CHAPTER 1

History of Shock Waves

PETER KREHL
Ernst-Mach-Institut, Fraunhofer-Institutfur Kurzzeitdynamik, Eckerstr. 4, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany

A shock wave is a surface of discontinuity propagating in a

gas at which density and velocity experience abrupt changes.
One can imagine two types of shock waves: (positive)
compression shocks which propagate into the direction
where the density of the gas is a minimum, and (negative)
rarefaction waves which propagate into the direction of
maximum density. 1
Gy6zy Zempl~n
University of Budapest
1905

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Shock Waves: Definition and Scope
1.3 Early Percussion Research
1.4 Evolution of Shock Waves
1.4.1 Natural Supersonic Phenomena and Early
Speculations
1.4.2 Shock Waves in Gases
1.4.3 Shock Waves in Liquids
1.4.4 Shock Waves in Solids
1.5 Evolution of Detonation Physics
1.6 Milestones in Early High-Speed Diagnostics
1.7 Further Reading
1.8 Chronology of Milestones
1.9 Notes

1This modern and concise definition of a shock wave was first given by the young Hungarian
physicist Dr. G Zempl~n [C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 141:710 (1905)]. Visiting on a fellowship G6tingen
and France (1904-1906), his interest in shock waves was obviously stimulated by Felix Klein, and
Pierre Duhhem and Jacques Hadamard, respectively.

Handbook of Shock Waves, Volume 1

Copyright ~ 2001 by P. Krehl. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. ISBN: 0-12-086431-2/$35.00
2 P. Krehl

1.1 I N T R O D U C T I O N

This chapter illuminates the history of shock wave physics in terms of a

Chronology of Milestones. To get a realistic picture of this complex evolution
process--i.e., to reflect on previous states of knowledge, motivations, spec-
ulations, and achievementsmmajor results in the progress of not only shock
wave research but also closely related fields such as percussion, explosion, and
detonation are covered. In addition, some of the most important milestones in
the advancement of high-speed diagnosticsma key technology that has heavily
determined the progress of shock wave physics in the past and the p r e s e n t ~
have been included. Some general remarks on the historical background and
interrelations between the different disciplines that are not obvious from the
Chronology are given in this chapter.

1.2 SHOCK WAVES: DEFINITION AND SCOPE

Shock waves 2 are mechanical waves of finite amplitudes and arise when matter
is subjected to a rapid compression. Compared to acoustic waves, which are

2 In the 19th century the shock wave phenomenon, a puzzle for early researchers, had a
different meaning than today and designated a tidal wave resulting from an earth- or seaquake.
Euler (1759), without yet coining a term, addressed the "size of disturbance" of a sound wave,
meaning its amplitude. Poisson (1808) described intense sound as the case "where the molecule
velocities can no longer be regarded as very small." Stokes (1848) used the term surface of
discontinuity, and Airy (1848-1849) described the wave as an "interruption of continuity of
particles of air." Riemann (1859) already used the modern terms shock compression [Verdichtungs-
sprung] and compression wave [Verdichtungswelle] to illustrate the jumplike steepening of the wave
front. Earnshaw (1860) used the terms positive wave, to illustrate that the motion of particles are in
the direction of wave transmission, and wave of condensation, to characterize the increase in density.
Toepler (1864) was the first to use the term shock wave [Stoj~welle] in the present sense; he
originated a shock wave from a spark discharge and first visualized it subjectively using a
stroboscopic method. He also used the terms spark wave [Funkenwelle] and air percussion wave
[Lufterschfitterungswelle] interchangeably, but incorrectly used the term sound wave [Schallwelle].
Rankine (1870) used the terms abrupt disturbance and wave offinite longitudinal disturbance, and
Hugoniot (1885) the term discontinuity [discontinuit~ de la vitesse du gaz et de sa pression]. Mach
and coworkers (1875-1885) used the terms shock wave, Riemann wave [Riemann'sche Welle], bang
wave [KnaUwelle], and explosion wave [Explosionswelle]. In the specific case of a supersonic
projectile, Mach and Salcher (1887) used the terms head wave or bow wave [Kopfwelle] and tail
wave [Achterwelle]. Von Oettingen and yon Gernet (1888), studying oxyhydrogen explosions,
called the detonation front Sto~welle. In France the term shock wave [onde de choc] was first used
by Vieille and Hadamard (1898), and later by Duhem (1901) and Jouguet (1904). Duhem also used
the terms partition wave [onde-cloison], true Hugoniot wave, surface slope [surface de glissement], and
quasi shock wave to characterize special types. The term shock wave was not immediately taken up
by encyclopedias. For example, in the German encyclopedia Meyers Konversationslexikon (1929), a
shock wave was still defined as a "tidal wave originated by an earthquake", a wave type that we
designate today as a tsunami. The 1962 edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica does not even list
the term shock wave.
History of Shock Waves 3

waves of very small, almost infinitesimal amplitudes, shock waves can be

characterized by four unusual properties: (i) a pressure-dependent, supersonic
velocity of propagation; (ii) the formation of a steep wave front with abrupt
change of all thermodynamic quantities; (iii) for nonplanar shock waves, a
strong decrease of the propagation velocity with increasing distance from the
center of origin; and (iv) nonlinear superposition (reflection and interaction)
properties.
Shock wave effects have been observed in all four states of matter and also
in media composed of multiple phases. It is now generally recognized that
shock waves play a dominant role in most mechanical high-rate phenomena.
Shock waves can assume manifold geometry and exist in all proportions,
ranging from the microscopic regime to cosmic dimensions. This has led to an
avalanche of new shock-wave-related fields in physics, chemistry, materials
science, engineering, military technology, medicine, etc. Even before World
War I some new disciplines were in the process of being established, such as
supersonics, cavitation, detonation, blasting technique, and underwater explo-
sions. In the period between the two world wars, these disciplines were further
extended to gas dynamics, seismology, high-speed combustion, plasma p!,ysics,
chemical kinetics, thermochemistry, aeroballistics, nonlinear acoustics, transo-
nic flows, etc. The largest expansion of shock wave physics certainly occurred
during and after World War II, which created such new disciplines as
hypersonic aerodynamics, nuclear explosions, detonics, exploding wires,
rarefied gas dynamics, superaerodynamics, aerothermodynamics, magnetofluid
dynamics, cosmic gas dynamics, reentry, laser-supported detonation, implo-
sions, impact physics, fracture mechanics, high-rate materials dynamics, shock
synthesis, laser fusion, shock lithotripsy, and explosive working. Because the
literature is scattered throughout many disciplines, it has become quite
difficult even for the specialist to get a survey of the present state of the art.
In addition, many investigations on shock waves and detonation are classified
or published as company or institute reports and not listed in public library
catalogues.
This enormous breadth of shock-wave-related disciplines has led also to a
wealth of new technical terms that make communications among shock
scientists more difficult than during the pioneering "good old days" of
legendary all-round knowledge. Modern aerodynamicists, for example, accus-
tomed to working with gases and thinking in terms of mean-free path lengths,
viscosity effects, boundary and shock layers, vorticity, slipstreams, Mach and
Reynolds numbers, etc. can nowadays barely communicate with solid-state
shock physicists who treat shock waves in terms of Huginiot elastic limit,
elastic precursor, plastic wave, spallation, lattice compression, shock poly-
morphism, etc. However, it should be remembered that shock waves, inde-
pendent of the state of matter of the applied medium, have a common root and
are based on the mighty mechanical principle of collision (percussion, impact),
4 R Krehl

which has also become the fundament of such eminent fields of science as
plasma physics and particle physics.
The Chronology in Section 1.8, illuminating the historical evolution of
shock wave physics in terms of milestones, emphasizes the phenomenological
aspects. In a tabular form it specifies the contributor's affiliation and motivation
of his research, discloses preceding work and cross connections with similar
studies elsewhere, and comments on the achievements under the present point
of view. This rather encyclopedic approach is certainly arbitrary and was
influenced by the author's years of diagnosing a diversity of shock wave
phenomena in all states of matter. It is hoped that this form of presenting
historic milestones may render a better survey than a lengthy narrative
description to the historically interested reader.
Because of space limitations, the Chronology omits the beginning of
percussion research and does not start until 1759. This was apparently the
year of the earliest published reference on the reflection of the possible
properties of shock waves, then considered by Euler as waves with "distur-
bances of large size." The Chronology ends in 1945 due to the magnitude of
shock-wave-related research that has taken place since then. In the following
chapters of this Handbook reference is made mostly to works published after
1945, and this complements--although presented in a different style--the
Chronology. Those who are interested in a more extended chronology will find
it in Krehl's monograph. 3

1.3 EARLY P E R C U S S I O N RESEARCH

Widely used by primitive man to produce tools and weapons, and practiced in
an almost unchanged manner throughout a period of several 100,000 years,
percussion was a fundament of civilization. However, the basic laws of
percussion were not discovered until the 17th century, only recently compared
to the long history of its application. Many prominent naturalists of that
century contributed to the understanding of percussion, such as Galilei (1638),
Marci (1639), Descartes (1644), Wallis (1668), Wren (1668), Huygens (1669),
Mariotte (1671), and Newton (1687). Percussion studies started with the use
of tangible bodies like billiard balls or cannonballs and were mainly based on
the observation of their velocities and directions before and after collision
(central and eccentric collision). Early ballistic impact studies had revealed
that the observed effects strongly depend on the hardness of the collision
partners (elastic and inelastic collision) and that in the case of inelastic

3p. Krehl. A historical perspective on percussion, explosion and shock wave research. (Springer-
Verlag, Heidelberg, in progress).
History of Shock Waves 5

collision the kinetic energy is partly transformed into heat. Since the very short
moment of contact and deformation during collision were not yet accessible,
neither experimentally nor theoretically, Newton's and Huygens' percussion
theories relinquished from the beginning the difficult task of evaluating the
enormous instantaneous force.
In his Principia (1687), Newton suggested the first corpuscular model of
percussion on an atomic level to illustrate that the propagation of sound occurs
via percussion from one particle to another. His model, in a way representing
the archetype of early shock wave models, stimulated other naturalists to
explain the propagation of other mechanical waves, such as seismic shocks
(Desmarest 1756), in the same manner. Newton's model was also used by
Bernoulli in his Hydrodynamica (1738), in which he first expressed the
phenomenon of heat by the average mean square velocity of the colliding
atoms, thus initiating the first thermodynamic theory of heat (KrOnig 1856;
Maxwell 1860-1866). Navier (1822) used the corpuscular model to derive the
laws of motion of continuous media. The multiple-percussion pendulum, today
also known as Newton's cradle, soon became a spectacular apparatus for
demonstrating chain percussion. The ballistic pendulum was invented by
Cassini, Jr. (1707) and is based on the law of the conservation of impulse,
one of the basic findings of 17th-century percussion research. Introduced into
ballistics by Robins (1746), the ballistic pendulum allowed the first quantitative
determination of the velocity of a projectile. Furthermore, he used this simple
but most efficient apparatus to study projectile drag as a function of its velocity,
thus creating aeroballistics. Robins' remarkable supersonic experiments up to a
velocity of 1700ft/sec (M ~ 1.5) revealed a considerable increase of air drag
when approaching the sound velocity. Those experiments were repeated and
analyzed more recently with modern means by Hoerner (1958) and proved that
Robins indeed must have reached supersonic velocities in his gun shots.
Percussion research reached its next climax in the second half of the 19th
century. Neumann (1856-1857), De Saint-Venant (1866-1867), and Hertz
(1882) developed (partly contradicting) percussion theories in which they
included Hooke's law of deformation. This also allowed the determination of
the instantaneous stress distribution or percussion force. Hertz theoretically
demonstrated that the stress distribution in a plate, impacted by a hard sphere,
has a conical geometry (the Hertzian cone) that extends from the surface into
the impacted plate which can result in conical cracks. This important result
explained not only previous observations but also confirmed various hypoth-
eses of prehistorians about how hand axes, arrowheads, knives, and other
objects from flint stone or other very hard minerals were produced by primitive
man (Kerkhof and Muller-Beck4). Contact times during percussion were first
4E Kerkhof and H. M{iller-Beck: Zur bruchmechanischen Deutung der Schlagmarken an
Steingeraten. Glastech.Bet. 42:439--448 (1969).
6 P. Krehl

measured electrically by Sabine (1876). Those measurements revealed that the

contact times are indeed of very short duration--somewhere in the micro-
second regime, depending on the mass of the percussion partners and their
initial velocities. Tait's percussion machine (1890-1895) allowed for the first
time the continuous recording of the contact time of percussion. Using a
graphical method he also evaluated the duration of percussion for various
examples, such as contact times between a golf ball and a club, one billiard ball
with another, and a hammer and a nail.

1.4 E V O L U T I O N OF SHOCK WAVES

The large number of disciplines that now fall in the category of shock waves
did not evolve along a straight path into the present state. Rather, they emerged
from complex interactions among shock-wave-related disciplines or indepen-
dently from other branches of science. One practical means of getting a useful
survey on the development of shock wave physics is to classify the large
number of milestones in terms of states of mattermi.e., shock waves in gases,
liquids, solids, and plasmas. The following paragraphs will refer to the first
three states of matter only.

1.4.1 NATURAL S U P E R S O N I C P H E N O M E N A AND

EARLY SPECULATIONS

Shock waves are a common phenomenon on Earth and under certain condi-
tions are produced during volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. The most
striking natural shock wave phenomena are certainly thunder and the fall of
meteors. Earnshaw (1851) was probably the first who reflected on the
possibility that thunder would propagate with supersonic velocity as he
noticed that the time delay between lightning and thunder was less than one
would expect when assuming that thunder propagates with the velocity of
sound. Nine years later, Montigny, Hirn, and Raillard, independently of each
other, resumed the problem, thereby partly assuming unrealistically high
propagation velocities of thunder. Accounts of the famous KAigle Fall (Blot
1803), a meteorite shower that spawned a barrage of reports, and the
Washington Meteor (1873) provoked disputes among contemporary scientists
on the possible cause of observed shock phenomena (Abbe 1877). Ernst Mach,
renowned together with Peter Salcher as the discoverer of the head wave
phenomenon (1887), correctly explained this phenomenon likewise by the
supersonic motion of the meteor (E. Mach and Doss 1893). Cosmic shock
History of Shock Waves 7

phenomena compared to terrestrial ones reach enormous dimensions, such as

the solar wind (Parker 1958), which is a stream of ionized gas particles emitted
from the sun's corona that is accelerated in Earth's magnetic field and produces
a bow wave similar to that ahead of a supersonically moving blunt object
(Axford and Kellog 1962). Much larger shock dimensions are generated during
stellar explosions (supernovae). Earliest accounts of these date back to Chinese
and Swiss annals (A.D. 1006). The shock wave of largest imaginable dimensions
would be the "Big Bang," the "shock of all shocks," which, according to the big
bang theory, resulted about 10 to 20 billion years ago from a gigantic explosion
of a highly concentrated mass of gaseous matter at a single point in space. The
relic radiation field resulting from the fireball of the Big Bang eventmpredicted
by Alpher, Herman, and Gamow (1948-1949) to be around 5 K--was recorded
by Penzias and Wilson (1965) as a residual blackbody radiation of 3 K.
Until the advent of gunpowder, the only means available to man for
producing shock waves was whip cracking, probably used since antiquity.
However, it was scarcely used by early scientists as a subject of investigation
because the mechanism of shock generation and its analysis are rather
complicated. Lummer (1905) first speculated that the shock might be
caused by supersonic motion of the whip tip. The solution of this puzzle
required ambitious diagnostics and was not uncovered until the advent of
sophisticated high-speed photographic recording techniques. 5
Black powder (gunpowder) was invented in China and first described in
Europe by Roger Bacon (1267) for incendiary and explosive applications. Since
it can only burn rapidly and cannot detonate, it cannot be used to generate
shock waves. However, applied in fire arms, which were in use in Europe since
the early 14th century, the hot gases of the reacting gunpowder are initially
confined in the barrel but are suddenly released at the moment when the
projectile leaves the muzzle, which generates the impressive muzzle blast, a
shock wave.
After the inventions of the electrostatic generator (von Guericke 1663) and
the Leiden jar (von Kleist and Cuneus 1745), it became possible for the first
time to store considerable electric charges and to discharge them in a very
short time. The discharge is accompanied by a spectacular flash and a sharp
report, an impressive demonstration that was often shown in university
lectures and private circles and that stimulated discussions on the nature of
lightning and thunder. The electric spark proved to be not only useful to
generate shock waves at any time, in any space, and of any desired geometry,
but was also precisely triggerable in time with an electric light source
(Knochenhauer 1858), in most case a second spark discharge confined to a
pointlike geometry to meet the requirement of illumination for the shadow or

5cf. ref. 357 in Chronology.

8 P. Krehl

schlieren method. Furthermore, the alternative method of generating shock

waves by chemical explosives allowed the differentiation between electrical and
chemical secondary effects of observed shock phenomena, an important
advantage that facilitated the interpretation of Mach reflection (E. Mach and
Wosyka 18 7 5).
It is quite possible that early acousticians also reflected on unusual
phenomena associated with intense sound. Prof. Sir Richard Southwell, 6
commemorating at the University of Glasgow the centennial of Rankine's
appointment to the Queen Victoria Chair of Civil Engineering and Mechanics,
made the interesting annotation that the voice, kept down to a mannerly noise
volume, will get through a speaking-tube unaltered but becomes increasingly
distorted when the volume is raised. Early experiments on the velocity of
sound at very low temperatures--i.e., in air of perfect dryness--were
performed in the North Pole regions by the famous Arctic explorers Parry
and Ross (1821--1825). The fact that the report of a gun was heard at their
further station before the command to fire was heard suggested also the idea
that intense air waves travel more quickly than weaker waves.
The puzzling shock wave, characterized by a stepped wave front, was
difficult to accept by early naturalists because it involved the abandonment
of the principle Natura non facit saltus, i.e., the denial of the continuity of
dynamic effects. Surprisingly, however, the problem was successfully tackled
neither by experimentalists nor philosophers, but rather by mathematical
physicists. Jouguet 7 wrote: "The shock wave represents a phenomenon of
rare peculiarity such that it has been uncovered by the pen of mathematicians,
first by Riemann, then by Hugoniot. The experiments followed not until
afterwards." Riemann and Hugoniot, however, were not the only pioneers. As
shown in the Chronology, they had a surprisingly large number of predecessors
who substantially contributed to this new field, thus paving the way for
understanding discontinuous wave propagation.

1.4.2 S H O C K WAVES IN GASES

The impetuous development of experimental shock wave physics started with

studies in gases primarily for the following reasons: (i) In the 17th century the
elastic nature of air was studied experimentally and already used in practice--
such as in the wind-gun and pneumatic lighter, which revealed the adiabatic
properties of quickly compressed air. The first scientific milestone was the
6R. Southwell.W.J. M. Rankine: A commemorativelecture delivered on 12 December, 1955, in
Glasgow. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. (London) 5:177 (1956).
7E. Jouguet: R~sum~des theories sur la propagation des explosions. La science agrienne 3(No.
2): 138-155 (1934).
History of Shock Waves 9

determination of the isothermal equation of state (Boyle and Townley 1660).

(ii) The relatively low sound velocity of air in comparison to a liquid or solid--
for example, smaller by a factor of about 5 and 20 in the case of water and iron,
respectivelymwas advantageous for early experimentalists, when high-speed
diagnostics were still in their infancy. (iii) All three optical methods (schlieren,
shadowgraph, and interferometry) are light transmission techniques, i.e.,
require a translucent medium, and therefore are ideally suited for studies in
gases. (iv) In practice, the majority of shock wave applications, then and now,
take place in air.
Early ballisticians already noticed the importance of air resistance and its
dependency on projectile geometry and velocity. Up to the 18th century the
resistance of bodies was measured by the timing of free fall, the mounting of
the body on a pendulum, and suspension of the body in the flow. Systematic
aeroballistic studies at substantial velocities were performed by Robins (1746)
in his sensational ballistic experiments. He also devised a rotating-arm machine
that allowed rotation of the test object in a reproducible manner by means of a
falling weight. Von Karm~in8 (1932), who coined the term wave drag for a new
type of drag at supersonic velocity, appropriately called these pioneering
studies of early ballisticians "the theoretical-empirical preschool of supersonic
aerodynamics."
Early attempts at measuring the sound velocity, both in air (Mersenne 1636,
Cassini, Jr. et al. 1738) and water (Colladon 1826), used a long baseline to
compensate for the limited accuracy of available clocks. This method, however,
was not directly transferable to the crucial test of whether waves of intense
sound would propagate faster than sound velocity, because the pressure rapidly
decreases with distance from the source; i.e., the region of supersonic velocity
would be limited only to the near field of the explosion source. Regnault
(1863), widely known for his careful measurements and sophisticated meth-
ods, originally had in mind to measure sound velocities in various gases and
liquids. To secure a long baseline, he performed his experiments in the public
sewage channels and gas pipe lines of Paris, which advantageously confined
the sound within two dimensions. To secure sufficient sound intensity at the
receiver station, he generated the sound at the tube entrance with small
amounts of explosives, at first not being aware that he applied shock (blast)
waves rather than sound waves. His remarkable results, published in various
international journals but today almost forgotten, obviously proved quantita-
tively the existence of supersonic velocities for the first time and certainly must
have encouraged contemporaries from other countries to tackle this subject
further.

