'structure'in'which'it'appears?'
(a)' ascending' (b)' sorting'
(c)' index' (d)' indirect'
'
10.''While'running'DOS'on'a'PC,'which'command'would'be'used'to'duplicate'the'entire'
diskette?'
COPY'
(a)' DISKCOPY' (b)' CHKDSK'
(c)' TYPE' (d)' '
'
'
'
11.''What'is'the'name'given'to'the'organized'collection'of'software'that'controls'the'
overall'operation'of'a'computer?'
(a)' Working'system' (b)' Peripheral'system'
(c)' Operating'system' (d)' Controlling'system'
'
12.''The'principle'of'locality'of'reference'justifies'the'use'of'
(a)' reenterable' (b)' non'reusable'
(c)' virtual'memory' (d)' cache'memory'
'
13.'The'register'or'main'memory'location'which'contains'the'effective'address'of'the'
operand'is'known'as'
(a)' pointer' (b)' indexed'register'
(c)' special'location' (d)' scratch'pad'
'
14.''Resolution'of'externally'defined'symbols'is'performed'by'
(a)' Linker' (b)' Loader'
(c)' Compiler' (d)' Assembler'
'
15.'Which'of'the'following'are(is)'Language'Processor(s)'
(a)' assembles' (b)' compilers'
(c)' interpreters' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
16.'In'which'addressing'mode'the'effective'address'of'the'operand'is'the'contents'of'a'
register'specified'in'the'instruction'and'after'accessing'the'operand,'the'contents'of'this'
register'is'incremented'to'point'to'the'next'item'in'the'list?'
(a)' index'addressing' (b)' indirect'addressing'
(c)' auto'increment' (d)' auto'decrement'
'
17.'The'memory'allocation'scheme'subject'to'"external"'fragmentation'is'
(a)' segmentation' (b)' swapping'
(c)' pure'demand'paging' (d)' multiple'contiguous'fixed'partitions'
'
18.'While'working'with'MSGDOS,'which'command'will'you'use'to'transfer'a'specific'file'
from'one'disk'to'another?'
(a)' DISKCOPY' (b)' COPY'
(c)' RENAME' (d)' FORMAT'
'
19.'What'is'the'name'of'the'operating'system'for'the'laptop'computer'called'MacLite?'
Windows'
(a)' DOS' (b)' MSGDOS'
(c)' OZ' (d)' '
'
20.'What'is'the'name'given'to'the'values'that'are'automatically'provided'by'software'to'
reduce'keystrokes'and'improve'a'computer'user's'productivity?'
(a)' Defined'values' (b)' Fixed'values'
(c)' Default'values' (d)' Special'values'
'
21.'An'algorithm'is'best'described'as'
(a)' A'computer'language' (b)' A'step'by'step'procedure'for'solving'a'
problem'
(c)' A'branch'of'mathematics' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
22.'The'process'of'transferring'data'intended'for'a'peripheral'device'into'a'disk'(or'
intermediate'store)'so'that'it'can'be'transferred'to'peripheral'at'a'more'convenient'
time'or'in'bulk,'is'known'as'
(a)' multiprogramming' (b)' spooling'
(c)' caching' (d)' virtual'programming'
'
23.'The'action'of'parsing'the'source'program'into'the'proper'syntactic'classes'is'known'
as'
(a)' syntax'analysis' (b)' lexical'analysis'
(c)' interpretation'analysis' (d)' general'syntax'analysis'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
24.'Which'of'the'following'is'false'about'disk'when'compared'to'main'memory?'
(a)' nonGvolatile' (b)' longer'storage'capacity'
(c)' lower'price'per'bit' (d)' faster'
'
25.'Producer'consumer'problem'can'be'solved'using'
(a)' semaphores' (b)' event'counters'
(c)' monitors' (d)' all'of'the'above'
'
26.'Which'is'a'permanent'database'in'the'general'model'of'compiler?'
(a)' Literal'Table' (b)' Identifier'Table'
(c)' Terminal'Table' (d)' Source'code'
'
27.'What'is'the'name'of'the'technique'in'which'the'operating'system'of'a'computer'
executes'several'programs'concurrently'by'switching'back'and'forth'between'them?'
(a)' Partitioning' (b)' Multitasking'
(c)' Windowing' (d)' Paging'
'
28.'Software'that'measures,'monitors,'analyzes,'and'controls'realGworld'events'is'called:'
(a)' system'software' (b)' realGtime'software'
(c)' scientific'software' (d)' business'software'
'
29.'The'details'of'all'external'symbols'and'relocation'formation'(relocation'list'or'map)'
is'provided'to'linker'by'
(a)' Macro'processor' (b)' Translator'
(c)' Loader' (d)' Editor'
'
30.'What'problem'is'solved'by'Dijkstra's'banker's'algorithm?'
(a)' mutual'exclusion' (b)' deadlock'recovery'
(c)' deadlock'avoidance' (d)' cache'coherence'
'
31.'System'programs'such'as'Compilers'are'designed'so'that'they'are'
(a)' reenterable' (b)' non'reusable'
(c)' serially'usable' (d)' recursive'
'
32.'A'disk'scheduling'algorithm'in'an'operating'system'causes'the'disk'arm'to'move'back'
and'forth'across'the'disk'surface'in'order'to'service'all'requests'in'its'path.'This'is'a'
(a)' First'come'first'served' (b)' Shortest'Seek'Time'First'(SSTE)'
(c)' Scan' (d)' FIFO'
'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
33.'What'is'the'name'given'to'the'process'of'initializing'a'microcomputer'with'its'
operating'system?'
(a)' Cold'booting' (b)' Booting'
(c)' Warm'booting' (d)' Boot'recording'
!
'
34.'Which'of'the'following'is'a'type'of'systems'software'used'on'microcomputers?'
(a)' MSGDOS' (b)' PCGDOS'
(c)' Unix' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
35.'Operating'system'is'
(a)' A'collection'of'hardware' (b)' A'collection'of'inputGoutput'devices'
components'
(c)' A'collection'of'software'routines' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
36.'What'is'the'name'given'to'the'software'which'can'be'legally'compiled'and'often'
used'for'free?'
(a)' Shareware'program' (b)' Public'domain'program'
(c)' Firmware'program' (d)' Mindware'
'
37.''Which'of'the'following'is'a'block'device'
(a)' mouse' (b)' printer'
(c)' terminals' (d)' disk'
'
38.'Which'of'the'following'software'types'is'used'to'simplify'using'systems'software?'
(a)' spreadsheet' (b)' operating'environment'
(c)' timesharing' (d)' multitasking'
'
39.'The'computational'technique'used'to'compute'the'disk'storage'address'of'individual'
records'is'called:'
(a)' bubble'memory' (b)' key'fielding'
(c)' dynamic'reallocation' (d)' hashing'
'
40.'Four'necessary'conditions'for'deadlock'to'exist'are:'mutual'exclusion,'noG
preemption,'circular'wait'and'
(a)' hold'and'wait' (b)' deadlock'avoidance'
(c)' race'around'condition' (d)' buffer'overflow'
'
41.'If'you'do'not'know'which'version'of'MSGDOS'you'are'working'with,'which'command'
will'you'use'after'having'booted'your'operating'system?'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
50.'A'hardware'device'that'is'capable'of'executing'a'sequence'of'instructions,'is'known'
as'
(a)' CPU' (b)' ALU'
(c)' CU' (d)' Processor'
'
51.'The'Operating'system'manages'
(a)' Memory' (b)' Processor'
(c)' Disks'and'I/O'devices' (d)' All'of'the'above'
'
52.'The'principles'of'structured'programming'forbid'the'use'of'
(a)' WHILEGDO' (b)' GOTO'
(c)' IFGTHENGELSE' (d)' DOGWHILE'
'
RDBMS!
!
53.'An'oval'represents'which'of'the'following'in'an'EER?'
(a)' Attribute' (b)' Entity'
(c)' Optional'One' (d)' Relationship'
'
54.'A'rectangle'represents'which'of'the'following'in'an'EER?'
(a)' Attribute' (b)' Entity'
(c)' Optional'One' (d)' Relationship'
'
55.'Which'of'the'following'indicates'the'maximum'number'of'entities'that'can'be'
involved'in'a'relationship?'
(a)' Minimum'cardinality' (b)' Maximum'cardinality'
(c)' ERD' (d)' Greater'Entity'Count'(GEC)'
'
56.'In'a'oneGtoGmany'relationship,'the'entity'that'is'on'the'one'side'of'the'relationship'is'
called'a(n)'________'entity.'
(a)' Parent' (b)' Child'
(c)' Instance' (d)' Subtype'
57.'A'recursive'relationship'is'a'relationship'between'an'entity'and'________'.'
(a)' itself' (b)' subtype'entity'
(c)' archetype'entity' (d)' instance'entity'
'
58.'Which'of'the'following'refers'to'something'that'can'be'identified'in'the'users''work'
environment,'something'that'the'users'want'to'track?'
(a)' Entity' (b)' Attribute'
(c)' Identifier' (d)' Relationship'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
59.'In'which'of'the'following'is'a'singleGentity'instance'of'one'type'related'to'many'
entity'instances'of'another'type?'
(a)' OneGtoGOne'Relationship' (b)' OneGtoGMany'Relationship'
(c)' ManyGtoGMany'Relationship' (d)' Composite'Relationship'
'
60.'Which'type'of'entity'has'its'relationship'to'another'entity'determined'by'an'
attribute'in'that'other'entity'called'a'discriminator?'
(a)' Super'type'entity' (b)' Subtype'entity'
(c)' Archetype'entity' (d)' Instance'entity'
'
61.'Every'time'attribute'A'appears,'it'is'matched'with'the'same'value'of'attribute'B,'but'
not'the'same'value'of'attribute'C.'Therefore,'it'is'true'that:'
(a)' A'→'B.' (b)' A'→'C.'
(c)' A'→'(B,C).' (d)' (B,C)'→'A'
'
62.'A'relation'is'in'this'form'if'it'is'in'BCNF'and'has'no'multivalued'dependencies:'
(a)' second'normal'form' (b)' third'normal'form'
(c)' fourth'normal'form' (d)' domain/key'normal'form'
'
63.'Row'is'synonymous'with'the'term:'
(a)' Record' (b)' Relation'
(c)' Column' (d)' Field'
'
64.'The'primary'key'is'selected'from'the:'
(a)' composite'keys' (b)' determinants'
(c)' candidate'keys' (d)' foreign'keys'
'
65.'Which'of'the'following'is'a'group'of'one'or'more'attributes'that'uniquely'identifies'a'
row?'