8 T. von KCtrman: H6her, schneller und heisser. Interavia 11:407 (1956).

10 P. Krehl

At low speeds the air behaves like an incompressible fluid. The classical
theory of hydrodynamics, which involves no viscosity and is concerned with
irrotational motion, predicts that a body moving steadily will experience no
resistance or lift. At higher speeds, however, energy is increasingly dissipated
so that bodies moving at speeds faster than that of sound have a considerable
resistance. Ernst Mach, who held the chair of experimental physics at the
German Karl-Ferdinand Universitat of Prague (1867-1895), was interested in
physical and physiological acoustics. He was supported by a team of cowor-
kers, later including also his son Ludwig Mach, and had the opportunity to
systematically continue his research in this particular field throughout a period
of almost 28 years, certainly a peculiarity in the research scenery of the 19th
century. E. Mach even began his gas dynamics studies with one of the most
difficult subjects of shock wave physics, the oblique interaction of shock waves
(E. Mach and Wosyka 1875)--a curiosity in the evolution of gas dynamics.
Later called the Mach effect by yon Neumann (1943), this interaction is a
complex nonlinear superposition phenomenon and has remained even today a
challenging subject of continuous research. Subsequently, E. Mach and
Sommer (1877) proved experimentally that indeed a shock wave propagates
with supersonic velocity but rapidly approaches sound velocity at increasing
distance from the source, thus confirming on a laboratory scale Regnault's
previous result. E. Mach and Salcher (1887) first showed that a projectile flying
supersonically produces a hyperbolic shock wave, the so-called head wave,
which moves stationary with the projectile. These pioneering experimental
investigations of Ernst Mach and his team, together with theoretical studies in
England, France and Germany established the basic knowledge of supersonic
flows in the late 1880s. Practical aerodynamics, however, was still in its infancy,
and the first flight of man (von Lilienthal 1891) had not yet been achieved.
It appears that studies on the exhaust of compressed gas from an orifice
originated from malfunctions of Papin's safety valve (1679). These valves were
quite frequently applied in steam engines but often had too narrow an outflow
diameter and could not quickly reduce dangerous overpressures, thus causing
disastrous steam boiler explosions with many casualties and great damage to
neighboring equipment (Arago 1830). This problem prompted not only
engineers but also scientists to studies that became substantial roots of early
supersonic research (de Saint-Venant and Wantzel 1839; Napier 1866;
Reynolds 1885; Emden Bros. 1899; Stodola 1903; Prandtl 1904-1907). The
invention of the Laval nozzle (de Laval 1888), a nozzle of convergent-divergent
geometry, first allowed supersonic exit velocities. Soon an important device in
engineering, such as for increasing the efficiency of steam turbines, this nozzle
had also an enormous impact on supersonic flows and the development of
aerodynamics. Progress in this field was immediately fructified by progress of
high-speed photography. After successful visualization and interpretation of
History of Shock Waves 11

the flow phenomena in front of a Laval nozzle (Salcher and Whitehead 1889; L.
Mach 1897) and later also of those in its interior (Prandtl 1904; Meyer and
Prandtl 1908), the nozzle was adapted in England in the world's first super-
sonic wind tunnel at the National Physics Laboratory, Teddington, which
reached supersonic flow velocities up to M = 2 (Stanton 1920-1926). The first
hypersonic velocities (Erdmann 1944) were reached at the large supersonic
wind tunnel facility at Heeresversuchsstelle Peenemf~nde, the main center of
German rocketry during World War II.
The shock tube, invented in France by Vieille (1899) as a by-product of his
detonation studies, became the most important measuring and testing device
of gas dynamics. He applied the shock tube to demonstrate that shock waves
generated by the detonation of explosives propagate essentially in the same
manner as shock waves generated by the bursting diaphragm of the high-
pressure section that formed one end of his tube. The basic theory of the shock
tube was laid down by Kobes (1910), Hildebrandt (1927), and Schardin
(1932). Kobes and Hildebrandt had a rather curious approach to gas dynamics:
they investigated whether it would be possible to improve the performance of
air suction brakes on long railway trains by using shock waves. The shock
tube, rediscovered during World War II by Bleakney (1949) and associates at
Princeton University, soon proved its excellent applicability for quantitatively
investigating propagation and interaction phenomena of shock waves within a
large range of gas dynamics parameters. Furthermore, it was introduced
worldwide in other laboratories for the study of shock wave interactions
with scaled architectural structures such as model houses, plants, shelters, and
vehicles. Then in the long period of the Cold War such interactions were of
great practical concern because of the constant threat of nuclear blast to civil
and military installations. That the shock tube was also useful for generating
high temperatures in gases was first recognized and exploited in high-speed
spectroscopic studies by Laporte (1953).
The theoretical approach of treating shock waves can be traced back as far as
Newton's Principia (1687). Assuming incorrectly that sound is an isothermal
process, he made a crude calculation of sound velocity in air. Laplace (1816),
noticing a discrepancy of almost 20% between Newton's theoretical result and
already-existing measured data, improved the theory by assuming that sound is
an adiabatic process. Prior to this, Poisson (1808), stimulated by Laplace in
this subject, had mathematically tackled the sound velocity problem in a paper
published in the Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique. Under the heading "One-
dimensional movement of air in the case that the velocities of the molecules are
no longer very small" [Mouvement d'une ligne d'air dans le cas of~ les vitesses des
molecules ne sont pas supposees tr~s-petites], he also touched the basic question
of how to solve the wave equation in the case of noninfinitesimal amplitudes,
thus laying the foundation for the first shock wave theory. Most noteworthy,
12 e. Krehl

this happened at a time when an experimental verification of such disconti-

nuities, propagating as a wave throughout the medium, was still pending.
Poisson's early approach, first resumed in England by Challis (1848), was
quickly extended by Airy (1848), Stokes (1848-1849), Rankine (1858, 1870),
Earnshaw (1858-1860), Riemann (1859), Christoffel (1877), Hugoniot (1885-
1887), Tumlirz (1887), Burton (1893), Hadamard (1898-1905), H. Weber
(1901), Duhem (1901-1909), Jouguet (1901-1910), Zemplen (1905),
Lummer (1905), Lord Rayleigh (1910), G. I. Taylor (1910), etc. However,
the transition to present-day shock wave theory, largely a result of many
international contributions, was not straightforward, and their disputes and
cumbersome struggles for understanding the shock wave puzzle may be
dimmed in light of things we now take for granted. Details of this gradual
process of understanding may be found in the Chronology. In this context,
some remarks concerning their motivations seem worthwhile. Airy, Challis,
and Jouguet first studied tidal waves, which, steepened in shallow water into
hydraulic jumps, propagate rather slowly and are clearly observable with the
naked eye. The analogy between the reflection properties of a hydraulic jump
and a shock wave in a gas is indeed striking (Jouguet 1920) and was later
applied in water table experiments (Preiswerk 1938; Einstein 1948; Crossley,
Jr. 1949). Earnshaw treated the great solitary wave (1845) before he had his
key experience with thunder (1851). Riemann's interest in "air waves of finite
amplitude" [Luftwellen von endlicher Schwingungsweite] did not arise from a
purely mathematical curiosity. Stimulated by von Helmholtz, he treated the
problem of combination tones, a phenomenon of the nonlinearity of the ear
and observable only at sufficiently high sound levels. Rankine and Hugoniot
approached the shock wave phenomenon from the thermodynamic point of
view, Lord Rayleigh from the acoustic. Heinrich Weber, treating shock waves
also as a mathematical problem to find solutions for various types of partial
differential equations, edited Riemann's lectures on mathematical physics and
extended his theoretical studies on shock waves by numerous examples and
comments.

1.4.3 S H O C K WAVES IN LIQUIDS

Liquids were regarded for a long time as incompressible matter, until Canton
(1762) first demonstrated its very low compressibility. In shock wave physics,
liquids and gases are both treated as compressible fluids. Liquids, however, are
much more difficult to compress than gases and, as a consequence, typical
shock wave properties such as wave-steepening effects and supersonic propa-
gation are clearly observable only at significantly higher shock pressures.
Furthermore, shock-compressed liquids may show unusual properties (high
History of Shock Waves 13

viscosity, phase transformations) and generate complicated side effects (cavita-

tion). Shock waves in liquids, particularly in water, were hardly treated until
the beginning of World War I. However, a few remarkable contributions,
described in more detail in the Chronology, should be emphasized here.
Water hammer, a steep-fronted pressure wave that is felt as a sharp
hammerlike blow, is caused by the sudden retardation or acceleration of flow
in a long pipe, for example when a valve is closed sufficiently rapidly.
Montgolfier and Argand (1796) applied this phenomenon successfully in
constructing a hydraulic pump they called a "hydraulic ram" [belier hydrau-
lique]. Generally, however, this effect is detrimental in pipe systems because the
pressure pulse can propagate to remote areas and destroy tubes, valves, and
other installations. Kareljkich and Zhukovsky (1898-1900) in Moscow first
scientifically treated the problem of water hammer or hydraulic shocks in water
supply lines. At the turn to the 20th century, this problem also became
important in other countries when large water pipe systems had to be built
to satisfy the increasing water requirements of fast-growing urban commu-
nities. The water hammer can also be generated by an object impacting and
penetrating a liquid and in this modification was probably the earliest observed
shock wave effect in a liquid. Carr~ (1705) observed the curious phenomenon
that a bullet shot into a wooden box filled with water blew up the box. The
impacting bullet, transferring a large amount of momentum to the water,
generates a shock wave that ruptures the walls. Since the first air battles of
World War I this effect has been a constant menace to military aircraft, whose
fuel tanks cannot fully be armored against gun shots. 9 Other shock wave
effects in liquids were also observed in military applications. For example
Abbot in the United States (1881) and Blochmann (1898) in Germany studied
underwater explosion phenomena of submarine mines, a subject of increasing
interest to the navy since the invention of the torpedo in the 1860s. During
World War II, research on underwater explosions was pushed forward by the
United States and England on a large scale. Their UNDEX Reports, published
shortly after the end of war, include a wealth of data on underwater explosion
phenomena and their analytical treatment, and even today are a rich source of
information. I~
Water ricochets, a now well-known percussion phenomenon, was studied
by Marci (1639), who threw a stone on a pond's surface at a low angle and
explained the effect with the law of reflection. This phenomenon gained new

9 R. Yurkovich. "Hydraulic ram: a fuel tank vulnerability study." Rept. No. G964, McDonnell
Douglas Corporation, St. Louis, MO (Sept. 1969).
10Underwater Explosion Research (UNDEX). A Compendium of British and American Reports. 3
vols., ed. by G. K. Hartmann, U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, and E. G. Hill, British Admiralty.
The Library of Congress, Photoduplication Service, Washington, DC (1950).
14 P. Krehl

interest with the advent of seaplanes and the need for them to land at high
speed or on rough sea. Investigations performed in various countries, such as
the United States (Von K~irman and Wattendorf 1929), Germany (Wagner
1932), and the former Soviet Union. (Sedov and Wladimirow 1942), revealed
that this skipping effect is a complicated combination of gliding and periodic
bouncing that also generates finite-amplitude waves in the water.
Cavitation damage was first observed shortly after the first use of steam
turbines. The central implosion of cavitation bubbles, accompanied by the
emission of shock waves, results in material destruction. At the beginning of
the age of steam turbines in the 1880s, erosion effects caused by cavitation
were observed not only on the blade tips of turbine wheels but also on marine
propellers that were initially driven at very high revolutions to avoid loss
involving high gear reduction between turbine and propeller. Studies on
cavitation phenomena were initiated both from the engineering (Thornycroft
and Barnaby 1895; Cook 1928) and scientific point of view (Lord Rayleigh
1917; Prandtl 1925; Jouguet 1927; Ackeret 1938). Cavitation and associated
shock pressure effects can now be generated in a very wide spatial/temporal
range, covering meters/milliseconds down to nanometers/femtoseconds. An
example for the upper limit is the gas sphere of an underwater explosion,
which can be regarded as a single, huge bubble. An example for the lower limit,
or micro-cavitation, is the irradiating of biological tissue with femtosecond
laser pulses, which results in ultrashort shock pulses (the photodisruption
effect). This procedure has been applied in femtosecond laser nanosurgery as a
"nanoscalpel" to cut nanometer-sized particles, such as chromosomes in a
living cell. 11
The electrohydraulic effect, first observed in England by Singer and Crosse
(1815) and later rediscovered in the former Soviet Union, 12 uses a powerful
electric discharge fed into a thin wire or spark gap submersed in water to
generate shock waves. This effect was made famous by the Latvian urologist
Goldberg, 13 who first successfully applied it to the disintegration of bladder
stones in man (shock lithotripsy). Later the electrohydraulic effect was also
used in production technology for forming metal sheets.

1.4.4 S H O C K WAVES IN SOLIDS

The pioneers of classical shock wave theory did not limit their analyses to
fluids only, but had also reflected on the peculiarities of shock waves in solids.
11K. K6nig, I. Riemann, P. Fischer, and K. J. Halbhuber. Intracellular nanosurgerywith near
infrared femtosecond laser pulses. Cell. & Mol. Biol. 45:195-201 (1999).
12L. A. Yutkin. Elektrogidravliceskij effekt. Masgiz, Moskva (1955).
13V. Goldberg. Zur Geschichte der Urologie: Eine neue Methode der Harnsteinzertn3mmer-
ung--elektrohydraulische Lithotripsie. Urologe [B] 19:23-27 (1979).
History of Shock Waves 15

In his treatise On the thermodynamic theory of waves of finite longitudinal

disturbance, Rankine (1869) clearly states that his derived relations are valid
"for any substance, gaseous, liquid or solid." Christoffel (1877), Hugoniot
(1889), Duhem (1903), Hadamard (1903), and Jouguet (1920) addressed the
solid state in more detail. Other contributions that could not immediately be
verified by contemporary experimentalists who lacked the diagnostic means,
later stimulated the evolution of shock wave physics in solids. Prominent
examples include: (i) various theories of percussion derived by early natural-
ists; (ii) Maxwell's theory of elasticity (1850); (iii) a theory on the equation of
state for solid matter based on the lattice vibration theory derived by Mie
(1903) and Gruneisen (1912); and (iv) theories on the dynamic plasticity of
metals such as proposed by G. I. Taylor (1942), yon K~irman (1942), and
Rakhmatulin (1945).
Contrary to the rapid and steady progress of shock wave physics in gaseous
matter since the 1870s, research in solids has evolved slowly. The main reason
was certainly the very challenging high-speed diagnostics, which require
submicrosecond resolution and thus were not available until after World
War II. However, using simple experiments early researchers did study the
dynamic properties of solids, particularly their rate-dependent strength. J.
Hopkinson (1872) measured the strength of a steel wire when the wire was
suddenly stretched by a falling weight, and he made the important observation
that the strength is much greater under rapid loading than in the static case--a
phenomenon that was later studied in more detail by his son (B. Hopkinson
1905). The latter also discovered the fracture phenomenon of back spalling
from an explosive-loaded metal plate (B. Hopkinson 1912).
In the 19th century, Parsons and Moisson (1892) attempted to use shock
waves to induce polymorphic phase transformations in solids, particularly in
carbon to produce artificial diamonds. However, their efforts did not give clear
evidence and were just too ambitious for their time. An important step toward
this goal were the later results of static high-pressure investigations on a large
number of liquid and solid substances carried out by Bridgman (1903-1961) in
a long-lasting campaign that formed the foundation for understanding matter
under high pressures. Those results gave modern shock physicists their first
clues to the static compressibility of solids at high pressures and to the stress-
dependent plasticity of metals, thus arousing their curiosity about how
substances would behave under dynamic pressures. This promoted also
various other spectacular investigations, for example on shock-induced poly-
morphic transitions in iron (Bancroft e t al.14), on possible ice modifications of

14D. Bancroft,E. L. Peterson,and S. Minshall. Polymorphismof iron at high pressures.J. Appl.

Phys. 27:291-298 (1956).
16 P. Krehl

shock-compressed water (Rice and Walsh; 15 Al'tshuler et a1.16), and on shock-

induced transformation of graphite into diamond (DeCarli and Jamieson17).
Early suppositions that craters might have been generated by meteorite impact
in the geologic past had to battle against established cryptovolcanic hypoth-
eses, but first systematic studies of meteorite material collected from various
craters around the world (Spencer 1933) and the discovery of curious striated
conical geologic structures (shatter cones, Butcher 1933, Boon and Albritton
1938) supported the impact theory. The famous Meteor Crater, Arizona was
first brought to notice in 1891 by the discovery od many masses of meteoric
iron scattered around the crater and the finding of diamond in this iron.
Eventually, the sensational discovery of quartz high-pressure, shock-induced
polymorphs in meteorite craters--beginning in Meteor Crater by Chao, Shoe-
maker and MadsenlS--constituted evidence for meteorite impact scars (so-
called astroblemes) and significantly promoted knowledge on the geological
history of Earth, Moon, and other planets. 19
Solid-state shock wave physics, partly an outgrowth of nuclear weapons
research imposed by the Manhattan Project, did not start until 1945 and
therefore is beyond the scope of this survey. Obviously, however, modern
testing methods for studying materials response under shock loading have
close roots to percussion. To a large extent they are based on the planar impact
of two rodlike bodies, a basic arrangement treated previously (Euler 1745;
Neumann 1857-1858; de Saint-Venant 1867; Ramsauer 1909; Donnell 1930)
and used today in high-rate materials testing such as the Hopkinson pressure
bar (B. Hopkinson 1914), which was further developed into the split Hopkin-
son pressure bar or the Kolsky bar (Kolsky 1949); the Taylor test (Taylor and
Whiffin 1948); the flyer plate method (McQueen and Marsh 1960); and the
planar impact by a high-velocity projectile (Hughes and Gourley 1961).
Modern investigations of shock waves in solids revealed rather complex
behavior in comparison to gases and liquids, and theories describing the solid
state under shock loading, taking structural properties into account also, are still
in development. The impressive advancement of solid-state shock wave physics

15 M. H. Rice and J. M. Walsh. Dynamic compression of liquids from measurements on strong

shock waves. J. Chem. Phys. 26:815-823 (1957).
16 L. V. Al'tshuler, A. A. Bakanova and R. E Trunin. Phase transition of water compressed by
strong shock waves. Sov. Phys. Dokl. 3:761-763 (1958).
17p. S. DeCarli and J. C. Jamieson. Formation of diamond by explosive shock. Science
133:1821-1822 (1961).
18 E. C. T. Chao, E. H. Shoemaker and B. M. Madsen: First natural occurence of coesite. Science
132:220-222 (1960)
19 B. M. French and N. M. Short (eds.). Proc. 1st Conference on Shock Metamorphism of Natural
Materials. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD (1966). Mono Book Corporation,
Baltimore (1968).
History of Shock Waves 17

was mainly based on (i) the generation of well-defined shock wave profiles, (ii)
the advance of submicrosecond measurements and visualization techniques, and
(iii) computational analysis employing refined thermodynamic equations of
state and using more accurate dynamic materials parameters. Today this specific
branch of high-pressure physics provides not only a rich source of equation-of-
state data for all kinds of solids but also information on most shock compression
and diagnostic techniques used in such disciplines as impact physics, geology,
seismology, fracture mechanics, laser fusion, and materials science.