(a)' Key' (b)' Determinant'
(c)' Tuple' (d)' Relation'
'
66.'A'relation'is'considered'a:'
(a)' Column' (b)' oneGdimensional'table'
(c)' twoGdimensional'table' (d)' threeGdimensional'table'
'
67.'A'functional'dependency'is'a'relationship'between'or'among:'
(a)' Tables' (b)' Rows'
(c)' Relations' (d)' Attributes'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
68.'An'attribute'is'a(n):'
(a)' column'of'a'table' (b)' two'dimensional'table'
(c)' row'of'a'table' (d)' key'of'a'table'
'
69.'A'tuple'is'a(n):'
(a)' column'of'a'table' (b)' two'dimensional'table'
(c)' row'of'a'table' (d)' key'of'a'table'
'
70.'Eliminating'modification'anomalies'is'a(n)'________'of'normalization.'
(a)' advantage' (b)' disadvantage'
(c)' Ambiguity' (d)' Disambiguaty'
'
71.'When'assessing'the'table'structure'of'an'acquired'set'of'tables'with'data,'
determining'foreign'keys'is'(part'of)'the:'
(a)' first'step' (b)' second'step'
(c)' third'step' (d)' fourth'step'
'
72.'Most'of'the'time,'modification'anomalies'are'serious'enough'that'tables'should'be'
normalized'into:'
(a)' 1NF' (b)' 2NF'
(c)' 3NF' (d)' BCNF'
'
73.'Normalization'________'data'duplication.'
(a)' Eliminates' (b)' Reduces'
(c)' Increases' (d)' Maximizes'
'
Query!languages!(SQL)!
'
74.'The'SQL'command'to'create'a'table'is:'
(a)' MAKE'TABLE' (b)' ALTER'TABLE'
(c)' DEFINE'TABLE' (d)' CREATE'TABLE'
'
75.'The'SQL'statement'to'create'a'view'is:'
(a)' CREATE'VIEW.' (b)' MAKE'VIEW.'
(c)' SELECT'VIEW.' (d)' INSERT'VIEW.'
'
76.'To'update'an'SQL'view,'the'DBMS'must'be'able'to'associate'the'column(s)'to'be'
updated'with:'
(a)' a'particular'column'in'a'particular' (b)' a'particular'column'in'a'particular'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
underlying'table' row'
(c)' a'particular'row'in'a'particular' (d)' None'of'the'above'is'correct'
underlying'table'
'
77.'Which'of'the'following'is'NOT'a'type'of'SQL'constraint?'
(a)' PRIMARY'KEY' (b)' FOREIGN'KEY'
(c)' ALTERNATE'KEY' (d)' UNIQUE'
'
78.'What'is'an'SQL'virtual'table'that'is'constructed'from'other'tables?'
(a)' Just'another'table' (b)' A'view'
(c)' A'relation' (d)' Query'results'
'
79.'When'using'the'SQL'INSERT'statement:'
(a)' rows'can'be'modified'according' (b)' rows'cannot'be'copied'in'mass'from'
to'criteria'only' one'table'to'another'only'
(c)' rows'can'be'inserted'into'a'table' (d)' rows'can'either'be'inserted'into'a'
only'one'at'a'time'only' table'one'at'a'time'or'in'groups'
'
80.'Which'of'the'following'is'an'SQL'trigger'supported'by'Oracle?'
(a)' BEFORE' (b)' INSTEAD'OF'
(c)' AFTER' (d)' All'of'the'above.'
'
81.'The'SQL'ALTER'statement'can'be'used'to:'
(a)' change'the'table'structure.' (b)' change'the'table'data.'
(c)' add'rows'to'the'table.' (d)' delete'rows'from'the'table.'
'
82.'What'SQL'structure'is'used'to'limit'column'values'of'a'table?'
(a)' LIMIT'constraint' (b)' CHECK'constraint'
(c)' VALUE'constraint' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
83.'Views'constructed'from'SQL'SELECT'statements'that'conform'to'the'SQLG92'
standard'may'not'contain:'
(a)' GROUP'BY' (b)' WHERE'
(c)' ORDER'BY' (d)' FROM'
'
84.'Which'is'NOT'one'of'the'most'common'types'of'SQL'CHECK'constraints?'
(a)' System'date' (b)' Range'checks'
(c)' Lists'of'values' (d)' Comparing'columns'within'table'
'
85.'The'SQL'WHERE'clause:'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
94.'Which'one'of'the'following'sorts'rows'in'SQL?'
(a)' SORT'BY' (b)' ALIGN'BY'
(c)' ORDER'BY' (d)' GROUP'BY'
'
95.'The'SQL'statement'that'queries'or'reads'data'from'a'table'is'________'.'
(a)' SELECT' (b)' READ'
(c)' QUERY' (d)' None'of'the'above'is'correct'
'
96.'________'was'adopted'as'a'national'standard'by'ANSI'in'1992.'
(a)' Oracle' (b)' SQL'
(c)' Microsoft'Access' (d)' Dbase'
'
97.'SQL'is:'
(a)' a'programming'language' (b)' a'data'sublanguage'
(c)' an'operating'system' (d)' a'DBMS'
'
File!structures!
'
98.'Consider'a'B+Gtree'in'which'the'maximum'number'of'keys'in'a'node'is'5.'What'is'the'
minimum'number'of'keys'in'any'nonGroot'node?'