1.5 E V O L U T I O N OF DETONATION PHYSICS

Historically, investigation on the nature of shock waves was closely related to the
puzzle of detonation, a high-transient thermochemical wave phenomenon. The
terms explosion and detonation were not always used as they are today. 2~ Today
the more general term explosion can be defined as a process causing a rapid
increase of pressure, which can steepen into a shock wave. An explosion does
not necessarily have to be connected with the exothermic reaction of a chemical
explosive; for example, in the case of a steam boiler the explosion is the sudden
rupture of the boiler walls, or in the case of a shock tube it is the bursting
membrane. Conversely, a detonation is a violent explosion related to high
explosives in which the rate of heat release is great enough for the explosion
to be propagated through the explosive as a steep shock front, the so-called
detonation wave. The discovery and correct interpretation of this term was not
achieved until the period from 1880 to 1905, which was almost 300 years after
the invention of gold fulminate, the first high explosive, by the alchemist Croll
(1608). The following short survey focuses on some of the circumstances in the
step-by-step process of investigating the nature of detonation.
Since Croll's discovery an impressive number of high explosives were
invented, the most important being silver fulminate (Bertollet 1708), picric
acid (Hausmann 1788), mercury fulminate (Howard 1799), guncotton (Sch0n-
bein 1846), nitroglycerine (Sobrero 1847), and dynamite (A. Nobel 1867)
tetryl (Michler and Meyer 1879), TNT (Haeussermann 1891) and lead azide
(Hyronimus 1907). Although by 1880 some of these substances were already
being used for military and civil purposesmfor example, in 1835 France alone

2o The terms detonation and explosion are of Latin origin and had been used interchangeably
since the late 17th century. However, the term detonation was apparently first used in the present-
day meaning in England by Abel (1869) who studied detonation effects in guncotton. In France
Berthelot (1870) first called the detonation front "shock" [choc] and in 1881 "explosive wave"
[l'onde explosive], which apparently was taken up in England by Dixon (1893) and Chapman
(1899). The term detonation was later adopted by Vieille (1900).
18 P. Krehl

produced 800 million percussion caps employing mercury fulminatemthe

physicochemical processes of explosion/detonation were not yet uncovered.
The first measurements of the detonation velocity in long, confined charges of
various high explosives, carried out by Abel (1869-1874) in England, revealed
unusual high velocities in the range of some 1000m/s. Abel stated that "the
detonation of gun-cotton travels more rapidly than any other known medium
with the exception of light and electricity." Studying the behavior of uncon-
fined and confined charges, he speculated that detonation in a high explosive
might be transmitted by means of some "synchronous vibrations" (1869).
Shortly thereafter Berthelot (1870) in France was the first to correctly assume
that detonation might be caused by a traveling mechanical shock, but an
experimental proof had yet to come.
At this point it is useful to look back on previous attempts at understanding
explosion in gases. The discovery of oxyhydrogen and its violent explosive
properties (Turquet de Mayerne 1620; Cavendish 1760) stimulated not only a
crude theory on the origin of earthquakes (L~mery 1700; Kant 1756) but also
turned the interest of naturalists to other explosive gaseous mixtures, parti-
cularly to firedamp, which had been a hazard to miners since the beginning of
hard coal mining in the 12th century. Davy (1816) analyzed the explosivity of
firedamp and discovered that the critical mixture for explosion is 9% methane
and 91% air. The "Davy lamp," his famous invention to avoid firedamp
explosions in mines, could only partly mitigate the risk of explosion accidents;
there were other sources of open fire, such as explosives used for blasting
purposes, one of the oldest and most important civil applications of explosives
since the 16th century. When Bunsen (1867) measured the strength and rate of
combustion of various explosive gaseous mixtures such as oxygen, he used an
experimental setup that could not provoke explosion.
Dust explosions, certainly the oldest kind of man-made explosion,
frequently occurred in flour mills and bakeries and later in metal powder
works. Such explosions stimulated hypotheses (Faraday and Lyell 1845;
Rankine and Macadam 1872) that in an analogous manner coal-dust-laden
air might cause explosions in coal mines. Eventually, a series of tragic firedamp
explosions in the French coal mining industry (1876) led to the foundation of
the French Fire-Damp Commission (1878) to investigate possible causes of
these explosions from a scientific viewpoint and to reflect on possible counter-
measures. Additional mining accidents in England, France, and the United
States soon afterward---some of them probably produced by the presence of
coal dust--initiated the foundations of similar national institutions. In France,
Mallard and Le Ch~telier, from the Ecole des Mines, were asked to examine the
best means of guarding against explosions of firedamp in mines. This led to a
series of investigations on the specific heat of gases at high temperatures, the
temperatures of ignition, and the velocities of propagation of flame in gaseous
History of Shock Waves 19

mixtures (1880-1882). In addition, similar studies were carried out in Paris at

the College de France by Berthelot, who worked together with Vieille at the
Laboratoire Central, Service des Pouclres et 5alpetres. These investigations
revealed (i) that an explosive wave, later generally termed a detonation wave,
exists in explosive gaseous mixtures and propagates at a tremendous speed of
up to 2500m/s, and (ii) that the propagation velocity only depends on the
mixture composition not on the tube diameter as long as that diameter is not
too small (1878-1883). Mallard and Le Chatelier (1883), who first recorded
the propagation of the explosive wave in long tubes with a drum camera,
observed that the transition from combustion into detonation occurs suddenly,
and that the detonation velocity is comparable to the sound velocity of the
burnt detonation products.
These results promoted the Chapman-Jouguet theory, which evolved in
England from independent contributions by Schuster (1893), Dixon (1893),
and Chapman (1899); in Russia by Mikhel'son (1890); and in France by
Berthelot (1891) and Jouguet (1904). The theory assumes that the hot products
of the combustion wave act as an expanding hot-gas piston that accelerates the
unburnt mixture ahead, thereby forming the explosive wave, which is a shock
wave. In comparison to a normal shock wave with its discontinuous transition of
uncompressed to compressed gas across the shock front, however, the detona-
tion front also separates two chemically different states of unburnt and burnt
gases. However, various experimental studies later revealed that the detonation
front is not necessarily a homogeneous zone of reaction but can exhibit a
periodic cell structure (Bone et al. 1936). In addition, the assumption of a sharp
detonation front is an idealization, and the Chapman-Jouguet theory was later
refined by introducing a three-layer model of the detonation front. This model
was independently advanced by Zeldovich (1940) in the Soviet Union, von
Neumann (1942) in the United States, and Doring (1943) in Germany, today
known as the ZND theory. The study of the classic chlorine-hydrogen explo-
sion--a puzzling photochemical-induced reaction discovered by Gay-Lussac
and Thenard (1809) and investigated in more detail by Chapman (1909-1933),
Bodenstein (1913), and Nernst (1918)mrevealed that detonation is not an
instantaneous, single-stage chemical reaction but rather occurs in a chain
reaction [Kettenreaktion], thereby passing through various short-lived inter-
mediate states. 21 Their findings stimulated the evolution of chemical kinetics
(Semenov and.Hinshelwood 1928; Nobel Prize of Chemistry 1956), which
quickly became a new exciting branch of physical chemistry.

2~M. Bodenstein: 100Jahre Photochemie des Chlorknallgases. Bet. Dtsch. Chem. Gesellsch. 75A:
119-125 (1942).
20 v. Krehl

1.6 MILESTONES IN EARLY HIGH-SPEED

DIAGNOSTICS
The advancement of high-speed diagnostics--encompassing appropriate fast
methods of measurement, visualization, and recordingmhas always been
essential for a detailed analysis of shock and detonation effects and their
proper applications. In this regard Ernst Mach's scientific way of experimenting
was very successful and directive to his contemporaries. He was an eminent
philosopher who also can be regarded as the first gas dynamicist and high-
speed photographer of his time. He carried out his shock and explosion
research according to the motto "Seeing is understanding."
Within the short period of time from 1864 to 1891, the three principal
optical techniques of flow visualization (i.e., the schlieren method, shadow-
graphy, and Mach-Zehnder interferometry) had been invented. From the
historical point of view it is remarkable that one of the first applications of
the schlieren method, which was invented by A. Toepler (1864) at Bonn-
Poppelsdorf, was the visualization of a propagating spark wave, a weak shock
wave. The famous ballistic experiments by E. Mach and Salcher (1887) also
used the schlieren method to visualize the head wave generated by a super-
sonic projectile. The shadowgraph technique was invented at the University of
Agram [now Zagreb] by Dvof~ik (1880), who was one of E. Mach's assistants
(1871-1875). Applied by Boys (1890) in England, this technique considerably
simplified the visualization of supersonic flows in ballistic testing ranges. E.
Mach and L. Mach proved the great potential of interferometry for flow
visualization, for example by quantitatively analyzing the density jump at
the shock front (E. Mach and Weltrubsky 1878) and the flow around a
supersonic bullet (E. Mach and L. Mach 1889). The Mach-Zehnder interfe-
rometer is particularly appropriate for flow visualization studies in ballistic
tunnels, shock tubes, and wind tunnels because it allows a large distance
between object and reference beam. These three optical methods gave early
shock researchers their first insights into an abundance of completely new
supersonic flow phenomena. The challenge of recording gas dynamic events
largely inspired the development of new high-speed photographic equipment,
which in turn enabled the discovery of new shock phenomena. In the
pioneering period, gas dynamicists were often also high-speed photographers
who invented, developed, and built their own equipment.
Snapshot photography of a dynamic event was first demonstrated by Fox-
Talbot (1851). With the advent of gelantin dry plates (Maddox 1871) which
later could be improved significantly in sensitivity (1878-1880) and of electric
spark light sources of high intensity and short duration, it became possible for
the first time to both stop the motion of propagating shock waves with
practically no motion blur and obtain a sufficient exposure density on
photographic film. The first photographed shock wave was generated by the
History of Shock Waves 21

discharge of a Leiden jar, visualized with the schlieren method, and photo-
graphed on a high-sensitive gelantin dry plate (E. Mach and Wentzel 1884).
The evolution from single-shot photography to high-speed cinematography
is a story of its own, 22 but a few milestones can be illuminated here. The
rotating mirror, a mechanical device for resolving the motion of an object in
one dimension, was apparently first used by Wheatstone (1834). However, it
took almost a hundred years before the mirror was modified into a practical
streak camera for resolving the propagation and reflection of detonation waves
(Payman 1931). High-speed cinematography reached a first climax with the
invention of the Multiple Spark Camera (Cranz and Schardin 1929). Based on a
principle of recording that allows one to realize any desired frame rate and to
use any type of "light source" even beyond the visible spectrum, it was also
modified later for flash X-ray and neutron cinematography. The ambitious U.S.
program of atomic weapons development and testing during and after World
War II resulted in further developments of mechanical framing cameras with
ultrahigh frame rates. Simultaneously, the various requirements of dynamic
plasma diagnosing in numerous fusion research programs stimulated new
developments of ultrafast image tube cameras, particularly in the United States,
England, France, and the Soviet Union. With the advent of the microchannel
plate (MCP) in the 1980s~an American invention based on the electron
multiplier (Farnsworth 1930)~a new optoelectronic device with excellent
gating capability and of high light intensification became available that could
be combined very successfully with the already existing charge-coupled device
(CCD). These so-called ICCDs (intensified CCDs), applied in a multiple
arrangement with optical image splitting, created a new generation of ultrafast
multiple digital framing cameras that are well suited for recording all kinds of
shock wave phenomena.
Flash radiography, invented simultaneously in Germany (Steenbeck 1938)
and the United States (Kingdon and Tanis 1938), immediately became an
important diagnostic tool that particularly stimulated detonics. Contrary to
optical methods, flash radiography is insensitive to self-luminous events that
accompany all detonation processes, and smoke resulting from detonation
products cannot obscure the test object. In addition, X rays promote insight
into the interior of shock-loaded solids and the measurement of temporal
shock front positions. These particular properties of flash X rays allowed, for
the first time, the visualization of shock waves emerging from exploding wires,
shaped charges, and detonation fronts in liquid and solid explosives. Further-
more, it also became possible to visualize shock wave propagation and
interaction phenomena in optically opaque media, which represent the
majority of solids, to quantitatively determine the density jump behind the
shock front using photo densitometry, and to measure the lattice compression
of shock-compressed crystals using flash X-ray diffraction.
22 S. F. Ray: High-Speed photography and photonics. Focal Press, Oxford (1997).
22 P. Krehl

FIGURE 1 Life spans of renowned percussion, explosion and shock wave researchers. The begin
of the shock wave era, marked above by the broken line, can be attributed to Simeon Denis Poisson
who first mathematically treated "waves of which the velocities of the molecules are not supposed
to be very small" (1808).

1.7 FURTHER READING

1. L. V. Al'tshuler, and V. A. Simonenko, History and prospects of shock wave physics. High
Pressure Research 5:813-815 (1990).
2. J. D. Anderson, Jr. Modern compressible flow, with historical perspective. McGraw-Hill, New York
(1990).
History of Shock Waves 23

FIGURE 1 (Continued)

3. R. Assehton: History of explosives. Institute of Makers of Explosives, New York (1940).

4. P. A. Bauer, E. K. Dabora, and N. Manson, Chronology of early research on detonation wave. In
Dynamics of detonations and explosions: Detonations, A. L. Kuhl, J. C. Leyer, A. A. Borisov, and
W. A. Sirignano, eds. Progr. Astro- & Aeronautics (AIAA, Wash. D.C.) 133:3-18 (1991).
5. A. Busemann, Compressible flow in the thirties. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 3:1-12 (1971).
6. R. Ch~ret, The life and work of Pierre-Henri Hugoniot. Shock Waves 2:1-4 (1992).
7. D. H. Clark, and E R. Stephenson, The historical supernovae. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1977).
8. H. Dryden, Supersonic travel within the last two hundred years. Scient. Monthly 78:289-295
(May 1954).
24 P. Krehl

9. G.E. Duvall, Shock wave research: yesterday, today and tomorrow. Proc. 4th Conf. on Shock Waves
in Condensed Matter, Y. M. Gupta, ed. Spokane, WA (July 1985). Plenum Press, New York (1986),
pp. 1-12.
10. R.J. Emrich, Early development of the shock tube and its role in current research. Proc. 5th Int.
Shock Tube Symp., Z. I. Slawsky, J. F. Moulton, Jr., and W. S. Filler, eds. White Oak, Silver
Spring, MA (April 1965), pp. 1-10.
11. E Fischer, Zur Geschichte der Dampfkesselexplosionen. Dingler's Polytechn. J. 213:296-308
(1874).
12. K. L. Goin, The history, evolution, and use of wind tunnels. AIAA StudentJ. (Febr. 1971): 3-13.
13. A. Hertzberg, Shock tube research, past, present and future. Proc. 7th Int. Shock Tube Symp., I. I.
Glass, ed. Toronto (June 1969), Univ. of Toronto Press (1970), pp. 3-5.
14. J. N. Johnson, and R. Ch6ret, Shock waves in solids: an evolutionary perspective. Shock Waves
9:193-200 (1999).
15. T. von K~irm~in, Aerodynamics. Selected topics in the light of their historical development. Cornell
University Press, Ithaca, NJ (1954).
16. T. yon K~irman and L. Edson: The wind and beyond. Theodore von Karm~in pioneer and
pathfinder in space. Little, Brown & Co., Boston & Toronto (1967).
17. P. Krehl, and M. van der Geest, The discovery of the Mach reflection effect and its
demonstration in an auditorium. Shock Waves 1:3-15 (1991).
18. P. Krehl, and S. Engemann, August Toepler, the first who visualized shock waves. Shock Waves
5:1-18 (1995).
19. N. Manson, Historique de la d6couverte de l'onde de d~tonation. [Colloque C4.] J. de Physique
48:7-37 (1987).
20. N. Manson, and E. K. Dabora, Chronology of research on detonation waves: 1920-1950. In
Dynamic aspects of detonations, A. L. Kuhl, J.-C. Leyer, A. A. Borisov, and W. A. Sirignano, eds.
Progr. Astro- & Aeronautics (AIAA, Wash. D.C.) 153:3-39 (1993).
21. L. M~dard, Histoire de la thermochimie. Publ. de l'Univ, de Provence, Aix-en-Provence (1994).
22. L. M~dard, Eoeuvre scientifique de Paul Vieille (1854-1934). Rev. Hist. Sci. 47:381--404 (1994).
23. W. E Merzkirch, Mach's contribution to the development of gas dynamics; Seeger, R. J., On
Mach's curiosity about shock waves. In Ernst Mach, physicist and philosopher, R. S. Cohen and
R. J. Seeger, eds. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 6:42-67 (1970).
24. E. Oeser, Historical earthquake theories from Aristotle to Kant. Abhandl. Geolog. Bundesanstalt
Wien 48:11-31 (1992).
25. H. Reichenbach, Contributions of Ernst Mach to fluid mechanics. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 15:1-
28 (1983).
26. E. W. E. Rogers, Aerodynamicsmretrospect and prospect. Aeronaut. J. 86:43-67 (1982).
27. I. Szab6, Geschichte der Theorie des Stot~es. Humanismus und Technik 17:14-44, 128-144
(1973).
28. I. Szab6, Geschichte der mechanischen Principien und ihre wichtigsten Anwendungen. Birkhauser,
Basel etc. (1977). See also: Geschichte der Stoj~wellen, pp. 281-314; Geschichte der Stoj~theorie,
pp. 425-479.
29. S. P. Timoshenko, History of strength of materials. McGraw-Hill, New York etc. (1953).
30. C. A. Truesdell, The mechanical foundations of elasticity and fluid dynamics. J. Ration. Mech.
Annual 1, 125-171, 173-300 (1952).
31. C. A. Truesdell, Rational fluid mechanics. In Leonardi Euleri Opera Omnia XII [II]. Teubner,
Leipzig etc. (1954). See also editor's introduction, pp. I-CXXV.
History of Shock Waves 25

1.8 CHRONOLOGY OF MILESTONES*

1759 Royal Academy Euler I addresses in a letter to Lagrange the possibility that
of Sciences, the propagation of sound might depend on the "size of the
Berlin I disturbances," which expressed in modern terms would mean
size of the displacement or intensity of sound. He writes to
Lagrange, "It is very remarkable that the propagation of sound
actually takes place more rapidly than the theory indicates,
and at present I renounce the opinion I had formerly that the
following disturbances could accelerate the propagation of the
preceding ones, in such a way that the higher is the sound the
greater is its speed, as possibly you have seen in our latest
memoirs. It has also come into my mind that the size of the
disturbances might cause some acceleration, since in the
calculation they have been supposed infinitely small, and it
is plain that [finite] size would change the calculation and
render it intractable. But, in so far as I can discern, it seems to
me that this circumstance would rather diminish the speed." m
Euler's hypothesis was indeed correct insofar as the amplitude
of sound (the "size of disturbance") might influence the speed
of sound. However, he incorrectly assumed that the velocity
would diminish with increasing amplitude.
1760s Private Cavendish 2 experiments with a mixture of "fixed air" and
laboratory, "inflammable air" and "inflammable air," i.e., oxyhydrogen,
Great and its ignition by an electric spark. He constructs a
Marlborough "measurer of explosions of inflammable air" to quantify the
Street, London released mechanical energy of a confined volume of that gas.
1762 Royal Society, Canton 3 demonstrates the small compressibility of liquids,
London which have hitherto been regarded as being incompressible.
He places the test liquid in a thermometer-like arrangement
and, compressing the bulb, obtains an observable magnifica-
tion of the change of volume in the capillary.
1770 University of Daniel Bernoulli 4 treats the problem of collision by applying
Basel the theory of elasticity and develops the first wave theory of
percussion. Assuming a freely suspended rod hit perpendi-
cular to its axis, he calculates the loss of kinetic energy as a
result of harmonic elastic vibrations.

* Covering not only shock waves but also related high-rate phenomena, such as percussion,
blast, explosion, and implosion, as well as milestones in the development of basic shock diagnostic
techniques. Dates years provided in the text by an arrow (for example --~ 1803) refer the reader to
other milestones listed under these years and notes following the symbol 9 comment the milestone
from the today's point of view.
26 V. Krehl

1770s Ecole Royale Monge 5 enters a field of study that will hold his interest for
du Gdnie, many years: Lagrange's theory of general partial differential
Mdzidres, equations and his own method of geometric construction of
France particular solutions, which he calls "method of characteristics."
Starting from a first-order partial differential equation, he gives
a geometric interpretation of the method of the variation of
parameters and writes, "In the following I will use, as I have
always done, different characteristics for the different ways of
differentiating; this method is more practical, as it is not
necessary to find a fractional form in order to present a partial
differential." He concludes: "This memoir contains the
constructions of integrals of partial differential equations,
more generally than the ones I had constructed until now,
and there I demonstrate that the geometrical places of these
integrals generally satisfy their partial differential equations,
which is what I had thought to myself". His geometric
construction of a particular solution of the equations under
consideration allows him to determine the general nature of the
arbitrary function involved in the solution of a partial differ-
ential equation ~ Monge's graphical method was widely applied
and further developed by subsequent mathematicians and
physicists who introduced such basic notations as characteristic
curve (or Monge's curve), characteristic cone (or Monge's cone),
trajectory of characteristics, and characteristic variable etc. A
detailed discussion of his work was given by Taton. 6 Earnshaw
(1858) and Riemann (1859), independently of one another,
first applied Monge's classic work of characteristics on gas
dynamics, particularly on the propagation of the shock wave.
Their studies were continued and greatly extended by various
other prominent shock wave pioneers, such as Hugoniot
(--~ 1887), Hadamard (--. 1903), and Prandtl and Busemann
( - , 1929). Reviews on the progress of further developments of
this important mathematical tool and its application in gas
dynamics and hydrodynamics were given, for example, by
Oswatitsch, y Courant and Friedrichs, s and Abbott. 9
1774 London Nairne, 1~ a British mechanic and experimentalist, studies the
electrical explosion of thin wires. Discharging a battery of
Leiden jars, initially charged up to a high voltage, through a
1-m-long iron wire 0.15 mm in diameter, he observes that "it
flew about the room in innumerable red hot balls, on
examining these balls, they were in general hollow, and
seemed to be nothing but scoria."
1780 Diocese Wisshofer, a German priest and naturalist, publishes in
Chiemsee, Salzburg a pamphlet on the design of an electric gun that
Bavaria uses the discharge of a Leiden jar (1745) to ignite an
inflammable gas for propelling the projectile. 11
History of Shock Waves 27

1781 Royal Academy Lagrange 12 publishes a treatise on the motion of fluids. In the
of Sciences, last chapter entitled Du mouvement d'un fluide contenue dans
Berlin un canal peu profond et presque horizontal, et en particulier du
mouvement des ondes he considers a surface wave of infinite-
simal height in shallow water in a canal of finite length and
dervies the famous formula for the propagation velocity as
v = (gh) ~/2 where g is the gravitational acceleration and h the
water depth of the liquid at rest. Referring to the known
formula describing the velocity v of a free-falling body,
v=(2gh) 1/2 and drawing a comparison between sound
waves in air and gravity waves, he states, "Thus, as the
velocity of propagation of sound is found equal to that
which a weight would require in falling from the height of
the atmosphere (assumed homogeneous), the velocity of
propagation of waves will be the same as what which a
weight would acquire in falling from a height equal to half
the depth of water in the canal." He refers to measurements
previously performed by de la Hire in France who observed a
velocity of 0.46 m/s [1.412 pied par seconde] in a water depth
of about 2.2cm [ 8/,0 pouce], thus essentially confirming his
theoretical result. 9 In the case of hydraulic jumps ("shooting"
flow) the velocit~ v is calculated by the formula v -
[g(h 1 + h2)h2/2hl]/2, where h I is the water depth ahead of
the jump and h2 is the water depth behind the jump. 13 For
increasingly weaker jumps ("streaming" flow) h 2 approaches
h 1, eventually converging with Lagrange's solution.

1783 Chair of Hutton, 14 performing ballistic experiments in the years 1775

Mathematics, and 1783-1786 using the ballistic pendulum (Cassini, Jr.
Royal Military 1707, Robins 1740), measures supersonic muzzle velocities of
Academy, cannon shots (charge: up to 16oz of gunpowder; projectile:
Woolwich iron cannon ball, 1.96 inch in diameter, weight up to 16oz,
13 dr,) up to 2030ft/s. His studies first confirm that super-
sonic velocities are not only obtainable for small caliber guns
(Robins 1746) but also for larger ones.
In another treatise HUTTON15 investigates the drag of projec-
tiles within a wide range of velocities up to supersonic speeds
(20--2000ft/sec) "to show according to what power of the
velocity, at every point, the resistance increases." He observes
that "commencing with the 2nd power or square of the
velocity, at the very beginning or slow motion [5ft/sec], the
exponent of the power gradually increases, till at the velocity
of 1500 or 1600 ft/sec, it arrives at the 2.153 power of the
same . . . . After the 1600 feet velocity, where the exponent
(2.153) is greatest, it gradually decreases again to the end
[towards 2000ft/sec]." He explains the velocity-dependent
drag of a projectile by a vacuum generated at its rear, "The
28 P. Krehl

circumstance of the variable and increasing exponent in the

ratio of the resistance is owing chiefly to the increasing degree
of vacuity left behind the ball, in its flight through the air, and
to the condensation of the air before it. It is well known, that
air can only rush into a vacuum with a certain degree of
velocity, viz., about 1200 or 1400 feet in a second of time;
therefore, as the ball moves through the air, there is always
left behind a kind of vacuum, either partial or complete; that
as the velocity is greater, the degree of vacuity behind goes on
increasing, till at length, when the ball moves as rapidly as the
air can rush in and follow it, the vacuum behind the ball is
complete, and to complete ever after, as the ball continues to
move with all greater degrees of velocity. Now the resistance,
which the ball continues to move with all greater degrees of
velocity. Now the resistance, which the ball suffers in its
flight, is of a triple nature; one part of it being in consequence
of the vis inertia of the particles of air, which the ball strikes in
its course; another part from the accumulation of the elastic
air before the ball; and the third part arises from the
continued pressure of the air on the forepart of the ball,
when the velocity of this is such as to leave a vacuum behind
it in its flight, either wholly or in p a r t . . . A s soon as the
motion of the ball becomes equal to that of the air, and always
when greater [i.e., at supersonic speeds], then the ball has to
sustain the whole pressure of the atmosphere on its forepart,
without having any aid from a counter-pressure behind . . . . " -
Hutton's explanation well illustrates the attempts of early
supersonic pioneers to find a plausible reason for the puzzling
phenomenon of the strong increase of drag in the transonic
regime.
1784 Private Cavendish, 16 hearing about recent experiments on oxyhydro-
laboratory, gen explosions performed by Warhire (1776) and Priestley
Great (1781), resumes his own investigations on this subject
Marlborough (Cavendish -+1760s), resulting in his famous paper on the
Street, London synthesis of water. He observes that mixtures of "common air"
and "inflammable air," enclosed in a vessel and electrically
fired, are converted into a deposit inside the vessel of dew that
is pure water, whereby all of the inflammable air but only about
four-fifths of the common air is converted. - Lavoisier who
repeated the experiment, later termed "inflammable air" hydro-
gen [from the Greek hydrogenium, meaning water-former].
1785 Turin, Italy Count Morozzo 17 reports on a flour-dust explosion in a Turin
flour warehouse, probably the earliest account of such a
phenomenon. He describes the circumstances as follows:
"On the 14th of December, 1785, about six o'clock in the
evening, there took place in the house of Mr. Giacomelli,
History of Shock Waves 29

baker in this city, an explosion which threw down the

windows and window-frames of his shop, which looked
into the street; the noise was as loud as that of a large cracker,
and was heard at a considerable distance. At the moment of
the explosion, a very bright flame, which lasted only a few
seconds, was seen in the shop; and it was immediately
observed, that the inflammation proceeded from the flour-
warehouse, which was situated over the back shop, and where
a boy was employed in stirring some flour by the light of a
lamp. The boy had his face and arms scorched by the
explosion; his hair was burnt, and it was more than a
fortnight before his burns were healed . . . . " Count Morozzo
speculated that the flour might have produced "inflammable
air" by fermentation (such as observed on dampened hay)
which, mixed with air and dispersed flour dust, was ignited
by the light of the lamp, thus leading to this violent inflam-
mation. However, he critically remarked that model experi-
ments did not prove this hypothesis and that the flour, upon
examination, was extraordinarily dry and originated from the
Piedmont area, which had had no rain for five or six months.
Academy of Lagrange 18 studies the percussion force of a water jet imping-
Sciences, Turin ing perpendicularly or obliquely on a plane. This basic
problem of hydrodynamics--a term coined by D. Bernoulli ~9
to analytically cover hydrostatic as well as hydraulic (i.e.,
dynamic) phenomena by a single method---anticipates the
difficult task of evaluating the flow of water impacting the
blade of a water turbine. Measurements of the percussion
force performed by Krafft (1973) gave a much smaller value
than predicted theoretically by D. Bernoulli (1736), D'Alem-
bert (1769), and Bossut (1772). Assuming a simple model of
fluid flow with a central core of stagnated liquid surrounded
by a shell of streaming and laterally deviated liquid, Lagrange
derived a simple formula for the percussion force that better
matched experimental results.
1786 York, England Goodricke 2~ publishes a report on observations in which he
discloses that a star, positioned near the head of Cepheus,
changes its brightness periodically. A few years before, he had
observed similar phenomena in the head of Medusa (so-called
Algol) and of/~ Lyrae. 9 Variable stars, also called cepheids, are
found in various regions of our galaxy and in other galaxies.
The change in the brightness is caused by the change in the
temperature and radius of the photosphere, which also creates
shock waves. 21
1792 Munich Von Baader, 22 a German mining engineer [Bergrat] interested
in the application of explosives in the mining industry,
observes that the energy of a blast can be focused on a
30 P. Krehl

small area by forming a hollow in the charge that increases

the explosive effect and saves powder (the "cavity effect"). 9
Seven years later he makes the observation that the surface
relief of an explosive is reproduced on a closely facing steel
plate by the focusing of explosion products ("explosive
engraving"). Von Baader's publication was aFparently read
and put into practice in Norway and for a short time also in
the Harz Mines. 23 However, since he used black powder,
which is not capable of detonation, his arrangement was not a
shaped charge device in the modem sense.

1794 Ecole Originally established as Ecole Centrale des Travaux Publics by

Polytechnique, order of Napoleon under the direction of Gaspard Monge
Paris (1746-1818), the school is renamed Ecole Polytechnique the
following year. 24 9 Many prominent French pioneers of fluid
mechanics, percussion, explosion, and shock physics studied
and/or taught here, e.g., Jean B. C. Bdanger (1790-1874),
Dominique E Arago (1776--1853), Jean B. Blot (1774-1862),
Jacques S. Hadamard (1865-1963), Henri-Pierre Hugoniot
(1851-1887),Joseph L. Lagrange (1736-1813), Pierre-Simon
Laplace (1749-1827), Henry Le Chatelier (1850-1936), Louis
Navier (1785-1836), Simeon D. Poisson (1781-1840), Adhe-
mar de Saint-Venant (1797-1886), Victor Regnault (1810-
1878), Emile Sarrau (1837-1904), Paul Vieille (1854-1934),
and Pierre L. Wantzel (1814-1848).

Wittenberg, Chladni, 25 more known to later generations of physicists by

Germany his contributions to acoustics, starts his 30-year campaign on
researching meteorites ("fire balls") and first proposes their
extraterrestrial origin. 9 His result was not widely accepted
until the EAigle Fall of stony meteorites (--+ 1803).

Brussels, Mons 26 reports in a letter to Prof. Gren, editor of the Journal

Belgium der Physik, on experiments by Parcieux, who observed in a
dark room in the moment of explosion or implosion of thin-
walled glass spheres "a vivid flame similar to an electric spark"
["eine lebhafte Flamme gleich einem electrischen Funken"].
Parcieux produced (i) an explosion by using a sealed glass
sphere filled with air of atmospheric pressures that, posi-
tioned in a recipient, exploded after evacuation, and (ii) an
implosion by evacuating a glass recipient that, not capable of
withstanding the atmospheric pressure, imploded during
evacuation. 9 Similar experiments on imploding and explod-
ing glass spheres were performed more recently by Glass 27
and associates. Using high-speed schlieren visualization, the
latter researchers also noticed that in the case of implosion
the glass fragments form a jet, like in a shaped charge.
History of Shock Waves 31

1796 Paris Montgolfier, 28 13 years after his sensational hot-air balloon

ascents, invents with the assistance of Argand the hydraulic
ram [bdier hydraulique], a water pump that uses the kinetic
energy from a copious flow of running water under a small
head to force a small portion of that water to a higher level..
Hydraulic shocks are detrimental in common water pipelines
(Karelijkich and Zhukovsky--~ 1898), however, when used in
this type of pump they should be as strong as possible to
provoke efficient pumping. Since the hydraulic ram does not
require any additional source of energy and is very simple in
construction, it is still in current use in the mountains. For
example, modern ram pumps 29 can deliver 700 L / m i n up to a
height of 300 m.

1802 Coll~gede Biot, 3~ mathematician and physicist, publishes the first

France, Paris "theory of sound" and acknowledges the assistance of
Laplace. He advances physical arguments in favor of
p - Kp:', which results in a sound velocity a - - ( ~ p o / P o ) 1/2,
where Po and Po are the pressure and density at rest,
respectively, and 7 = %/6, is the ratio of specific heats at
constant pressure and constant volume.

1803 KAigle, Biot 31 gives his famous account on the "EAigle fall of stony
Normandy, meteorites": "On Tuesday, April 26, 1802, about one in the
France afternoon, the weather being serene, there was observed from
Caen, Pont-Audenen and the environs of Alenqon, Falaise and
Verneuil, a fiery globe of a very brilliant splendor, which
moved in the atmosphere with great rapidity. Some moments
after there was heard at EAigle, and in the environs of that
city to the extent of more than thirty leagues in every
direction, a violent explosion, which lasted five or six
minutes. At first there were three or four reports like those
of a cannon, followed by a kind of discharge which resembled
a firing of musketry; after which there was heard a dreadful
rumbling like the beating of a drum, a multitude of mineral
masses were seen to fall .... " 9 From the number of shock
waves or explosions felt by the observer, it was concluded that
the meteorite must have broken into a large number of pieces
on striking the dense atmosphere at low levels. Later about
3000 meteor fragments were collected, ranging in mass from
9 g to 8 kg. 32

1807 Paris The Niepce Brothers obtain from Napoleon a patent for their
Pyr~olophore, an explosion-driven piston engine that,
supposed to be driven by spark-ignited lycopodium dust
explosions, was to be used as a drive motor for ships. 33 9
W h e n experiments with lycopodium dust failed, they
32 R Krehl

successfully used petroleum. With their engine, a forerunner

of the Diesel engine, it became possible in 1816 to power
barges on the Seine. Turning in 1813 to the problem of
photography, they succeeded in 1826 to make the first
photograph [h(.liographie].
1808 Ecole Poisson 34 presents his "theory of sound," and at the end of his
Polytechnique, treatise he extends his theory to the special case that "the
Paris velocities of the molecules in an air column are not supposed
to be very small." He assumes that disturbances with finite
amplitudes propagate in an ideal gas in one (positive) direc-
tion x and applies the law a 2 = dpo/dpo, with a being the
sound velocity, i.e., the limit to which the velocity of propaga-
tion of the wave approximates when the particle velocity
becomes indefinitely small. He arrives at the following general
equation: dtp/dt 4- a dq~/dx 4- ~1. dq~2/dx 2 = 0. Here q~ is the
velocity function and dq~/dx the velocity of disturbance (or
particle velocity) at time t of a particle whose distance from
the origin is x. His exact solution for a wave traveling in one
(positive) direction reveals that the particle velocity dq~/dx
behind a pressure disturbance can be expressed as
dq~/dx = F { x - a - d q ~ / d x t}, where F denotes an arbitrary
function. His solution differs from the equation given
previously by D'Alembert (1747) only in that dq~/dx also
appears in the argument of the function E Poisson notes that
Lagrange 35 had already obtained a very similar result given by
dq~/dx = f { x - a t - t . f ( x - at)}. ,, Poisson's mathematical
result obviously indicates the quicker propagation of the
parts of the wave where the disturbance is forward (that is,
the compressed parts) and the slower propagation of the parts
where the disturbance is backward (that is, the dilated parts).
This leads to a change of the wave profile during wave
propagation, an important feature that will be first recognized
by Challis (--+ 1848), and qualitatively worked out and illu-
strated by Stokes (-+ 1848). Retrospectively, Poisson's treatise
can be regarded as the root of shock wave theory and
theoretical nonlinear acoustics as well. He also coined the
symbol 7 for the ratio of the specific heats, which, later
resumed by Rankine (--~ 1869), is used even to this day.
1809 Ecole Gay-Lussac and ThCnard 36 expose a 1:1 mixture of hydro-
Polytechnique, gen and chlorine to diffuse daylight and gradually obtain
Paris hydrogen chloride [acide muriatique]. On the other hand,
when being exposed to direct sunlight this gaseous mixture
("chlorine detonating gas") explodes violently and destroys
the glass balloon. 9 Compared to an oxyhydrogen explosion
(Turquet de Mayerne (1620; Cavendish--, 1760s-+ 1784), the
History of Shock Waves 33

released heat of a chlorine-hydrogen explosion amounts to

only about 2/3. The chlorine-hydrogen reaction, today a classic
example of a photochemical reaction, long remained a puzzle
to chemists and physicists. Work on his puzzle eventually led
to the discovery of chain reaction (Bodenstein--+ 1913).

1815 Meeting of the Singer and Crosse 3r report on the effects of wire explosions
Royal Society, carried out by De Nelis, who used an exploding lead wire
London placed in axial direction of a thin-walled metallic cylinder
filled with water and pulsed from a large battery of Leiden
jars. The cylinder itself is expanded more or less in proportion
to its power of resistance, usually becoming undulated on the
surface or burst open. Generating more violent wire explo-
sions by using a larger battery, they observe that even iron
cylinders with a thickness greater than that of the strongest
muskets are heavily damaged by cracks. They state that "the
expansive power of electricity acting in this way is therefore
vastly superior to the most potent g u n p o w d e r . " . Their
remarkable results anticipated the electrohydraulic effect
that Yutkin (1950) rediscovered in the Soviet Union.

1816 EAcademie des Laplace 38 publishes his previous hypothesis (Biot-+1802)

Sciences, Paris that a sound wave is an adiabatic process and states, without
demonstration, a correction of Newton's formula that was
published in his Principia (1687).