(a)' 1' (b)' 2'
(c)' 3' (d)' 4'
'
99.'A'clustering'index'is'defined'on'the'fields'which'are'of'type'
(a)' nonGkey'and'ordering' (b)' nonGkey'and'nonGordering'
(c)' key'and'ordering' (d)' key'and'nonGordering'
'
100.'Mapping'of'file'is'managed'by'
(a)' file'metadata' (b)' page'table'
(c)' virtual'memory' (d)' file'system'
'
'101.'In'which'of'the'following'file'organization,'sequential'file'processing'is'impractical?'
(a)' Indexed'sequential' (b)' Indexed'
(c)' BGtree' (d)' Hashed'
'
102.'Each'node'of'a'B+'tree'contain'a'____'and'the'search'key'value?'
(a)' Pointer' (b)' Chain'
(c)' Address' (d)' None'of'the'above'
'
103.'What'does'‘B’'in'BGtree'means?'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
120.'Is'the'following'statement'a'declaration'or'definition?'
(a)' extern'int'i;' (b)' Declaration'
(c)' Definition' (d)' Function'
'
121.'Identify'which'of'the'following'are'declarations'
1':' extern'int'x;'
2':' float'square'('float'x')'{'...'}'
3':' double'pow(double,'double);'
(a)' 1''and'2' (b)' 2'and'3'
(c)' 1'and'3' (d)' 3'
'
122.'When'we'mention'the'prototype'of'a'function?'We'are_____.'
(a)' Defining' (b)' Declaring'
(c)' Prototyping' (d)' Calling'
'
123.'Which'of'the'following'declaration'is'correct?'
(a)' int'length;' (b)' char'int;'
(c)' int'long;' (d)' float'double;'
'
124.'Which'of'the'following'operations'are'INCORRECT?'
(a)' int'i'='35;'i'='i%5;' (b)' short'int'j'='255;'j'='j;'
(c)' long'int'k'='365L;'k'='k;' (d)' float'a'='3.14;'a'='a%3;'
'
125.'Which'of'the'following'correctly'represents'a'long'double'constant?'
(a)' 6.68' (b)' 6.68L'
(c)' 6.68LF' (d)' 6.68f'
'
'
'
126.'Which'of'the'following'is'not'logical'operator?'
(a)' &' (b)' &&'
(c)' ||' (d)' !'
'
127.'In'mathematics'and'computer'programming,'which'is'the'correct'order'of'
mathematical'operators'?'
(a)' Addition,'Subtraction,' (b)' Division,'Multiplication,'Addition,'
Multiplication,'Division' Subtraction'
(c)' Multiplication,'Addition,'Division,' (d)' Addition,'Division,'Modulus,'
Subtraction' Subtraction'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
128.'Which'of'the'following'cannot'be'checked'in'a'switchGcase'statement?'
(a)' Character' (b)' Integer'
(c)' Float' (d)' Enum'
'
129.'Which'of'the'following'is'the'correct'usage'of'conditional'operators'used'in'C?'
(a)' a>b'?'c=30':'c=40;' (b)' a>b'?'c=30;'
(c)' max'='a>b'?'a>c?a:c:b>c?b:c' (d)' return'(a>b)?(a:b)'
'
130.'Which'of'the'following'is'the'correct'order'if'calling'functions'in'the'below'code?'
a'='f1(23,'14)'*'f2(12/4)'+'f3();'
(a)' f1,'f2,'f3' (b)' f3,'f2,'f1'
(c)' Order'may'vary'from'compiler'to' (d)' None'of'above'
compiler'
'
131.'Assuming,'integer'is'2'byte,'What'will'be'the'output'of'the'program?'
!!!!!!!#include<stdio.h>'
'
'''''''int'main()'
'''{'
''''''printf("%x\n",'G2<<2);'
'''''return'0;'
''}'
(a)' ffff' (b)' 0'
(c)' error' (d)' Fff8'
!
132.'The'binary'equivalent'of'5.375'is'
(a)' 101.101110111' (b)' 101.011'
(c)' 101011' (d)' None'of'above'
'
133.'The'keyword'used'to'transfer'control'from'a'function'back'to'the'calling'function'is'
(a)' switch' (b)' goto'
(c)' go'back' (d)' return'
'
134.'What'is'(void*)0?'
(a)' Representation'of'NULL'pointer' (b)' Representation'of'void'pointer'
(c)' Error' (d)' None'of'above'
'
135.'In'which'header'file'is'the'NULL'macro'defined?'
(a)' stdio.h' (b)' stddef.h'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
144.'Which'bitwise'operator'is'suitable'for'turning'on'a'particular'bit'in'a'number?'
(a)' &&'operator' (b)' &'operator'
(c)' ||'operator' (d)' |'operator'
'
Object!Oriented!Programming!
'
145.'Procedure'oriented'Programs'are'called'as'
(a)' Structured'programming' (b)' Object'oriented'programming'
(c)' Functional'programming' (d)' None'of'the'above'
146.'A'_____________'is'a'class'whose'instances'themselves'are'classes.'
(a)' subclass' (b)' abstarct'class'
(c)' metaclass' (d)' object'class'
'
147.'_______________'enables'you'to'hide,'inside'the'object,'both'the'data'fields'and'
the'methods'that'act'on'that'data.'
(a)' Encapsulation' (b)' Polymorphism'
(c)' Inheritance' (d)' Overloading'
'
'
148.'For'a'16'bit'word'length'Integer'data'type'values'lie'between'________________'
(a)' –32768'to'32767.' (b)' 0'to'32767'
(c)' G128'to'128' (d)' 0'to'128'
'
149.'Which'of'the'following'is'NOT'a'Relational'Operator'
(a)' ==' (b)' >'
(c)' %' (d)' !='
'
150.'A'__________'is'an'abstract'idea'that'can'be'represented'with'data'structures'and'
functions.'
(a)' class' (b)' object'
(c)' loop' (d)' data'type'
'
151.'Automatic'Initialization'of'object'is'carried'out'using'a'special'member'function'
called'____________________'
(a)' friend' (b)' casting'
(c)' reference'parameter' (d)' constructor'
'
152.'A'class'can'allow'nonGmember'functions'and'other'classes'to'access'its'own'private'
data,'by'making'them'as'_________________.'
(a)' private' (b)' protected'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
1.'increased'programming'productivity''
2.'decreased'maintenance'costs.'
3.'less'time'to'execute''
4.'easy'to'understand'
(a)' 1&'3' (b)' 1&'2'
(c)' 3&'4' (d)' 2&'3'
'
162.'To'overload'an'operator'_____________keyword'must'be'used'along'with'the'
operator'to'be'overloaded.'
(a)' Over' (b)' Overload'
(c)' void' (d)' Operator'
'
163.'In'the'below'Declaration'how'many'copies'of'x'does'DC'inherits'?''
Class'BC'{'Private:'int'x;'};'Class'BC1:'virtual'public'BC'{'Private':'Float'y;'};'Class'BC2:'
virtual'public'BC'{Private:'float'z;'};'Class'DC:'public'BC1,'Public'Bc2'{'};'
(a)' One' (b)' Two'
(c)' Zero' (d)' Syntax'error'
'
'
! !
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
Answers:!Information!Technology!MCQS!
1.!!(a)! 2.!(b)! 3.!(b)! 4.!(a)! 5.!(a)! 6.!(c)! 7.!(d)! 8.!(b)! 9.!(c)! 10.!(a)!
11.!(c)! 12.!(d)! 13.!(a)! 14.!(a)! 15.!(d)! 16.!(c)! 17.!(a)! 18.!(b)! 19.!(c)! 20.!(c)!
21.!(b)! 22.!(b)! 23.!(b)! 24.!(d)! 25.!(d)! 26.!(c)! 27.!(b)! 28.!(b)! 29.!(b)! 30.!(a)!
31.!(a)! 32.!(c)! 33.!(b)! 34.!(d)! 35.!(c)! 36.!(b)! 37.!(d)! 38.!(a)! 39.!(d)! 40.!(a)!
41.!(c)! 42.!(a)! 43.!(c)! 44.!(b)! 45.!(d)! 46.!(a)! 47.!(b)! 48.!(b)! 49.!(d)! 50.!(d)!
51.!(d)! 52.!(b)! 53.!(a)! 54.!(b)! 55.!(b)! 56.!(a)! 57.!(a)! 58.!(a)! 59.!(b)! 60.!(b)!
61.!(a)! 62.!(c)! 63.!(a)! 64.!(c)! 65.!(a)! 66.!(c)! 67.!(d)! 68.!(a)! 69.!(c)! 70.!(b)!
71.!(b)! 72.!(d)! 73.!(a)! 74.!(d)! 75.!(a)! 76.!(c)! 77.!(c)! 78.!(b)! 79.!(d)! 80.!(d)!
81.!(a)! 82.!(b)! 83.!(c)! 84.!(a)! 85.!(b)! 86.!(b)! 87.!(b)! 88.!(a)! 89.!(a)! 90.!(a)!
91.!(a)! 92.!(a)! 93.!(c)! 94.!(c)! 95.!(a)! 96.!(b)! 97.!(b)! 98.!(b)! 99.!(a)! 100.!(a)!
101.!(d)! 102.!(a)! 103.!(c)! 104.!(d)! 105.!(b)! 106.!(a)! 107.!(a)! 108.!(b)! 109.!(c)! 110.!(d)!
111.!(a)! 112.!(c)! 113.!(c)! 114.!(a)! 115.!(d)! 116.!(c)! 117.!(d)! 118.!(d)! 119.!(b)! 120.!(b)!
121.!(c)! 122.!(b)! 123.!(a)! 124.!(d)! 125.!(b)! 126.!(a)! 127.!(b)! 128.!(c)! 129.!(c)! 130.!(c)!
131.!(d)! 132.!(b)! 133.!(d)! 134.!(a)! 135.!(c)! 136.!(a)! 137.!(c)! 138.!(b)! 139.!(c)! 140.!(d)!
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Information'Technology'MCQs'
141.!(c)! 142.!(c)! 143.!(b)! 144.!(d)! 145.!(a)! 146.!(c)! 147.!(a)! 148.!(a)! 149.!(c)! 150.!(a)!
151.!(d)! 152.!(c)! 153.!(a)! 154.!(d)! 155.!(c)! 156.!(c)! 157.!(d)! 158.!(d)! 159.!(b)! 160.!(a)!
'
'
Radar Theory
Contents
1 Introduction 2
2 Radar Fundamentals 2
4 Radar Component 3
4.1 Synchronizer (Timer) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2 Transmitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3 Duplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4 Antenna System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.5 Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.6 Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
8 Pulse-Doppler radar 8
8.1 Range measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
8.2 Pulse repetition frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9 Tracking Radar 9
1
Page: 2 shop.ssbcrack.com
1 Introduction
• RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is a system used mainly in defense appli-
cations which is used to locate the target, that is, to find its exact position in the range
which it covers.