Grand Duke's Davy 39 investigates the nature of firedamp. Studying test

Laboratory, samples of firedamp collected together with Faraday on a
Florence, Italy journey in the Apennines, he observes that "1 part of gas
inflamed with 6 parts of air in a similar bottle, produced a
slight whistling sound: 1 part of gas with 8 parts of air, rather
a louder sound; 1 part with 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 parts, still
inflamed, but the violence of combustion diminished. In 1
part of gas and 15 parts of air, the candle burnt without
explosion with a greatly enlarged flame .... " He correctly
states that firedamp (methane) consists of "4 proportions of
hydrogen in weight 4, and 1 proportion of charcoal in weight
11.5." Using gas from the distillation of coal mixed with eight
times its volume of air, he also determines the rate at which
an explosion of gases propagates in a tube and makes the first
rough experiment on the temperature reached in an explo-
sion. The flame, fired in a 1-foot-long tube 1 inch in diameter,
takes more than a second to traverse the tube. He also
observes that the same mixture that burns in a wide tube
may not support flame propagation in a narrow tube with a
diameter less than a certain "critical diameter." This phenom-
enon will eventually lead to his construction of a safe mining
34 P. Krehl

lamp (the Davy lamp) in which a copper mesh with small

openings prevents flame propagation from the inside of the
lamp to the atmosphere of the mine. 9 Archduke John of
Austria, who visited Davy in 1815, was one of the first
promoters of the Davy lamp, which shortly after was intro-
duced in the Styrian mining industry. 4~
1822 Ecole des Ponts Navier 41 presents a paper on the law of motion of continuous
et Chauss4es, media. He considers fluids and solids to be made up of
Paris particles that are close to each other and act upon each
other by attraction or repulsion, resulting from the caloric
heat. He derives partial differential equations to which he
applies Fourier's method to find particular solutions. 9 His
result, later refined by Poisson 42 (1829), de Saint-Venant 43
(1845), and Stokes 44 (1845) was called the "Navier-Stokes
equations." Maxwell, 45 supplementing his dynamical theory
of gases, derived the Navier-Stokes equations by assuming his
distribution function of gas molecules. A first attempt to solve
the Navier-Stokes equations for shock waves was first success-
fully achieved by Becker (-~ 1921).
1823 Ecole Poisson 46 reviews the present state of treating the problem of
Polytechnique, calculating the velocity of sound. He writes, "The sound
Paris velocity in air, derived from a formula given by Newton
[Principia, Book II, Scholium (after Proposition)I, differs from
the observed velocity and surpasses the calculated velocity by a
fifth [20%]. When Lagrange [Misc. Taur. 1, I-X, 1-112 (1759)]
in his first studies on the theory of sound arrived at the same
formula; he tried of course to explain this discrepancy between
calculation and observation. His analysis was based on two
suppositions: the minuteness of the air vibrations, and the
proportionality of the elastic force with density. He proved first,
against Euler's opinion [M~'m. Acad. Sci. Berlin 15 (1759)], that
the amplitude of vibration does not influence the magnitude of
the sound velocity; in addition he mentioned that one could
coincide this velocity with the result of observation by suppos-
ing that the elastic force increases to a larger extent than the
density; but he could not give any particular reason for this
increase of elasticity which cannot be described by the general
law of compression for air. It is not less true that this increase is
really due to the air motion: It is Mr. Laplace [Ann. Chim. &
Phys. 3,238-241 (1816)] who pointed out the true reason who
fully explained and eliminated the difference between Newton's
formula and the measurement. This cause is the release of heat
which always occurs during the compression of air or the
production of coldness which goes along with dilatation, like-
wise . . . . " Poisson, 47 stimulated by Laplace's approach, derives
History of Shock Waves 35

in the same year the two gas laws for adiabatic compression. A
gas with a ratio of specific heats k, initially at pressure p,
density p, and temperature O and then adiabatically
compressed, reaches a new state (p', p', O') which is given
by p' - p(p,/p)K and O' = (266.67 + O)(p'/p) k-1. He writes,
"These equations contain the elasticity and temperature laws of
gases, which are compressed or expanded without a variation
in their heat quantity; which will happen when the gases are in
the heat-proof glass container, or when the compression, as
with the sound phenomenon, will be so fast that one can
assume that the heat loss is negligible . . . . " . Poisson assumed
an absolute zero at -266.67~ which we have to replace today
by-273.15~ His equation of state for adiabatic compression,
applicable only for sound waves of infinitesimal amplitudes
and later be called the Poisson isentrope or static adiabate, was a
major achievement toward the dynamic adiabate of a shock-
compressed gas by Hugoniot ( - , 1887).

1824-1825 Capt. Parry 48 of the Royal Navy, famous polar explorer who
Port Bowen, searches for a Northwest Passage, spends the winter in Port
Prince Regent's Bowen studying the Eskimos and, while waiting for the ice to
Inlet, Canada break through, gathers scientific data. Together with Lieut.
Foster, participating in the expedition as an assistant
surveyor, he performs experiments on the velocity of sound
"to determine the rate at which sound travels at various
temperatures and pressures of the atmosphere." The measure-
ments at very low temperatures, i.e., in air of perfect dryness,
are considered to be of particular interest because they avoid
any corrections of sound velocity data caused by the humidity
of the atmosphere. Using a six-pounder brass gun placed on
the beach at the head of Port Bowen and fired on signal from
the "Hecla", Parry and Foster, carefully noting the interval
elapsed between the flash and report at a distance of about
3.9 km by the beats of a pocket-chronometer held at the ear of
each observer, notice an anomalous high velocity of sound. 9
Parry 49 had already made similar observations during his
second polar voyage. In the appendix of his report, obviously
written by Foster, it reads: "The experiments on the 9th
February 1822, were attended with a singular circumstance,
which was--the officers' word of command "Fire", was several
times distinctly heard both by Captain Parry and myself
[Foster], about one beat of the chronometer after the report
of the gun; from which it would appear, that the velocity of
sound depended in some measure upon its intensity . . . . "
Contemporary naturalists attributed their unusual findings
to possible influences of humidity and wind that they had not
36 P. Krehl

precisely recorded, but Parry and Foster 5~ replied, "it was

certainly far from our intention to oppose our opinions on
these points to those of Newton and Laplace. We considered
our remark at the time, as a fair deduction from our own
experiments, without at all considering with what theory it
might be at variance: our only wish being, to furnish data for
philosophers to arrive at such laws as will make the computed
and observed velocities of sound agree more exactly with each
other, than appears to be the case, in the present state of our
information of all the modifying circumstances to which the
motion of sound is subjected." Parry's unusual observations,
supported also by those of Ross who participated in the
expeditions, were later cited by Earnshaw (--+1858) as an
experimental proof of his mathematical theory of sound that
intense air waves travel more quickly than weaker waves.

1826 Lake of Colladon, a Swiss apothecary, measures quite accurately the

Geneva, sound velocity in water. As a strong source of sound he uses a
Switzerland bell placed under water and triggered simultaneously with a
cannon, and for sound detection a long ear-trumpet
submerged 5 m under the surface. To get a high accuracy he
chooses the broadest part of the Lake of Geneva (about 8 km),
and to better visualize the cannon fire he performs the
measurements at night.

1828 Geneva Colladon and Sturm, 51 the latter being a Swiss private tutor,
publish data on the compressibility of various substances and
on the measurements of the sound velocity in the Lake of
Geneva. They show that putting the measured data of
compressibility of water into Poisson's formula for the
speed of sound yields a value of 1437.8m/s, which is in
close agreement with the measured value of 1435 m / s in the
Lake of Geneva. They also report on the measurement of heat
emitted by liquids following the application of strong and
sudden pressures. Their results earn them the prize set by the
Paris Academy.

Compagnie du Bdanger 52 investigates in a pioneering study the behavior of

canal des water flow in an open channel and high-speed shooting with
Ardennes, sudden changes in depth, known as a hydraulic jump, the
France oldest known type of discontinuous wave motion and well
resolvable with the naked eye. He derives a formula for the
height Ah = h 2 - h 1 of a hydraulic jump in terms of the initial
water depth h 1 and the velocity v of the jump, given by
Ah = 0.Se - hi 4- (0.25g 2 q- hi) 1/2, with g = v2/2 g. 9 His
remarkable study is an early attempt to characterize the
propagation speed of a discontinuous wave front by its
History of Shock Waves 37

strength,--in his case of a hydraulic jump propagating in

(incompressible) shallow water--by its step height. Analogi-
cally, in the case of a shock wave advancing in a (compressible)
fluid in a layer of invariant thickness this would correspond to
a step increase in density at the shock front. Jouguet 53 showed
that, using his classic theory, the loss of internal energy [perte
de charge] of a hydraulic jump can be described in terms of the
difference in water heights, which is only a particular case of
Hugoniot's law of the dynamic adiabate (---~1887) when the
water is considered as an adiabatically moving "hydraulic gas"
with 7 = 2. The analogy between a hydraulic jump and a shock
wave has fascinated shock wave researchers from the early
times to now (Preiswerk --~ 1938).
1830 Ecole Arago 54 discusses in detail the possible causes of frequent
Polytechnique, boiler explosions of steam engines, which typically result in
Paris many casualties and heavy damage to adjacent facilities.
Particularly addressing the dangers emanating from the use
of Papin's safety valve (1679), he points out that many valve
constructions are too narrow to allow a quick release when
the internal boiler pressure suddenly increases
(Airy--~1863)--a dangerous phenomenon for which he
mentions various causes. 9 The limitation of the outflow of
fluid through small openings became a much-discussed
subject among engineers as well as scientists (Bernoulli
1738; De Saint-Venant and Wantzel--~ 1839; Napier--~ 1866;
Reynolds--~1885; De Laval--~1888; Salcher and White-
head--~ 1889; L. Mach-~ 1897; the Emden Brothers---~ 1899;
Stodola--~ 1903; Prandtl---~ 1904; etc.). The topic stimulated
the evolution of supersonic flows and promoted the effective
operation of steam turbines.
1834 Chair of Wheatstone 55 first uses a rotating mirror as a diagnostic tool
Physics, Kings to resolve high-speed phenomena. 9 34 years later Sabine, 56
College, then president of the Royal Society, states at his presentation
London of the Copley Medal to Wheatstone, "But no series of his
researches have shown more originality and ingenuity than
those by which he succeeded in measuring the velocity of the
electric current and the duration of the spark. The principle of
the rotating mirror employed in these experiments, and by
which he was enabled to measure time to the millionth part of
a second, admits of application in ways so varied and
important that it may be regarded as having placed a new
instrument of research in the hands of those employed in
delicate physical inquiries of this order." The rotating mirror,
subsequently used by Foucauh 57 (1850) and Feddersen 58
(1858) in sensational experiments, became an important
38 P. Krehl

element in the later technique of high-speed rotating-mirror

cameras. Stimulated after 1945 by the need to study shock
wave effects involved in the development of nuclear weapons,
work with these cameras resulted in very sophisticated ultra-
high-speed cameras incorporating helium-driven turbines. 59
1838 ILAcadCmie des Arago 6~ publishes an essay on thunder for the Annuaire du
Sciences, Paris Bureau des Longitudes at Paris, in which he gives a masterly
historical sketch of the real facts that have hitherto been
accumulated. From these he deduces the inferences, scientific
and practical, that may legitimately be drawn. He discusses
also ball lightning and analyzes a number of evidently reliable
observations, pointing out that an observer, viewing the
descent of the ball at an angle from the side, is not subject
to the optical illusion described. Shortly after, Faraday 61 will
give essentially the same explanation, stating that the optical
illusion is caused by an afterimage perceived by eyes that just
have seen the dazzling flash of an ordinary bolt. 9 Ball
lightning has a diameter somewhere between a golf ball and
a large beach ball, moves horizontally at low speed and can
decay silently or explode violently. Ball lightning has been
well documented since the Middle Ages as a natural but rare
phenomenon associated with thunder, but still is an enigma
to modem science. 62
1839 Ecole des Ponts De Saint-Venant and Wantze163 study compressible flow in a
et Chauss~es, duct of changing area and the exhaust of compressed air from
Paris a small opening. Using Poisson's adiabatic law ( - , 1823) and
Bernoulli's energy equation, they assume compressible flowm
i.e., p = p(p)--and express the difference of enthalpy by the
pressure integral. This leads to their famous fundamental
formula relating outflow velocity V at given pressure p in the
pressure reservoir by V2 = [1 - (p/po)"]2po/mpo with
m - - ( • - 1)/~'. For an outflow into a vacuum (p = 0), the
maximum outflow velocity is given by Vma• -(2po/mpo) 1/2,
which, in the case of air (to = 1.405), amounts to 757 m/s.
1840 Chair of Wheatstone 64 invents the first electric chronoscope to
Physics, Kings measure projectile velocities by employing an electromagne-
College, London tically controlled mechanical stopwatch.
1842 Meeting of the Russell 65 coins the expressions great solitary wave (or wave of
Association for the first order or wave of translation), a single hump of
the constant shape and constant speed which, moving on the
Advancement of surface of an inviscid incompressible fluid, is capable of
Science, traveling in a uniform channel a considerable distance with
Manchester almost no change. Referring to his former studies (1833-
1840), he reports on the reflection of such a wave type at a
History of Shock Waves 39

solid boundary, "when the angle of the ridge with the surface
is small, not greater than 30 ~ the reflexion is complete in
angle and in quantity. When the ridge of the wave makes an
angle greater than 30 ~ the angle of reflexion is still equal to
the angle of incidence, but the refected wave is less in
quantity than the incident wave.., when the angle of the
ridge of the wave is within 15 ~ or 20 ~ of being perpendicular
to the plane [i.e., at an angle of incidence within 75 ~ or 70 ~,
annotation by the author], reflexion ceases, the size of the
wave near the point of incidence and its velocity rapidly
increases, and it moves forward rapidly with a high crest at
right angles to the resisting surface. Thus at different angles
we have the phenomenon of total reflexion, partial reflexion,
and, non-reflexion and lateral accumulation; phenomena
analogous in name, but dissimilar in condition from the
reflexion of heights, &c." 9 His "lateral accumulation" of the
reflected wave front, merging with the front of the incident
wave, creates a new wave front that extends at a right angle to
the boundary. This phenomenon of irregular wave reflection,
found for the interaction of hydraulic jumps, was rediscov-
ered by Mach and Wosyka (-+ 1875) for the case of interact-
ing aerial shock waves. It was brought again to light by von
Neumann (---~1943), who called it "Mach reflection."

1844 Conservatoire Pouillet 6~ describes an electric circuit to measure the duration

des Arts-et- of short current pulses by studying its action on the magnetic
Metiers, Paris needle of a galvanometer, a method based on the principle of
the ballistic pendulum and later renowned as the ballistic
galvanometer. He considers a precise time measurement as
essential for the better understanding of high speed events,
such as the ignition process of gunpowder and the contact
duration of impacting bodies. His concept, later refined by
Ramsauer (-+1909), will allow even the measurement of
times in microseconds.

1845 Haswell Faraday and Lyell,67 investigating possible causes of a serious

Collieries, explosion at Haswell Collieries, observe many signs of the
Durham coal dust being partly burned and partly subjected to a
District, charring or shocking action. Their conclusions that coal
England dust adds considerably to the disastrous effects of firedamp
explosions and that proper ventilation is an effective means of
preventing similar accidents will be confirmed later by lead-
ing French mining engineers (--+ 1890).

Royal Airy, 68 Astronomer Royal, analytically treats the motion of

Observatory, "waves of finite amplitudes" in a uniform water canal of
Greenwich rectangular section and finds, by the method of successive
40 P. Krehl

approximation, that in a progressive wave different parts will

travel with different velocities. In particular, he makes the
important statement that the crests tend to gain upon the
hollows so that the anterior slopes become steeper and
steeper.
Chair of Sch6nbein experiments with the nitration of cellulose and
Chemistry, invents nitrocellulose. 69 He communicates his process to
University of John Taylor, 7~ who in the following year will be granted an
Basel English patent. The detonation of guncotton, however, is
difficult to control, and it will take more than 40 years to
convert nitrocellulose into a reliable gun propellant. 9 In
1862 von Lenk in Austria will try to use guncotton as an
explosive. However, acid residues in guncotton, originating
from the production process, provoked dangerous self-igni-
tions. This problem was not solved until 1866 by Abel 71 in
England.
1847 Technical State Doppler 72 speculates that the propagation velocity of sound
Academy, should increase with increasing intensity and reflects on
Prague acoustical consequences of his discovered "Doppler effect."
He discusses what might happen to a disturbance that,
propagating with a velocity u, moves faster than the sound
velocity a of the surrounding medium. Assuming a sequence
of explosionlike emissions of disturbances, he graphically
constructs the cone geometry for the three cases of distur-
bances propagating with a constant, an increasing, and a
decreasing supersonic velocity. Doppler shows that, for a
constant velocity u, the half-cone angle ~ of this cone
allows one to determine the velocity u by the simple relation
sin ~ = a/u. 9 His purely theoretical results were confirmed
40 years later by Mach and Salcher's ballistic experiments
(--~ 1887). Mach designated the envelope of this cone as the
"head wave" and Prandtl (---~1913) the cone angle ~ as the
"Mach angle."
Chair of Sobrero, 73 a former student of von Liebig and Pelouze,
Applied reports in a letter to Prof. Pelouze on his discovery of
Chemistry, nitroglycerine. The increasing number of new explosive
University of substances discovered in the following years will stimulate
Turin physicists and chemists to uncover the puzzle of detonation,
which is felt to be somehow closely related to rapidly
propagating mechanical waves.
1848 Royal Airy 74 shows that "the velocity does not depend on the
Observatory, absolute pressure of the air in its normal state of density,
Greenwich but upon the proportion of the change of pressure to the
change of density. This is increased by the suddenness of
History of Shock Waves 41

condensation in one part, which, when the elastic force is

great, makes it still greater--and by the suddenness of
rarefaction in another part, which, when the elastic force is
small, makes it still smaller,--thus in both ways increasing
the change of pressure."
Cambridge Challis 75 resumes the classical analytical problem of the
Observatory velocity of disturbances. Obviously not knowing Poisson's
previous work (--+ 1808) but commenting on Airy's remarks
(---, 1848) on his theory of sound, he finds that for waves of
finite amplitudes propagating in a perfect gas the velocity of
propagation alters as it advances and tends ultimately to
become a series of sudden compressions followed by gradual
dilatations. The velocity of propagation is greater than the
sound velocity and certain faster parts in the wave profile will
take over the slower ones, thus leading to ambiguous math-
ematical solutions (the "Challis paradox").
Pembroke Stokes 76 replies to Challis' claim of a contradiction in the
College, commonly accepted theory of sound. Stokes, assuming an
Cambridge isothermal gas, introduces surfaces of discontinuity in the
velocity and density of the medium, thereby eluding the
Challis paradox. He indicates that small pressure disturbances
might create compression waves with discontinuous fronts,
because each subsequent sound wave will propagate in a
medium with a slightly higher sound velocity. He writes, "Of
course, after the instant at which the expression (A) becomes
infinite, some motion or other will go on, and we might wish
to know what the nature of the motion was. Perhaps the most
natural supposition to make for trial is, that a surface of
discontinuity is formed, in passing across which there is an
abrupt change of density and velocity. The existence of such a
surface will presently be shown to be possible . . . . The strange
results at which I have arrived appear to be fairly deducible
from the two hypotheses already mentioned. It does not
follow that the discontinuous motion considered can ever
take place in nature, for we have all along been reasoning on
an ideal elastic fluid which does not exist in nature. In the
first place, it is not true that the pressure varies as the density,
in consequence of the heat and cold produced by condensa-
tion and rarefaction respectively. But it will be easily seen that
the discontinuous motion remains possible when we take
account of the variation of temperature due to condensation
and rarefaction, neglecting, however, the communication of
heat from one part of the fluid to another. Indeed, so far as the
possibility of discontinuity is concerned, it is immaterial
according to what law the pressure may increase with the
42 P. Krehl

density . . . . " He also first derives the conservation relations of

mass and momentum that are now usually attributed to
Rankine and Hugoniot.
1849 Royal Airy 77 first points out the analogy between the velocity change
Observatory, in waves of sound of finite amplitudes and that which takes
Greenwich place in sea waves when they roll into shallow water.
1850 University of Maxwell 7s publishes a paper on the theory of elasticity. He
Edinburgh shows that two elastic constants are necessary to describe the
elastic behavior of an isotropic solid, and completely develops
the technique of photoelastic stress analysis. 9 Because it
permits the determination of the entire stress field, his
method proved very useful in the study of impact-induced
shock wave propagation in 2-D birefringent solid
specimens. 79
1851 Private Fox-Talbot s~ performs the first microsecond snapshot photo
laboratory at from a page of the London Times rotating at high speed on a
Lacock Abbey, revolving disk by using an electric spark from a Leiden jar as a
U.K. flash light source. He states, "it is in our power to obtain the
pictures of all moving objects, no matter in how rapid motion
they may be, provided we have the means of sufficiently
illuminating them with a sudden electric flash." To obtain the
necessary high sensitivity, he uses albumine plates, which he
exposes immediately after sensitization. 9 This experiment
was an important step toward single-shot photography
because it first proved the excellent property of film to
freeze high-speed events for a later detailed analysis.
Consultant Rankine, sl civil engineer and independant scholar, addresses
Engineering, the sound problem and previous arguments given by Laplace
Edinburgh (-+ 1816) and Airy (-+ 1848), and states: "Now the velocity
with which a disturbance of density is propagated is propor-
tional to the square root, not of the total pressure divided by
the total density, but of the variation of pressure divided by the
variation of density . . . . It is therefore greater than the result of
Newton's calculation, and this, whether the disturbance is a
condensation or a dilatation, or compounded of both."
Parish of Earnshaw, mathematician and chaplain, observes unusual
Sheffield sound phenomena that he later s2 will describe as follows: "a
thunder-storm which lasted about half an hour was termi-
nated by a flash of lightning of great vividness, which was
instantly (i.e., without any appreciable interval between)
followed by an awful crash, that seemed as if by atmospheric
concussion alone it would crush the cottages to ruins. Every
one in the village had felt at the moment of the crash that the
electric fluid had certainly fallen somewhere in the village . . . .
History of Shock Waves 43

But, to the surprise of everybody, it turned out that no damage

had been done in the village, but that that flash of lightning
had killed three sheep, knocked down a cow, and injured the
milkmaid at a distance of more than a mile from the
village... " . Since sound needs about 41 seconds to cover
an English mile ( = 1523m) and Earnshaw noticed that
lightning flash and thunder was felt almost simultaneously
even though the strike happened more than a mile away, he
correctly stated that intense sound, such as originating from a
thunderclap, must propagate with supersonic velocity. Seven
years later he will present his "theory of sound of finite
amplitudes" (Earnshaw---~ 1858).
Pembroke Stokes s3 submits the view that during the propagation of
College, pulses in an elastic fluid compressions and expansions of the
Cambridge particles take place so rapidly that there is no time for any
appreciable transmission of heat between different particles,
thus showing that Challis' supposition 84 that the developed
heat is lost by radiation is untenable, and that Laplace's view
(--, 1816) has a real physical foundation.
1854 Bethelehem First unusual explosion accident of finely powdered zinc
Zinc Works, PA ("metal-dust explosion"). 85
1856 Ecole Jamin 86 invents the first optical interferometer, the archetype
Polytechnique, of many subsequent interferometer constructions, and applies
Paris it to measure the refractive index of gases. 9 Already 14 years
later A. Toepler and Boltzmann 87 introduced optical inter-
ferometry in fluid dynamics (acoustics) to determine the
amplitude at the threshold of heating, a masterpiece of
experimental physics.
KOnigliche Kr6nig 88 publishes the first theory of gases. Following D.
Realschule, Bernoulli's model (1738), he assumed that a gas consists of
Berlin discrete particles (molecules), each of which behaves accord-
ing to universal mechanical laws. 9 Subsequently, Clausius 89
(1857), Maxwell 9~ (1859-1879), and Bohzmann 91 (1868-
1904) made important improvements and today are regarded
as the main founders of the kinetic theory of gases. 92
Private Joule and Thomson 93 treat thermal effects of bodies moving
laboratory in through air (aerodynamic heating) and conclude "that a body
Joule's brewery round which air is flowing rapidly acquires a higher
at Salford, temperature than the average temperature of the air close
Manchester & to it all round." In addition, they note that "the same
Chair of phenomenon must take place universally whenever air
Physics, flows against a solid or a solid is carried through air. If the
University of velocity of 1780 feet per second in the foregoing experiment
Glasgow gave 137~ difference of temperature between the air and
44 e. Krehl

the solid, how probable is it that meteors moving at from six

to thirty miles per second, even through a rarefied atmo-
sphere, really acquire, in accordance with the same law, all
the heat which they manifest! On the other hand, it seemed
worth while to look for the same kind of effect on a much
smaller scale in bodies moving at moderate velocities
through the ordinary atmosphere.., we have tried and
found, with thermometers of different sizes and variously
shaped bulbs, whiled through the air at the end of a string,
with velocities of from 80 to 120 feet per second, tempera-
tures always higher than when the same thermometers are
whirled in exactly the same circumstances at smaller velo-
cities." In the case where the velocity of translation of the
body, v, is a small fraction of the velocity of sound,
a (-- 1115 ft/sec at 17~ they estimate for the "hot spots"
at the body's surface--i.e., at those points where the flow
velocity is slowed down to zeroma temperature increase
AO [~C] -- 58.8(v/a) 2. For a bulb thermometer moving at
v - 183ft/sec, they measure a temperature rise of
AO = I~ Their theoretical value, according to the formula
given above, would yield a temperature increase of 1.5~ 9
Aerothermodynamics (G. A. Crocco--,1931), at Joule's time
rather a subject of academic curiosity, became immediately
important after World War II when supersonic flight could
be realized not only in the military realm but later also in
civil aviation (Tupolev Tu-144 and Concorde).

1857 Allegheny Rodman 94 invents his "indentation gauge" to measure the

Arsenal, PA maximum internal pressure in a gun. It consists of a piston
working in a hole bored into the wall of a gun and acting on
an indenting tool, for the purpose of determining the pressure
in the bore at different points. With the help of this gauge, he
discovers that the maximum pressure in a gun decreases with
increasing grain size of the gunpowder (termed "mammoth
powder" or "Rodman powder"). This finding becomes impor-
tant for large-caliber guns to reduce the danger of damaging
the barrel.. 15 years later, Noble 9~ who first critically studied
the pressure data obtained by the Rodman gauge, stated; "It is
curious that so distinguished an artillerist as Major Rodman
should never have taken the trouble to calculate what ener-
gies the pressure which his instrument gave would have
generated in a projectile; had he done so he would have
found that many of the results indicated by his instrument
were not only improbable but were absolutely impossible."
Contrary to Rodman, Noble first correlated measured pres-
sure data in the bore with theory using measured kinematic
data of the projectile (Noble -+ 1872).
History of Shock Waves 45

1858 Herzogliche Knochenhauer 96 studies an electric discharge circuit that

Realschule, consists of two Leiden jars coupled to each other. It will be
Meiningen, modified later by A. Toepler (---~1864) and further improved
Saxony by E. Mach (---~1878) to control a delay pulse in the micro-
second regime, an important requirement to stop motion of
shock waves within a given field of view for recording
purposes.

British Earnshaw 97 presents on November 20 his famous theory of

Association for sound of finite amplitudes, which, published two years later, is
the the most complete. About the objective of his work he writes,
Advancement of "I consider this article as tending to account for the discre-
Science, Leeds pancy between the calculated and observed velocities (which
most experimentalists have remarked and wondered at),
when allowance is made (as will be done in a future part of
this paper) for change of temperature .... " He improves
Poisson's one-dimensional theory of finite amplitude distur-
bances (---~1808), putting the equations into a form, in which
the motions of particular particles are followed (Lagrangian
coordinates). Using the adiabatic law, he obtains a complete
solution for a wave progressing in one direction in a medium
in which the pressure is any function of waves of the density,
and observes that the differential equations of motion need
not necessarily possess a unique solution for the velocity. He
assumes that in a real fluid heat conduction and viscosity
might prevent the true formation of a discontinuity, and
speculates: "I have defined a bore to be a tendency to
discontinuity of pressure; and it has been shown that as a
wave progresses such a tendency necessarily arises. As,
however, discontinuity of pressure is a physical impossibility,
it is certain Nature has a way of avoiding its actual occur-
rence. To examine in what way she does this, let us suppose a
discontinuity to have actually occurred at the point A, in a
wave which is moving forwards. Imagine a film of fluid at A
forming a section at right angles to the tube. Then on the back
of this film there is a certain pressure which is discontinuous
with respect to the pressure on its front. To restore continuity
of pressure, the film at A will rush forward with a sudden
increase of velocity, the pressure in the front of the film not
being sufficient to preserve continuity of velocity. In so doing
the film will play the part of a piston generating a bit of wave
in front, and a small regressive wave behind. The result will
be a prolongation of the wave's front, thereby increasing the
original length of the wave, and producing simultaneously a
feeble regressive wave of a negative character . . . . " He draws
the important conclusion that "the velocity with which a
46 p. Krehl

sound is transmitted through the atmosphere depends on the

degree of violence with which it was produced . . . . The report
of fire-arms will travel sensibly faster than a gentle sound, such
as the human voice. . . . " . The transactions of this meeting 98
later read: "Fortunately, it transpired at the Meeting, that in
Captain Parry's Expedition to the North, whilst making
experiments on sound, during which it was necessary to
fire a cannon at the word of command given by an officer,
it was found that the persons stationed at the distance of three
miles to mark the arrival of the report of the gun, always
heard the report of the gun before they heard the command to
fire; thus proving that the sound of the gun's report had
outstripped the sound of the officer's voice; and confirming in
a remarkable manner the result of the author's mathematical
investigation, that the velocity of sound depends in some
degree on its intensity." It was James C. Ross, later becoming
a famous South Pole explorer and carrying out important
arctic and antarctic magnetic surveys, who was in com-
mand of the cannon during Parry's expedition (--+1824-
]825).

1859 Royal Scientific Riemann 99 presents on November 22 his "theory of waves of

Society, finite amplitudes," which, not limited to a single progressive
GOttingen wave as was Earnshaw's solution (--+ 1858), is put on a more
general basis and suited to calculate the propagation of plane
waves of finite amplitude proceeding in both directions.
Limiting his study to a steady two-dimensional flow and
considering motions occurring at a fixed point in the gas
(Eulerian coordinates), he assumes a pressure-density
relation p = p(p) that depends only on density and holds
for all particles and all time, even across shocks, i.e., limits
to adiabatic motion in the case of weak shocks. To find the
essential propagation properties of waves of finite amplitudes,
he integrates the partial differential equations using Monge's
"method of characteristics" (--+ 1770s) which simplifies under
the assumption that the sound speed is a function of density
alone ("Riemann invariants"). He shows that an original
disturbance splits into two opposite waves: the rarefaction
wave grows thicker, and the condensation wave (a shock
wave) thinner which he calls a "compression shock"
[Verdichtungsstofg]., His results formed an important step
toward a mathematical treatment of shock wave steepening
and formation. However, using the "static adiabate" he incor-
rectly assumed that the entropy remains unchanged through
the shock wave (isentropic process). The total energy content
History of Shock Waves 47

(enthalpy) remains unchanged, whereas the entropy always

increases through a shock wave; this was first recognized by
Rankine (-+1869) and later, independently, by Hugoniot
(-+ 1887).

Private Carrington, 1~176 using a telescope, observes a violent and rapid

observatory, eruption near a large sunspot. At that very moment modest,
Redhill, Surrey, but very marked disturbances of three magnetic elements are
England observed at Kew Observatory, affecting all the elements
simultaneously and commencing quite abruptly. He reports,
"While engaged in the forenoon of Thursday, September 1, in
taking my customary observation of the forms and positions
of the solar spots, an appearance was witnessed which I
believe to be exceedingly rare. The image of the sun's disk
was, as usual with me, projected on to a plate of glass coated
with distemper of a pale straw color, and at a distance and
under a power which presented a picture of about 11 inches
diameter. I had secured diagrams of all the groups and
detached spots, and was engaged at the time in counting
from the chronometer and recording the contacts of the spots
with the crosswires used in the observation, when within the
area of the great north group (the size of which had
previously excited great remark), two patches of intensely
bright and white light broke out, in the positions indicated in
Fig. 1 . . . . My first impression was that by some chance a ray
of light had penetrated a hole in the screen attached to the
object glass, for the brilliancy was fully equal to that of direct
sun-light; but by at once interrupting the current observation,
and causing the image to move... I saw I was an unprepared
witness of a very different affair. I therefore noted down the
time by the chronometer, and seeing the outburst to be very
rapidly on the increase, and being somewhat flurried by the
surprise, I hastily ran to call some one to witness the
exhibition with me, and on returning within 60 seconds,
was mortified to find that it was already much changed and
enfeebled. Very shortly afterwards the last trace was gone. In
this lapse of 5 minutes, the two patches of light traversed a
space of about 35,000 miles." m About 17 hours later other
researchers observed considerable magnetic disturbances, a
so-called "magnetic storm" [magnetisches Ungewitter], a term
which was introduced by A. yon Humbold 1~ the year before.
Carrington's unique observation made evident for the first
time the enormous dimensions and dynamics of solar flare
explosions (Chapman and Ferraro--+1931; Gold 1949;
Parker 1961) and started much discussion on the coincidence
of solar eruptions and magnetic disturbances.
48 E Krehl

1860 Parish of Earnshaw 1~ discusses the problem of whether violent

Sheffield, sounds would propagate more rapidly than gentle sounds.
England He distinguishes three kinds of waves, all propagating with
different velocities v in regard to the sound velocity a: minute
waves (v = 0 to 0.Sa), ordinary waves, (v---0.Sa to a), and
violent waves (v -- a to oo). Although this arbitrary classifica-
tion is rather hypothetical, he draws a very important conclu-
sion: "If the theory here advanced be true, the report of fire-arms
should travel faster than the human voice, and the crash of
thunder faster than the report of a cannon." 9 Earnshaw
obtained a memoir from Montigny, 1~ professor at Antwerp,
who observed that in the case of a thunderclap sound is
sometimes propagated with a velocity far greater than the
ordinary sound velocity, a phenomenon that Earnshaw
(---~1851) had already noticed and that was much discussed
among scientists. For example, in the same year Hirn, 1~
French autodidact and independent scholar at Colmar, specu-
lated on possible reasons why the velocity of sound depends
on intensity and assumed a pressure-dependent ratio of the
specific heats at constant pressure and volume. Raillard, 1~
French abbot and amateur naturalist, referred to Biot, who
had previously had a discussion with Poisson on irregular
propagation phenomena of thunder. The latter, however,
although essentially supporting this idea, did not resume it
in his M~noires sur la theorie du son (1808). Raillard specu-
lated also on the propagation velocity of thunder but esti-
mated abnormally high velocities (5000-6600m/s). He
wrote, "I heard the first outbursts of thunder three or four
seconds after the lightning had appeared; however, according
to the delay of the reinforcement of the noise originating from
the stem of the lightning, and to its orientation, I estimated
that the fire was lit in the vicinity of Gray, about 20 km from
Courchamp where I was . . . . "
1862 Nitroglycerin Nobel 1~ applies for a patent on the improvements in the
Ltd., process of manufacturing Nitroglycerin which is called Pyro-
Heleneborg, glycerin, then Glonoine Oil, and later Nobel's Blasting Oil. He
Sweden erects works at Heleneborg, an isolated area outside Stock-
holm, where nitroglycerine is manufactured for the first time
on a commercial scale. 9 Two years later they were entirely
wrecked by an explosion which cost the lives of Nobel's
youngest brother and his chemist Hertzmann.
1863 Ecole Le Boulenge 1~ invents an electrically triggerable dropping
Pyrotechnique, weight timing system (the Le-Bouleng~-chronograph) that after
Brttxelles some improvements will become a robust and accurate
chronograph with a temporal resolution of less than i ms. It
History of Shock Waves 49

will prove its applicability even for ballistic "open range"

measurements.
University of Airy 1~ reviews previous theoretical and experimental
Cambridge attempts to calculate the destructive energy of steam boiler
explosions. He concludes that one cubic foot of water at
60psi is equal to the destructive energy of one pound of
gunpowder. 9 Various hypotheses for possible causes of steam
boiler explosions 1~176 were (i) generation and ignition of
oxyhydrogen when, at low water level in the boiler, the water
chemically reacts with the overheated iron walls; (ii) sudden
destruction of the initial isolation of water from the boiler
walls, nullifying the protecting "Leidenfrost layer"; (iii) reduc-
tion of mechanical strength of the boiler material at high
temperature; (iv) sudden generation of large quantities of
steam by the phenomenon of "delay of boiling"; and (v)
increasing unyieldingness of the boiler walls when firing
sulfurous coal. The accidents prompted engineers and metal-
lurgists to study dynamic material behavior under thermal
and mechanical stress and to improve production technology.
They also provoked the foundations of the first official safety
inspection authorities.
Colli~ge de Regnault 111 begins a five-year campaign of measuring the
France, Paris sound velocities in air and other gases. To exclude negative
side effects such as wind he performs his experiments in long
pipes with lengths up to 20 km and diameters ranging from
0.1 to 1.1 m, using the gas pipeline and sewage channel
system of Paris. This allows long base lines to compensate
for the low accuracy of available chronoscopes. Discharging a
small quantity of gunpowder (about i g) at the pipe entrance,
he determines the average blast velocity by mechanically
recording the arriving pressure signal at the pipe end using
a membrane microphone, combined with a rotating drum
chronograph. He is the first to confirm experimentally that
the sound velocity also depends on the sound intensity,
thereby touching an essential feature of a shock wave. Since
his remarkable achievements have barely been acknowledged
by the modem shock physics community, he is cited here in
more detail: "the theoretical calculation assumes that the
excess of compression which exists in the wave is infinitely
small compared with the barometric pressure supported by
the gas. But the experiments made to determine the rate of
sound in free air have been hitherto made by means of a
cannon, and the wave has been reckoned from its source,
namely the cannon's mouth. Now this wave as it leaves the
cannon is under enormous compressionma compression, it is
50 P. Krehl

true, which diminishes very rapidly as the wave spreads

spherically through space; but during the first part of its
course it cannot be supposed that its compression is infinitely
small. When the excess of compression in the wave is a
sensible fraction of the compression of the gaseous medium at
rest, we can no longer employ Laplace's formula, but must
have recourse to a more complex formula embracing the true
elements of the problem. Even the formula which I have given
in my Memoir [MCm. Acad. Roy. Paris 37 (1868)] is only an
approximation; for it implicitly admits Mariotte's law and all
its consequences. In short, the mathematical theory has as yet
only touched upon the propagation of waves in a perfect
gasuthat is to say, in an ideal fluid possessing all the
properties which had been introduced hypothetically into
the calculation. It is therefore not surprising that the results
of my experiments often disagree from theory . . . . " 9 His
remarkable result, however, that intense sound propagates
faster than with sound velocity, was not immediately
accepted. 112 E. Mach and Sommer (---~1877) first confirmed
Regnauh's observations.

1864 Royal Toepler 113 publishes his "schlieren method." Although its
Agricultural principle was previously discovered by Hooke 114 (1665)
Academy, and Foucauh 115 (1859), Toepler uses an arrangement that
Poppelsdorf, will prove extremely useful in the study of compressible flow.
Germany He directly visualizes the propagation and reflection of shock
waves in air and first notices the sharp wave front, but is at
first confused by the appearance of several shock fronts:
"Apart from the envelope and little clouds, the spark seems
to be surrounded by concentric spheroids a b c with rather
sharp boundaries. They are never disrupted or bulged; with
increasing size they approach a spherical geometry. Closely to
the spark they resemble a cylinder which is bounded by two
hemispheres. Operating the induction coil at high repetition
rate they give the impression of soap bubbles which, formed
around the spark, immediately disappear again. It makes one
believe that always several, usually three or four, are visible
simultaneously in the field of view. However, in the case that
the coil is working at the lowest possible rate so that the ear is
capable of clearly differentiating between each stroke, it is
obvious that each discharge corresponds to only a single one
of the above described spheroids, but that from spark to
spark, the phenomenon strongly varies in size and forma-
tion." To illustrate this discontinuous wave phenomenon, he
first uses the correct terms shock wave [Stoj~welle] and air
percussion wave [Lufterschfitterungswelle], but likewise also
the incorrect term sound wave [Schallwelle]. Since high-
History of Shock Waves 51

sensitive films are not yet available to him, he studies the

shocks subjectively by using a sophisticated stroboscopic
arrangement and a modification of Knochenhauer's circuit
(---~ 1858) to delay the illumination spark relative to the spark
generating the shock wave. He also inspects the spark channel
and notices that it is not a homogeneous cylindrical plasma
column but rather is pinched and shows constrictions in the
axial direction.
Heleneborg, Nobel 116 finds that nitroglycerine (Sobrero--~1847) can be
Sweden fired by an initial explosion such as can be produced by a
small charge of gunpowder, and soon experiments with small
metal receptacles loaded with fulminate of mercury mixed
with gunpowder or nitrate of potash. His invention of the
blasting cap ("detonator") initiates the explosive reaction in a
column of explosive by percussion, or the local heat of an
electric spark or an electrically heated w i r e . , The introduc-
tion of the initial ignition principle, using a strong blast wave
rather than heating, was a significant achievement in the
technique of blasting. Ten years after having perfected his
famous invention, Nobel 117 stated with plain words: "but the
real era of nitroglycerine opened with the year 1864, when a
charge of pure nitroglycerine was first set off by means of a
minute charge of gunpowder."
Chair of Le Conte 118 reviews the large body of international literature
Natural relating to the obvious discrepancy between the velocity of
Philosophy, sound as given by the physical theory and by direct experi-
South Carolina ment. He addresses also the theories of violent sound given by
College, Airy (--+ 1849), Earnshaw (--+ 1858), Challis (--+ 1848,1851),
Columbia Stokes (--+1848,1851), and Parry's experiments (-->1824-
1825). Previous observations on thunder by Earnshaw
(---->1851,1860) and Montigny (--+1860) he considers as a
psychological illusion. Rejecting all hypotheses of wave
propagation attributed to the peculiarities of large amplitudes,
he writes, "It is true there may be nothing a priori improbable
in the assumption that the velocity of sound might be related
to the violence of the disturbance; but the fact that the
analytical investigations conduct to such extreme results as
to set at nought all our physical conceptions, originate a
strong presumption that they belong to that class of mathe-
matical fictions which have frequently sharpened the inge-
nuity and brightened the imagination of some of the most
eminent geometers." He supports Laplace's view "...that the
accuracy of the physical reasoning upon which Laplace's
formula is based has not been invalidated by the recent
discussions on the mathematical theory of sound." 9 The
paper is very interesting from the historical point of view,
52 P. Krehl

because the large number of reasons discussed illustrates not

only the keen interest of contemporary naturalists in this
subject, but also reveals the difficulties to accept hitherto
unknown mechanisms of generating supersonic velocities of
aerial waves.