• The drawback of conventional pulse RADAR is that it can determine only the range,
that is, the distance of the target from RADAR antenna. It cannot determine whether
the target is moving or not and in which direction it is moving.
• Thus in order to determine the motion of the target we use MTI (Moving Target
Indication) RADAR.
• MTI RADAR has become a boon for detecting motion of the targets in the field of RADAR
Engineering.
• MTI RADAR is defined as the RADAR in which the Doppler effect can be employed to
differentiate between stationary and moving targets, with the former suppressed and only
the latter displayed. In this process, the permanent echoes as well as those from very slow
moving objects (if desired) are not displayed on the PPI (plan position indicator), and the
radar controller can pay attention to the real aircraft.
• Along with the detection of moving targets it also eliminates the effect of stationary objects
or stationary clutters. This can be achieved by using the Delay line cancellor
2 Radar Fundamentals
• The term Radar is an acronym made up of the words radio detection and ranging.
• The term is used to refer to electronic equipment that detect the presence, direction, height,
and distance of objects by using reflected electromagnetic energy.
• Electromagnetic energy of the frequency used for radar is unaffected by darkness and
also penetrates weather to some degree, depending on frequency. It permits radar
systems to determine the positions of ships, planes, and land masses that are invisible to
the naked eye because of distance, darkness, or weather. .
• World War II provided a strong incentive to develop practical radar, and early versions
were in use soon after the war began. Radar technology has improved in the years since
the war. We now have radar systems that are smaller, more efficient, and better than those
early versions.
• Modern radar systems are used for early detection of surface or air objects and provide
extremely accurate information on distance, direction, height, and speed of the objects.
Radar is also used to guide missiles to targets and direct the firing of gun systems. Other
types of radar provide long-distance surveillance and navigation information.
• The electronics principle on which radar operates is very similar to the principle of sound-
wave reflection.
• The time required for a return echo can be roughly converted to distance if the speed
of sound is known.
• Radar uses electromagnetic energy pulses in much the same way, as shown in the above
figure .
• The radio-frequency (rf) energy is transmitted to and reflects from the reflecting object. A
small portion of the energy is reflected and returns to the radar set. This returned energy is
called an ECHO, just as it is in sound terminology. Radar sets use the echo to determine
the direction and distance of the reflecting object.
4 Radar Component
Pulse radar systems can be functionally divided into the six essential components shown in be-
low given figure. These components are briefly described in the following paragraphs and will be
4.2 Transmitter
The transmitter generates powerful pulses of electromagnetic energy at precise intervals.
The required power is obtained by using a high-power microwave oscillator, such as a
4.3 Duplexer
A duplexer is essentially an electronic switch that permits a radar system to use a single antenna
to both transmit and receive.
The duplexer must connect the antenna to the transmitter and disconnect the antenna from
the receiver for the duration of the transmitted pulse. The receiver must be completely isolated
from the transmitted pulse to avoid damage to the extremely sensitive receiver input circuitry.
After the transmitter pulse has ended, the duplexer must rapidly disconnect the transmitter and
connect the receiver to the antenna.
4.5 Receiver
The receiver accepts the weak echo signals from the antenna system, amplifies them,
detects the pulse envelope, amplifies the pulses, and then routes them to the indi-
cator.
One of the primary functions of the radar receiver is to convert the frequency of the received
echo signal to a lower frequency that is easier to amplify. This is because radar frequencies
are very high and difficult to amplify. This lower frequency is called the INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY (IF). The type of receiver that uses this frequency conversion technique is the
SUPER HETERODYNE RECEIVER. Superheterodyne receivers used in radar systems must
have good stability and extreme sensitivity. Stability is ensured by careful design and the overall
sensitivity is greatly increased by the use of many IF stages
4.6 Indicator
The indicator uses the received signals routed from the radar receiver to produce a visual
indication of target information.
The cathode-ray oscilloscope is an ideal instrument for the presentation of radar data.
This is because it not only shows a variation of a single quantity, such as voltage, but also gives
an indication of the relative values of two or more quantities.
The sweep frequency of the radar indicator is determined by the pulse-repetition frequency
of the radar system. Sweep duration is determined by the setting of the range-selector switch.
Since the indicator is so similar to an oscilloscope, the term RADAR SCOPE is commonly used
when referring to radar indicators.
• Difference in the transmitted frequency and received frequency from the target is called as
dopplar frequency and is denoted by fd.
• Consider a radar which transmits a pulse of RF energy that is reflected by both a building
(fixed target) and an airplane (moving target) approaching the radar. The reflected pulses
return to the radar a certain time later. The radar then transmits a second pulse. The
reflection from the building occurs in exactly the same amount of time, but the reflection
from the moving aircraft occurs in less time because the aircraft has moved closer to the
radar in the interval between transmitted pulses. The precise time that it takes the reflected
signal to reach the radar is not of fundamental importance. What is significant is whether
the time changes between pulses.