1865 Athenaeum, SchrOder van der Kolk, 119 correctly assuming that intense
Deventer, The sound propagates faster than weak sound, tries to derive a
Netherlands formula for the sound velocity s in terms of the ratio of the
specific heats, 7; the sound velocity at infinitely small ampli-
tude, So; and the specific volume reduction, AV = V0 - Va,
caused by the intense sound. - Since he assumed compression
along the static adiabate (Poisson's law) and not along the
dynamic adiabate (Hugoniot curve)--which is steeper in the
p,V-diagrammhis equation gives too small a velocity
increase. The problem was first solved in a general manner
by Hugoniot (--+ 1887) and later put in a practicable equation
known today as the "Hugoniot relation" by Vieille (--~ 1900).

Stockholm Nobel 12~ addressing the advantage and multi-purpose appli-

cations of nitroglycerine in the mining industry, writes: "The
greatest advantage of nitroglycerine consists in the fact that
when it is used a force can be introduced into the blast-hole of
a mine ten times as great as when powder is used. Hence
arises a great economy in manual labor, the importance of
which is understood when it is remembered that the labor of
the miner represents, according to the hardness of the rock,
from five to twenty times the value of the powder required, a
saving therefore which will often amount to 50 per cent. The
use of this substance is very simple. If the blast-hole of the
mine is fissured, it must be lined with clay in order to render
it tight. Nitroglycerine is then poured in, and the upper part
of the hole is filled with water; in the nitroglycerine is then
introduced a safety-match of suitable length, at the end of
which is pressed a strong percussion-cap. The operation is
finished, and it is only necessary to put fire to the match."

1866 The Napier Napier, 121 a Scottish mechanical engineer, studies the flow
Brothers, characteristics of a gas, from a vessel in which it is
Glasgow compressed, through an orifice into the atmosphere. He
observes that the rate of discharge increases as the ratio of
the receiver pressure to the initial pressure diminishes from
unity to about 0.5, but that when the latter stage is reached, a
further reduction in the receiver pressure has no effect on the
rate of discharge, which remains constant (the "choking
effect").. An important step in the theory of orifice discharge
was made not until 1885 by Reynolds, a22 who assumed a
continuous fall of pressure along the axis of the jet.
History of Shock Waves 53

1867 Humboldt Magnus receives Toepler's paper on schlieren observations of

UniversitFzt, spark waves (--~ 1864). He criticizes Toepler's use of the term
Berlin sound wave [Schallwelle] for the visualized spark (--shock)
wave. In a letter 123 to Toepler he states, "I was never in doubt
about the correctness of your observations...however, I have
declared myself against the expression 'sound wave' as, I
suppose, I already did previously. Now you state in your kind
letter that the air is expanded by the spark which causes a
compression propagating with the speed of sound: this is clear
and nobody will contest it, just as little as this compression was
reflected. However, visible is not the sound, but rather the air
which, heated and perhaps colored by the spark, expands from
the position of the spark and is reflected, because the
compressed air itself is visible with your apparatus . . . . A
designation can easily give reason for a misinterpretation.
Who will not imagine waves emitted by a sounding body
when hearing about 'sound w a v e s ' ? . . . " . This stimulated
ToepleP 24 to give a more detailed definition in his next
paper: "the electric spark is a very favorable source of sound;
it can be used to provide single shocks which [at increasing
repetition rate] can be driven up to the generation of a tone. The
expression 'sound' has been used for any perceptible impression
to the sense of hearing, likewise the word 'sound wave,' also in
case that the air particles do not experience a full oscillation .... "
Nitroglycerin Nobel 125 invents Dynamite [after the Greek dynamis, meaning
Ltd., power], which he also calls Guhr Dynamite. It is a mixture of
Heleneborg, nitroglycerine and a suitable nonexplosive porous absorbent
Stockholm [Kieselguhr], which fully establishes nitroglycerine as the
leading blasting agent. To explode it safely and under all
conditions, it is ignited by a detonator cap (A. Nobel---~ 1864).
9 The invention of Dynamite was a large commercial success:
From 1867 to 1874 Nobel founded 15 factories worldwide,
which increased dynamite production from 11 tons in 1867 to
3120 tons in 1874.126
Chair of Bunsen 127 determines the explosion pressure of oxyhydrogen
Chemistry in a closed vessel to be around 9.5 atm. He speculates that in a
[Allgemeine gaseous explosion the total gaseous mass does not explode at
Experimental- once, but rather successively in discontinuous partial explo-
chemie], sions that propagate stepwise through the gas ["e/ne disconti-
University of nuierliche, gleichsam stufenweise erfolgende Verbrennung"]. To
Heidelberg measure the rate at which an explosion is propagated in a gas
he first releases highly pressurized gas from a narrow opening
only 1.2 mm in diameter and ignites it in free air. Then he
slowly reduces the pressure until the flame backfires, which he
regards as a criterion that the explosion velocity has just
54 e Krehl

surpassed the outflow velocity. He determines an explosion

velocity for oxyhydrogen of only 34 m/s and for a mixture of
CO-O 2 of only i m/s. 9 His puzzling results stimulated Berthe-
lot and Vieille (--+1881), Mallard and Le Ch~telier (-+ 1881),
and von Oettingen and von Gernet (--+ 1888). Their results
revealed that Bunsen did not provoke an explosion but rather a
deflagration, which explained his obtained low velocities.
4th Toepler 128 displays his improved schlieren apparatus and
International demonstrates the propagation of spark (=shock) waves to
World Fair, the public.
Paris
Private study at De Saint-Venant ~29 treats the longitudinal impact of elon-
Villeporcher- gated bars, which, for simplicity, are assumed to be of the
Saint- same material and thickness but of different length. He shows
Ouen/Vend- that, except when the lengths are equal, a considerable
Ome, France fraction of the original energy takes the form of vibrations
in the longer bar so that the translational velocities after
impact are less than those calculated by Newton for bodies
that he calls "perfect elastic." He observes that after impact the
short bar will take the initial velocity of the longer bar and
becomes free of tension.
1868 St. Petersburg, The International Treatise of Petersburg is proposed on Decem-
Russia ber 11, with the goal to ban the use of explosive bullets for
small arms. It is signed by all European and North American
countries.
University of Kirchhoff, 13~ after having read Toepler's paper, on the visua-
Heidelberg lization of shock waves, 131 writes to him: "without doubt the
expression 'sound wave' as you use it is justified, and an air
quake [Lufierschfaterung] makes an impression on the ear
even if it is of only very short duration but of sufficiently high
intensity."
1869 Royal Military AbeP 32 shows that unconfined charges of guncotton, nitro-
Academy, glycerine, dynamite, and mercury fulminate only burn if
Woolwich, ignited by a flame or a hot-wire, but detonate if subjected
Arsenal, to an impulsive force such as applied by a hammer blow, a
London detonator cap, or the impact of a projectile. 9 It appears that
Abel was the first who used the term detonation in the modem
sense. Hitherto the terms explosion and detonation, in use
since the late 17th century, 133 were applied interchangeably.
Chair of Civil Rankine TM submits a paper to the London Royal Society on
Engineering & "adiabatic waves, that is waves of longitudinal disturbance in
Mechanics, which there is no transfer of heat..." and on the problem of
University of how "to determine the relations which must exist between the
Glasgow laws of the elasticity and heat of any substance, gaseous,
History of Shock Waves 55

liquid or solid, and those of the wave-like propagation of a

finite longitudinal disturbance in that substance." His signifi-
cant achievements can be summarized as follows: (i) Treating
the shock wave as a two-dimensional discontinuity, he
assumes a dissipative fluidmi.e., conductive but nonvis-
cous--and applies the conservation laws of mass, momentum
and energy to both states far up- and downstream from the
shock front, thus obtaining three equations which, however,
are only equivalent to those of Hugoniot (--~ 1887) in the case
of a perfect gas, later to be referred to as the Rankine-Hugoniot
equations (or conditions). (ii) He coins the expression adia-
batic [derived from the Greek ~ ~ i v ~ z v - to pass through]
to characterize a change in the volume and pressure of the
contents of an enclosure without exchange between the
enclosure and its surroundings. He also uses the term adia-
batic curve for a p(v)-diagram, obtained by plotting the
pressure p against the specific volume v in the adiabatic
equation. In contrast, GIBBS135 will shortly after propose the
expression isotropic curve, since in an adiabatic process the
entropy remains constant. (iii) RAN~INE addresses also the
rarefaction wave phenomenon which he calls sudden rarefac-
tion. Referring to a discussion with Sir Thomson, he anno-
tates: "Sir William Thomson has pointed out to the author,
that a wave of sudden rarefaction, though mathematically
possible, is an unstable condition of motion; any deviation
from absolute suddenness tending to make the disturbance
become more and more gradual. Hence the only wave of
sudden disturbance whose permanency of type is physically
possible, is one of sudden compression; and this is to be taken
into account in connexion with all that is stated in the paper
respecting such waves." (iv) Rankine also measures the ratio
of specific heats, ~/ and finds that "7 is nearly 1.41 for air,
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, and for steam-gas nearly
1.3." Asked by the editor of the Proceedings of the Royal
Society to give credit also to previous investigators on waves
of finite disturbances and to point out to what extent the
results arrived at his paper are identical with their researches,
Rankine 136 cites the works of Poisson, Stokes, Airy, and
Earnshaw, and claims: "The new results, then, obtained in
the present paper may be considered to be the following: the
conditions as to transformation and transfer of heat which
must be fulfilled, in order that permanence of type may be
realized, exactly or approximately; the types of wave which
enable such conditions to be fulfilled, with a given law of the
conduction of heat; and the velocity of advance of such
waves. The method of investigation in the present paper, by
56 P. Krehl

the aid of mass-velocity to express the speed of advance of a

wave, is new, so far as I know; and it seems to me to have
great advantages in point of simplicity."
War Abel 137 reports on his observation that one detonating dyna-
Department, mite cartridge can trigger another that is positioned in the
U.K. vicinity and speculates that detonation is transmitted by
means of some "synchronous vibrations." He states, "The
vibrations produced by a particular explosion, if synchronous
with those which would result from the explosion of a
neighboring substance which is in a state of high chemical
tension, will, by their tendency to develop those vibrations,
either determine the explosion of that substance, or at any
rate greatly aid the disturbing effect of mechanical force
suddenly applied, while, in the case of another explosion
which produces vibrations of different character, the mechan-
ical force applied by its agency has to operate with little or no
aid . . . . " 9 E. Mach and Wentzel (--+1885) refused Abel's
"queer" hypothesis and correctly attributed this phenomenon
to the mechanical effect of the shock wave.
Chair of Berthelot 138 defines the "strength" of condensed and gaseous
Organic explosives and emphasizes the role of a mechanical shock,
Chemistry, which during detonation propagates "from layer to layer,"
College de thus anticipating an important assumption of the Chapman-
France, Paris Jouguet theory (Jouguet-+1905). He writes, "In order to
transmit the transformation of a detonating bulk which is
not subjected in all parts to the same action, it is necessary
that the same conditions of temperature, pressure etc. which
have provoked the phenomenon in one point propagate
successively, layer to layer [couche par couche], through all
parts of the bulk . . . . "
1871 England Maddox 139 prepares emulsions of silver bromide in essentially
the same manner as that used for making colloidal emulsions
but replaces collodion by gelatin. Further improvements of
this new photographic process were made by Bennet (1878),
van Monkhoven (1879), and Eder (1880) which, leading to
the so-called "high sensitive photo-gelantine dry plate" in the
1880s, were a basic requirement to make the first photograph
of a shock wave (E. Mach and Wentzel--> 1884).
1872 Royal Academy Melsens 14~ reports on the severe injuries observed in the
of Sciences, recent Prussian-French War (1870-1871). He comes to the
Brussels conclusion that they were not caused by explosive projectiles
banned by the St. Petersburg Treatise (--+1868), but rather by
air compression phenomena in front of the projectile. 9 Nine
years later, he addressed the same subject in a lecture
History of Shock Waves 57

presented at Paris. His hypothesis inspired E. Mach to

investigate these possible ballistic phenomena in more
detail. TM However, he had to wait almost six years before
his photographic technique was matured enough to catch the
motion of high-speed bullets in flight (E. Mach and
Salcher--~ 1887).

Expedition of A prolonged oceanographic exploration 142 is carried out by

H.M.S. the British Admiralty and the Royal Society from 1872-1876.
"Challenger," The expedition performs scientific research such as depth
England sounding, dredging, and measuring currents, depths, and
contours of the ocean basin. Tait (-~ 1878) participates and
measures deep-sea temperatures.

Trinity College, John Hopkinson 143 measures the strength of steel wires when
Cambridge they are suddenly stretched by a falling weight. He observes
that the minimum height from which a weight has to be
dropped to break the wire is independent of the size of the
weight. He explains this surprising result in terms of the
propagation of elastic waves up and down the wire.

Elswick Noble 144 first reports on his "crusher gauge," a by-product of

Ordnance his investigation into the behavior of explosives and artillery
Company, U.K. that will render his name famous. Introductorily he compares
previous estimations on the elastic force of fired gunpowder in
cannons, which not only widely range in historic studies
between 100 and 100,000 atmospheresmfor example, 100 by
John Bernoulli; 145 1000 by Robins (1743); 2000 by Hutton;
10,000 by Daniel Bernoulli; 12,400 by Rodman (1857-1859);
and 100,000 by Rumford (1797)rebut also in modern "reli-
able" handbooks between 2200 by Bloxam (1867) and Owen
(1871), and 29,000 atmospheres by Plobert (1859). 146 With
the help of his crusher gauge, a modification and improvement
of the indentation gauge (Rodman-~ 1857), Noble determines
the maximum pressure produced when a charge of gunpowder
is exploded in a confined space (such as in a cannon) and finds
a value of about 5500 atmospheres which well correlates with
theoretical estimations based on measurements of in-barrel
projectile velocities. 9 In the early period of shock and explo-
sion research the crusher gauge was the instrument most used
to evaluate the maximum pressure of high-rate thermodynamic
phenomena such as explosion and detonation. Since the gauge
is simple in construction, inexpensive, and insensitive to
electromagnetic radiation, it saw a renaissance in World War
II: Penney 147 used his "five-gallon-can blast pressure gauges" to
map the overpressure in the "Mach stem" region of an atomic
explosion. Blast pressures were computed from the degrees of
58 P. Krehl

crushing in the cans. To measure maximum pressures gener-

ated in underwater explosions, Abboth 148 used crusher gauges
in which a steel piston acted on a small lead cylinder fixed on a
massive support.
Woolwich, Abel and Brown, ]49 using the Noble-chronograph, measure
Arsenal, the detonation velocity of guncotton to be around
London 20,000ft/sec and state: "Recent experiment has shown that
the rapidity with which gun-cotton detonates is altogether
unprecedented, the swiftness of the action being truly marve-
lous. Indeed, with the exception of light and electricity, the
detonation of gun-cotton travels faster than anything else we
are cognizant of . . . . "
Laboratoire Roux and Sarrau 15~ confirm Abel's observation (---~1869) and
Central des differentiate between an "explosion of the first kind" (detona-
Poudres, Paris tion) and an "explosion of the second kind" (deflagration). 9 In
a deflagrationma rapid combustion process that gives off heat
and light--the flame speed is below the velocity of sound in
the burnt gases; in a detonation, burning takes place at or
above the velocity of sound in the burnt gases. A detonation is
always associated with a high-pressure and high-temperature
shock wave that is sustained by the liberated energy via shock
compression rather than via heat transfer as in the case of
combustion. The energy of this reaction maintains constant
conditions at the front of the detonation wave, thus leading to
a constant detonation velocity. Detonation and deflagration are
words derived from the Latin verbs detonare (to thunder out)
and deflagrare (to burn down), respectively.
1874 Realschule Antolik TM publishes his "soot method" and records with this
Kaschau, method strange interference patterns in the vicinity of gliding
Austro- spark discharges. He observes that conically shaped branches
Hungarian [kegelartige "AuslFzufer"] originate from the concave parts of a
Empire spark path, which disappear when the discharge occurs in a
vacuum. Antolik explains this phenomenon by the behavior
of the gliding spark, which in a vacuum prefers to follow a
straight rather than a given crooked path. In reality, however,
the soot figures are the very first records of irregular interac-
tions of shock waves.
1875 Chair of E. Mach, 152 together with his student Wosyka, immediately
Experimental repeats Antolik's experiments (---~1874). They verify that his
Physics, soot pictures are indeed of acoustic and not of electric origin.
Karl- Mach and Wosyka are the first to study Mach reflection. They
Ferdinand- record the trajectories of the triple point (Mach funnel) and
UniversitFzt, stop the Mach disk by using two oppositely facing V-shaped
Prague gliding sparks. 153 They also arrive at the following important
History of Shock Waves 59

conclusion: "It should be pointed out that Antolik's simple

and ingenious method of preliminary tracing of the spark
enables various applications in the field of acoustics, because
it can be used to create intense sound waves with an arbitrary
initial shape.". The soot method, although in principle very
simple, is somewhat tricky to handle, particularly to provide a
homogeneous and well-adhering soot layer reliable enough to
obtain a high spatial resolution and wide dynamic range of
pressure recording. By increasing the adhesion of the soot
layer on the glass plate, it is also possible to record even
double Mach reflection, which results in two concentric Mach
funnels. 154 The soot method was also used to record periodic
cell structures in gaseous detonations (Shchelkin and
Troshin 1965; Schultz-Grunow 1969).
Royal Society Nobel 155 reads before the Society a paper entitled "Modem
for the blasting agents." Giving information regarding his invention
Encouragement of Dynamite and the difficulties of its introduction into
of Arts, practical use, he states, "the concentration of power, velocity
Manufactures of explosion, and immunity from danger, are the three points
& Commerce, on which mainly depend the success or non-success of a new
London explosive substrate." Speaking of gunpowder he says, "That
old mixture possesses a truly admirable elasticity which
permits its adaptation to purposes of the most varied
nature. Thus, in a mine it is wanted to blast without propel-
ling; in a gun to propel without blasting; in a shell it serves
both purposes combined; in a fuse, as in fireworks, it burns
quite slowly without exploding. Its pressure exercised in
those numerous operations, varies between 1 oz. (more or
less) to the square inch in a fuse, and 85,000 lb. to the square
inch in a shell. But like a servant for all work, it lacks
perfection in each department, and modem science armed
with better tools, is gradually encroaching on its old domain."
Ordnance Noble and Abel 156 start an ambitious program on researches
Company, on gunpowder and its explosive effects in guns with the
Elswick; following goals: (i) To ascertain the products of combustion
Woolwich of gunpowder fired under circumstances similar to those
Arsenal, which exist when it is exploded in guns or mines; (ii) to
London ascertain the "tension" of the products of combustion at the
moment of explosion, and to determine the law according to
which the tension varies with the gravimetric density of the
powder; (iii) to ascertain whether any, and if so what, well
defined variation in the nature or proportions of the products
accompanies a change in the density or size of grains of the
powder; (iv) to determine whether any, and if so what,
influence is exerted on the nature of the metamorphosis by
60 P. Krehl

the pressure under which the gunpowder is fired; (v) to

determine the volume of permanent gases liberated by the
explosion; (vi) to compare the explosion of gunpowder fired
in a close vessel with that of similar gunpowder when fired in
the bore of a gun; (vii) to determine the heat generated by the
combustion of gunpowder, and thence to deduce the
temperature at the instant of explosion; and (viii) to deter-
mine the work which the gunpowder is capable of performing
on a shot in the bore of a gun, and thence to ascertain the
total theoretical work if the bore be supposed of indefinite
length. 9 Their results became the basis of modern internal
ballistics.
1876 Jabin de Saint- Two serious firedamp explosions in the French hard coal
Etienne, mining industry (231 miners killed) will initiate the founda-
Graissessac tion of a governmental research commission (---~1878).
British Sabine, 157 chief engineer, measures the shock contact time of
Telegraph elastic bodies using an ingenious electric method that allows
Manufactory, the measurement of the time between two successive
London mechanical movements with a considerable degree of accu-
racy. The method is based on the fact that a charged capacitor
can only be discharged at a certain definite rate through a
given circuit. For the duration of a blow of a light hammer
(weighing about 1 oz) against a steel anvil, he finds contact
times around 50~ts. Further experiments reveal that the
contact time decreases with increasing impact velocity. 9 His
important results reliably proved for the first time that the
contact time of impacting elastic bodies is indeed extremely
short, which was later found theoretically by Hertz (-~ 1882)
and reconfirmed experimentally by Tait (-~ 1892).
Karl- Rosicky,15s a coworker of E. Mach, visualizes shock-focusing
Ferdinand- phenomena in an elliptic reflector.. Today ellipsoidal reflec-
Universiti~t, tors are also used for focusing spark-generated shock waves in
Prague extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy. 159"16~
1877 Cambridge Lord Rayleigh, being in the final phase of his book The
University Theory of 5ound, has a controversy 161 with Stokes who
previously published a paper on sounds of finite amplitudes.
Rayleigh writes to him on June 2, 1877: "In consequence of
our conversation the other evening I have been looking at
your paper 'On a difficulty in the theory of sound,' Phil. Mag.
Nov. 1848. The latter half of the paper appears to me to be
liable to an objection, as to which (if you have time to look at
the matter) I should be glad to hear your opinion . . . . It would
appear therefore that on the hypotheses made, no discontin-
uous change is possible . . . . " Stokes admits that Thomson
History of Shock Waves 61