• The time change, which is of the order of a few nanoseconds for an aircraft target, is
8 Pulse-Doppler radar
A Pulse-Doppler radar is a radar system that determines the range to a target using pulse-
timing techniques, and uses the Doppler shift of the returned signal to determine the target
object’s velocity. It combines the features of pulse radars and continuous-wave radars, which
were formerly separate due to the complexity of the electronics
A Doppler Radar:
9 Tracking Radar
Radar that provides continuous positional data on a target is called tracking radar.
• Most tracking radar systems used by the military are also fire-control radar; the two names
are often used interchangeably.
• Fire-control tracking radar systems usually produce a very narrow, circular beam.
• Fire-control tracking radar must be directed to the general location of the desired
target because of the narrow-beam pattern. This is called the DESIGNATION phase of
equipment operation.
• Once in the general vicinity of the target, the radar system switches to the ACQUISI-
TION phase of operation. During acquisition, the radar system searches a small volume
of space in a prearranged pattern until the target is located. When the target is located,
the radar system enters the TRACK phase of operation. Using one of several possible
scanning techniques, the radar system automatically follows all target motions. The radar
system is said to be locked on to the target during the track phase.
• The three sequential phases of operation are often referred to as MODES and are common
to the target-processing sequence of most firecontrol radars.
• Typical fire-control radar characteristics include a very high prf, a very narrow pulse
width, and a very narrow beam width. These characteristics, while providing extreme
accuracy, limit the range and make initial target detection difficult. item A typical fire-
control radar antenna is shown in figure 1-28. In this example the antenna used to produce
a narrow beam is covered by a protective radome.
Radar%Theory%MCQs%
'
1.'''Radar'gives'targets'
(a)' Range' (b)' Size'
(c)' Velocity'and'range' (d)' Color'
'
2.'''Radar'is'a/an'____'device.'
(a)' Mechanical' (b)' Electromagnetic'
(c)' Pneumatic'device' (d)' Electrical'
'
3.''Radar'is'useful'to'see'objects'
(a)' Hidden'behind'conductors' (b)' Having'different'colors'but'made'
of'conductor'
(c)' In'rain'and'fog' (d)' That'are'shielded'
'
4.''High'power'radar'transmitter'uses'
(a)' Magnetrons' (b)' Transistors'
(c)' MOSFETs' (d)' Tunnel'diodes'
'
5.''Duplex'isolates'
(a)' Transmitter'while'transmitting' (b)' Receiver'while'receiving'
(c)' Receiver'while'transmitting' (d)' Display'unit'
'
6.''Radar'receiver'contains'
(a)' Matched'filters' (b)' Magnetrons'
(c)' No'PPI' (d)' No'display'unit'
'
7.''CW'radar'can'be'
(a)' Monostatic'only' (b)' Monostatic'and'bistatic''
(c)' Static'only' (d)' NonWdoppler'
'
8.''Received'radar'power'is''
(a)' Proportional'to'!' (b)' Proportional'to'!" '
(c)' Inversely'proportional'to'!'' (d)' Inversely'proportional'to'd'
'
9.''Receiver'power'depends'on'
(a)' Medium'losses' (b)' Medium,'transmitter'and'
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Radar'Theory'MCQs'
polarization'losses'
(c)' Transmitter'losses' (d)' Polarization'losses'
'
10.''CW'radar'gives'
(a)' Range'of'target' (b)' Radial'velocity'of'target'
(c)' Size'of'target' (d)' Color'of'target'
'
11.''Pulsed'radar'gives'the'target’s'
(a)' Range'and'velocity' (b)' Range'only'
(c)' Color' (d)' Size'
'
12.''Bistatic'radar'
(a)' Has'a'single'antenna' (b)' Has'two'antennas'at'the'same'
place'
(c)' Has'two'antennas'at'different' (d)' Has'no'antennas'
locations'
'
13.'The'transmitter'of'pulsed'radar'has'
(a)' Modulator' (b)' No'modulator'
(c)' Modulator'and'synchronizer' (d)' No'synchronizer'
'
14.''Duplexer'is'called'
(a)' switch' (b)' coupler'
(c)' TR'switch' (d)' amplifier'
'
15.''The'receiver'of'pulse'radar'has''
(a)' A'mixer'and'a'local'oscillator' (b)' A'local'oscillator'
(c)' A'mixer' (d)' An'AF'amplifier'
'
16.'Match'filter'
(a)' Optimizes'SNR' (b)' Removes'AF'signals'
(c)' Filters'RF'signals' (d)' Is'used'as'amplifier'
'
17.'Velocity'of'radar'wave'is'
(a)' 3$×10( $)*/,' (b)' 3$×10- )*/,'
(c)' 300$*/.,' (d)' 30$*/.,'
$
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Radar'Theory'MCQs'
18.''Doppler'shift'frequency'is'given'by'
(a)' 234 (b)' 235
/0 $ = $ $/ ' /0 $ = $ $/ '
35 6 34 6
(c)' / $ = $ 35 $/ ' (d)' / $ = $ 34 $/ '
0
34 6 0
35 6
'
19.'HPRF'pulse'Doppler'radar'
(a)' reduces'main'beam'clutter' (b)' increases'main'beam'clutter'
(c)' increases'range'accuracy' (d)' increases'resolution'of'the'target'
'
20.'In'modulated'PRF'pulse'radar'
(a)' range'resolution'is'poor' (b)' range'accuracy'is'poor'
(c)' range'resolution'is'better' (d)' altitude'returns'are'not'
eliminated'
'
21.'In'search'radars.'
(a)' the'beam'is'scanned' (b)' the'beam'is'not'scanned'
continuously' continuously'
(c)' angular'position'cannot'be' (d)' three'antennas'must'be'used.'
found'
'
22.'SNR'of'search'radar'
(a)' depends'on'starch' (b)' does'not'depend'on'scan'time'
(c)' does'not'depend'on'noise' (d)' does'not'depend'on'radar'crossW
figure'' section.'
'
'
! !
'
Engineering'Knowledge'Test' ' Radar'Theory'MCQs'
Answers:%Radar%Theory%MCQs%
!
!
1.!!(c)! 2.!(b)! 3.!(c)! 4.!(a)! 5.!(c)! 6.!(a)! 7.!(b)! 8.!(b)! 9.!(b)! 10.!(b)!
11.!(a)! 12.!(c)! 13.!(c)! 14.!(c)! 15.!(a)! 16.!(a)! 17.!(c)! 18.!(a)! 19.!(a)! 20.!(c)!
21.!(a)! 22.!(a)! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
'
'
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS STREAM
ENGINEERING KNOWLEDGE TEST (EKT)
Q2. The area of three faces of a cuboid are in the ratio 2:3:4 and its volume is
9000 cm3. The length of the shortest edge is
(a) 15 cm (b) 30 cm (c) 20 cm (d) 60 cm
Q3. ∫ is equal to
Q9. X-rays are used for the study of crystal structure because
(a) X-rays are completely absorbed by the crystal
(b) the wavelength of X-ray is of the same order of magnitude in the inter-atomic
spacing in crystals
(c) the wavelength of X-rays is very small in comparison with the inter-atomic
spacing in crystals
(d) the crystals are completely transparent to X-rays
Q10. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 10 days. If today there are 125 g of it left,
what was its original weight 40 days earlier
(a) 600 g (b) 1000 g (c) 1250 g (d) 2000 g
Q11. Angles project true size only when the plane containing the angle and plane of
projection are
(a) Aligned (b) Adjacent (c) Perpendicular (d) Parallel
Q12. Tesla is a measure of
(a) magnetic flux density (b) electric flux density
(c) magnetic potential (d) electric potential
Q13. Admittance is reciprocal of
(a) susceptance (b) impedance (c) reactance (d) conductance
Q14. _________is an active filter
(a) RC filter (b) notch filter (c) Butterworth filter (d) band pass filter
Q15. For transmission line load matching over a range of frequencies, it is best to use a
(a) Balun (b) broadband directional coupler
(c) double stub (d) single stub
Q16. Emitter follower is used for
(a) reducing the gain (b) increasing the distortion
(c) impedance matching (d) none of these
Q17. Binary equivalent of (45)10 is
(a) (11101)2 (b) (11110)2 (c) (101101)2 (d) (110101)2
Q18. In Computer memory size K indicates Kilo, which is equal to
(a) 1000 (b) 1024 (c) 100 (d) 10000
Q19. An astable multivibrator has
(a) no stable state (b) one stable state (c) three stable states (d) two stable states
Q20. An ideal Op Amp has
(a) infinite input and output impedance
(b) very low input and output impedance
(c) low input impedance and very high output impedance
(d) infinite input impedance and zero output impedance
Q21. An instruction used to set the carry flag in a computer can be classified as a
(a) data transfer instruction (b) arithmetic instruction
(c) logical instruction (d) program control instruction
Q22. An FET is a
(a) bipolar semiconductor device (b) unipolar semiconductor device
(c) non semiconductor device (d) both (a) and (c)
Q23. For Gunn diodes, semiconductor material preferred is
(a) Silicon (b) Germanium (c) Gallium Arsenide (d) all of these
Q29. The difference of the reference input and the actual output signal is called
(a) error signal (b) controlling signal (c) actuating signal (d) transfer function
Q30. If the transfer function of a system is ,the steady state error to unit step input is
(a) T (b) zero (c) infinite (d) none of these
Q31. In a PID controller,the values of proportional, integral and derivative are dependent
on
(a) future, past and present errors respectively
(b) present, past and future errors respectively
(c) past, present and future errors respectively
(d) present, future and past errors respectively
Q32. The inverse Laplace transform of is
(a) 2(t+1) (b) 2e-t (c) 2et (d) e-2t
Q33. The signal is extended from 96KHz to 100KHz, so the minimum sampling frequency
required is
(a) 8KHz (b) 200KHz (c) 4KHz (d) 100KHz
Q42. FDDI is a
(a) ring network (b) star network (c) mesh network (d) bus based network
Q43. Which of the following TCP/IP protocol allows an application program on one
machine to send a datagram to an application program on another machine?
(a) UDP (b) VMTP (c) X.25 (d) SMTP
Q44. The main difference between synchronous and asynchronous transmission is that
(a) the clocking is derived from the data in synchronous transmission
(b) the clocking is mixed with the data in asynchronous transmission
(c) the pulse height is different
(d) the bandwidth required is different
Q45. Transducer is a device which
(a) converts one form of power in to the other (b) is similar to transformer
(c) converts one form of energy in to other (d) helps in measuring electricity
Q46. Principle of hysteresis is not used in
(a) electrical water geyser (b) electrical motor (c) multi-vibrators (d) Schmitt trigger
Q47. Which of the following motors would not be suitable for use as servomotors?
(a) AC induction motor (b) brushless AC motor
(c) stepper motor (d) permanent magnet DC motor
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