(later Lord Kelvin) had already made similar objections that

the proposed motion would violate the conservation of
energy. Avoiding a confrontation with his former student,
he kindly replies to Lord Rayleigh on June 5, 1877: "It
seemed, however, hardly worth while to write a criticism on
a passage in a paper which was buried among other scientific
antiquities. PS: You will observe I wrote somewhat doubtfully
about the possibility of the queer motion . . . . "

Karl-Ferdinand E. Mach and Sommer 162 measure the propagation of shock

Universitat, waves on a laboratory scale and confirm that indeed a shock
Prague wave travels faster than a sound wave and that the shock
velocity increases with shock strength. Their results confirm
previous large-scale measurements by Regnauh (-~1863),
thus reaching therewith an important milestone in shock
wave physics. Using a linear percussion model--a row of
gas molecules arranged two by two along a straight line--they
illustrate that the velocity of percussion must also increase
when the velocity of sound increases, such as in the case of
violent sound, and state, "It does not contradict the theory to
assume that the velocity of sound increases with the intensity
of the impulse. Only for very small vibrations does the
velocity of sound not depend on the amplitude. But this is
not valid for vibrations of finite amplitude as has been proved
by Riemann in his paper Uber die Fortpflanzung ebener
Luftwellen von endlicher Schwingungsweite, 1860. 'Velocity of
sound' receives hereby a quite different meaning; it is different
at every point of the wave and alters during the wave motion.
It appears that we deal in our experiments with such waves as
described by Riemann."

Chair of Christoffe1163 extends Riemann's theory on shock waves

Mathematics, (--~1859) to the case of a three-dimensional propagation.
University of He also treats the propagation of percussion through an
Straj~burg elastic solid medium.

Philosophical A committee formed by the society publishes 164 the observa-

Society of tions of 48 people who witnessed the fall of the Washington
Washington, Meteor on Dec. 24, 1873. Descriptions of observed acoustic
DC phenomena range between "no sound" and "very violent
sound" (for example, "short, hard reports like heavy cannon
and continued resounding"). The committee concludes that
the sound could have been generated by sound focusing and
the Doppler effect. 9 Later E. Mach and Doss (-,1893),
referring to this "queer theory," explained the loud report
not as the result of any explosion or focusing effects, but due
to the head wave phenomenon alone.
62 e. Krehl

1878 Karl-Ferdi- E. Mach and Weltrubsky 165 use the "Jamin interferometer"
nand-Universi- (Jamin--~ 1856) and first record the density jump at the shock
tat, Prague front.
E. Mach, Tumlirz, and K6gler 166 measure thoroughly the
velocity-distance profile of a blast wave, which they generate
by an electric spark discharge. They confirm previous obser-
vations by E. Mach and Sommer (--+ 1877) that the blast wave
velocity approaches the sound velocity at greater distance
from its center of origin.
E. Mach and Gruss 167 study Mach reflection in a V-shaped
gliding-spark arrangement E. Mach and Wosyka (--+ 1875) in
more detail. They give an ingenious interpretation of the
propagating and temporarily increasing width of the Mach
disk. Their publication contains correct drawings of the
interaction phenomenon, but not photographs.
Chair of TaR begins his research on the corrections of deep-sea
Natural temperatures obtained during the "Challenger" expedition
Philosophy, (--+ 1872). His research will lead to important experimental
University of studies of the compressibility of liquids (TAR-+ 1888) and the
Edinburgh behavior of solid materials under impact (Tait-+ 1892).
Paris Foundation of the French Fire-Damp Commission [Commis-
sion d'~tude des moyens propres a prevenir les explosions du
grisou] to uncover the so-far mysterious phenomenon of
detonation and to investigate how firedamp explosions can
be prevented. Prominent members are Berthelot (president),
Le Chatelier, Mallard, and Vieille (secretary). Shortly after,
similar commissions will be formed in Prussia, Belgium, and
England (president Abel). 9 The results of the investigations
initiated by the French commission became an important
milestone toward a theory of detonation (Berthelot-+ 1881).
Cambridge Lord Rayleigh publishes his monograph The Theory of Sound.
University In vol. 2 he returns to the point of his previous controversy with
Stokes (-+ 1877) and writes, "but it would be improper to pass
over in silence an error on the subject of discontinuous motion
into which Riemann and other writers have fallen. It has been
held that a state of motion is possible in which the fluid is
divided into two parts by a surface of discontinuity . . . . " There
follows a proof of the impossibility of such motions based on a
"violation" of the conservation of energy. 168 9 Rayleigh held to
this statement in the 2nd edition (1896) of his book, although
at that time the existence of a sharply pronounced discontinuity
at the shock front had been proven by using both the schlieren
(Toepler--+ 1865; E. Mach and Wentzel-+ 1884) and the inter-
ferometer techniques (E. Mach and Wehrubsky-+ 1878).
History of Shock Waves 63

1880 University of Dvof~ik 169 describes "a simple kind of schlieren observation,"
Agram, which, later called shadowgraphy, does not require any lenses
Kingdom of or concave mirrors and allows a large field of view.- The
Croatia- change of illumination is roughly proportional to the rate of
Slovenia [now change of density gradient. For this reason the method is
Zagreb, sometimes superior to the schlieren method
Croatia] (TOEPLER-+1864)--in which the change of illumination is
roughly proportional to the density gradient--for observing
certain flow phenomena. 17~
1881 Ecole des Mallard and Le Chfitelier 171 measure the propagation of the
Mines, Paris flame front in gaseous mixtures of H2-O2, CO-O2, and CH 4-
02 using the Deprez-chronograph.172 In short tubes with a
length of 1.35 m, they observe a speed of 5 7 0 m / s in oxyhy-
drogen, which reduces to only 7 0 m / s when the length is
reduced to about 5"1 However, similar to Davy (-+ 1816) they
notice that the flame is not propagated in narrow tubes.
Russian Maiyevskii, 173 studying the ballistics of cannon shells,
Artillery publishes a work on the resistance of projectiles at high
Academy, St. speeds, w, that exceed the sound velocity, a. For velocities
Petersburg up to w/a < 1.1 he finds the formula for the ballistic
resistance Cx: Cx = 0.19211 + 3.34(w/a)2].. Although subse-
quent measurements have shown that the air resistance does
not steadily increase from transonics to supersonics, it is
interesting to note that Maiyevskii, very similar to his fore-
runner Euler (1745), considered the ratio w/a--later termed
the Mach number (Ackeret --+ 1929)--an important quantity
governing air resistance at high speed. 174
U.S. Army Abbot 175 reports on strange surface phenomena of an under-
Corps of water explosion, which he observed 0.1 s after the explosion.
Engineers, He writes, "The surface of the water around the torpedo over
Washington, a distance of 200 feet is covered by a misty spray resembling
DC rain, which has been thrown upward from the surface by the
shock. Over the torpedo appears a dome of water of which the
diameter is about 100 feet and the extreme height about 20
feet. The surface of this dome is a fleecy texture, and through
the top are bursting upward many spearlike jets, which cover
a space about 50 feet in diameter and attain in the middle an
extreme height of 105 feet.". A correct explanation of this
phenomenon was first given by Blochmann (--+ 1898).
Coll~ge de Berthelot 176 studies the propagation of the flame speed in
France, Paris essentially the same gaseous mixtures as Mallard and Le
Chfitelier (-+ 1881), however, contrary to them he announces
the discovery of enormous velocities of explosion. Berthelot,
using long tubes (up to 5 m in length, 8 mm in diameter),
64 P. Krehl

measures flame velocities of up to 2500m/s. He makes the

important observation that the initially slow flame speed
approaches a characteristic high limiting value after propagat-
ing a sufficiently long distance in the tube. That value is
independent of the pressure of the gases, the material of the
tube, and the tube's diameter above a small limit, but is a
constant of each gaseous mixture. Calling this new thermo-
chemical phenomenon an "explosion wave" [l'onde explosive],
he does not explain this supersonic velocity of combustion by
any thermal conductivity and diffusion process that governs
the propagation of a slow flame, but rather by a transfer of gas
compression from layer to layer (Berthelot---~1870), herewith
reaching an important milestone toward a theory of detona-
tion. He also states that its velocity could be predicted if the
heat of combustion and the density and specific heat of the
products are known.
Berthelot 177 first demonstrates that a shock wave, generated
by an explosive (mercury fulminate), can chemically decom-
pose a gas into its elements. Using the example of acetylene
(C2H2), he shows that the violent explosion that is accom-
panied by a flash emission transforms the initial gas into fine
carbon particles dispersed in a hydrogen atmosphere. He
draws the important conclusion that "these phenomena give
evidence that direct thermodynamic relations exist between
chemical and mechanical actions.", More recent studies by
Aten and Greene 178 using infrared analysis of quenched
products have shown that diacetylene (C4H 2) is the most
important product of acetylene pyrolysis by shock heating: it
may form over 5% of the total and decomposes into hydrogen
and carbon (C4H2--~ C4 + H2).

Royal Abel and associates, stimulated by the calamitous accident in

Commission on the Seaham Colliery at Durham in the autumn of 1880, show
Accidents in that the finely divided particles suspended in air are a source
Mines, U.K. of danger similar to that occasionally experienced in flour
mills. They begin to carry out explosion experiments with
coal dust in large mine galleries and demonstrate that, with a
very highly inflammable dust suspended in the air in which
no trace of hydrocarbon gas (firedamp) is present, a blown-
out shot can produce ignitions that extend as far as the
mixture of air with sufficient dust to maintain flame extends.
9 Some years later their results were thoroughly confirmed
and also considerably extended by large-scale experiments
carried out by the Prussian Fire-Damp Commission at Neun-
kirchen in the Saarbrucken District.
History of Shock Waves 65

1882 Service des Foundation of the journal Memorial des Poudres et Salp~tres
Poudres et ( 1 . 1 8 8 2 / 8 3 - 17.1913/14; continued as Memorial des
Salp(.tres, Paris Poudres, 18.1921 + 29.1939, 30.1948 + 46/47.1964/65) by
the order of a ministerial decree. The editorial board consists
of E. Sarrau, Ch. Arnould and E. Desortaux. 9 It was the first
professional journal exclusively dedicating to the communi-
cation of results on the research of explosives, and its
applications for civil and military purposes. Initially created
with the intension to improve communications between
French researchers on explosion technology, it soon advanced
to an international scientific forum.
Physikalisches Hertz 179 treats the collision of bodies analytically and applies
Institut, the potential theory to calculate stress and strain as a result of
Humboldt the acting force in the contact area. He first makes the
UniversitFlt, important assumption that the duration of collision is much
Berlin longer than the time that the elastic wave needs to travel the
colliding body. Later this will be confirmed experimentally by
Berger (--+ 1924). For straight, elastic collision of two spheres
colliding with the relative velocity v, he derives simple formula
for the maximum pressure P and duration of collision T, given
by P - k iv 6/5 and T - k2 v-1/5. Here the coefficients k 1 and k 2
depend on mass, radius, and E-module of the spheres. For steel
spheres 3 cm in diameter colliding at 100 m/s, the contact time
T is about 36 ~ts, which is a multiple of the transit time of the
excited longitudinal waves in the spheres. Hertz measures the
outline of the surface of contact by covering one of the
colliding bodies with soot, thus giving an experimental proof
of his theory. He also calculates the elastic stress distribution
for contact of a hard sphere on a plate, which, for low impact
velocities, results in conical cracks (Hertzian cone fracture)..
The Hertzian cone is best observed in glass and can be
generated either statically by pressing a hard sphere on the
surface or dynamically by impact (Kerkhof and Mailer-Beck
1969). In glass it extends from the point of contact under a
cone angle of about 130 ~. However, it exists also in flint stone,
obsidian, and other hard (and rather isotropic) materials. In
prehistoric times, stone fragments [Absplif~] split off by Hert-
zian cone fracture were used for further processing into hand-
axes, arrowheads, knives, etc.
Laboratoire Vieille 18~ first applies a dynamic method to determine the
Central, accelerating force of an explosion. Arranging a small piston in
Service des the wall of the test vessel, he records its displacement-time
Poudres et profile under the action of the expanding gases on a soot-
Salp~tres, Paris covered rotating drum and obtains the acceleration by double
differentiation.
66 p Krehl

Coll~ge de Berthelot and Vieille, 181 using the Desprez-chronograph

France & (Maillard and Le Chatelier-~ 1881) and later the Le-Bouleng4
Laboratoire chronograph (Le Boulenge--~ 1863), measure the detonation
Central, velocity in about 50 mixtures of fuels and oxidizers, diluted
Service des by different amounts of nitrogen. They observe a uniform
Poudres et detonation velocity that only depends on the mixture compo-
Salpttres, Paris sition, not on the tube material and diameter (as long as the
latter is not too small). 9 Both electromechanical chrono-
graphs require electrical pulses for start/stop activation. The
start pulse was provided by simultaneously igniting the
gaseous mixture via a spark, and the stop pulse was generated
by suspending perpendicularly to the tube axis a thin foil
strip that, covered with a small amount of fulminate,
exploded at the moment of arrival of the detonation front,
thus breaking the holding current in the chronograph.
1883 Nitrocellulose Von Foerster, 182 chief engineer of the company, rediscovers
Fabrik Wolff & the hollow cavity effect for high explosives without inlet (yon
Co., Walsrode, Baader-~ 1 7 9 2 ) . . The important discovery of the hollow
Germany charge effect, in Europe also called the von Foerster effect,
can be ascribed to various inventors of different nationalities.
A retrospect on this phenomenon was published in Germany
by Freiwald 183 during World War II and more recently in the
U.S.A. by Kennedy 184 to commemorate the 100th anniversary
of von Foerster's discovery of the shaped charge effect. The
shaped charge lined cavity effect, for both military and civil
applications being of greater importance than the unlined
cavity, was discovered much later (Thomanek--~ 1938).
France Moisson, 185 naval captain and ballistician, investigates theo-
retically the air resistance of projectiles of cylindrical, sphe-
rical, and ogival geometry at speed u as a function of the ratio
u/a = 0.2 to 2, where a is the sound velocity. This ratio will
later be called the Mach number (Ackeret--~ 1929).
Ecole des Mallard and Le Chatelier 186 study detonation in gases and
Mines, Paris make streak records of flames from explosions in glass tubes
10-20ram in diameter and 1-3m in length. They use a
rotating drum covered with film upon which the flame
image is projected. Depending on the tube length and
boundary conditions at the tube exit, they observe (i) a
constant slow propagation velocity (deflagration), (ii) a
phase of vibrations (intermediate state), and (iii) a rapid
wave propagation (explosive wave).
Krakatao Explosion of volcano Perbuatan on August 27. The enormous
Island, Sunda mass of spilled lava into the ocean produces the greatest
Strait, Java steam explosion in history. 187 9 The mighty blast came in as a
History of Shock Waves 67

"roar" at Batavia, 160 km away, and was said to be still audible

at a distance of 3500km in Australia. Tidal waves were
observed on four continents and residues of the blast wave
recorded as barometric fluctuations around the globe.
Stockholm De Lava118s invents the first steam turbine. He uses steam jets,
which, issuing from nozzles, give up their energy by impulsive
action on a moving vane (reaction turbine). This principle,
based on the idea of Heron's steam ball [aeolipile, A.D. 100],
requires steam jets of very high velocity and will eventually
lead to the invention of the "Laval nozzle" (---~1888), which will
considerably stimulate supersonic aerodynamics.
1884 Clark, Parsons invents the first multistage steam turbine, which is
Chapman, based on the principle of the reaction that a steam jet exerts
Parsons & Co., on the orifice from which it issues. His machine utilizes
Gateshead, several stages in series. In each stage, the expansion of the
U.K. steam is restricted to allow the greatest extraction of kinetic
energy without causing the turbine blades to overspeed.
Immediate applications for marine propulsion purposes,
however, will uncover serious limitations set by cavitation
problems at the propeller, which will stimulate systematic
studies of cavitation phenomena. 189
Ecole Hugoniot and Sebert 19~ examine a one-dimensional discon-
d'Artillerie de tinuous gas flow and assume that the flow parameters before
la Marine, and after the discontinuity behave adiabatically (Poisson's
Lorient, France law). 9 These studies--later significantly improved by Hugo-
niot, who assumed a steeper equation of state (his "dynamic
adiabate," later called by others the Hugoniot curve)--led to
the first general shock theory (Hugoniot---~ 1887).
Karl-Ferdinand E. Mach and Wentze1191 succeed in making the first photo-
Universitat, graph of a shock wave. They select the most sensitive silver
Prague bromide gelantin dry plates then commercially available
(Maddox--+1871). As a first test, they generate a shock
wave by discharging a Leiden jar and use the spark of a
second one, which is fired with a delay of about 20 ~s, as a
light source. 9 A large number of Mach's original photo plates
have survived. They were donated to the Ernst-Mach-Institut at
Freiburg/Breisgau by Karma Mach, Ernst Mach's daughter in-
law. Together with his notebooks and correspondence they are
now kept at the archives of the Deutsches Museum, Mfmchen.
Brighton, U.K. Phillips 192 constructs the first wind tunnel. Instead of being
operated by a ventilator, it is operated by a steady stream of
vapor emerging from a system of fine nozzles. The wind
tunnel has a cross section of 0.43 x 0.43 m 2 and consists of a
1.83-m-long test section, which, most remarkably, is followed
68 e. Krehl

by a 1.83-m-long diffuser. Using a mechanical balance, he

measures for the first time the resistance of curved air foils up
to a velocity of 18m/s.
College de Berthelot and Vieille 193 invent the "bomb calorimeter" and
France, Paris measure with this new thermochemical method the specific
heat of various gases up to above 2000~ with an accuracy
hitherto unattainable.
Laboratoire u invents "smokeless powder" [poudre B = poudre
Central, blanche, meaning white powder whereas poudre N = poudre
Service des noir, black powder]. In December of the same year test shots
Poudres et with a 65 mm cannon are performed to show that the new
Salp~.tres, Paris powder permits the ballistic effect of black powder to be
secured with the same pressure and with the charge reduced
to only about a third, thus allowing a significant increase of
the power of fire arms. Details of his invention were not
published in the open literature until six years later. 194
1885 Karl- E. Mach and Wentze1195 publish a study on blast waves
Ferdinand, originated from chemical explosions. Setting up a pair of
Universitat, parallel line charges of silver fulminate, they record, with the
Prague help of the soot method (Antolik --+ 1875), the interference of
the two head waves drawn by the detonation fronts and find a
detonation velocity ranging from 1700 to 2000m/s. It is
interesting to note that they use here the correct term shock
wave [Stofiwellel to appropriately describe the observed
abrupt pressure increase and write, "The propagation of the
shock wave can be felt by the hand, and optically (using the
schlieren method) it can be proved that this wave consists of a
single shock (without periodicity).". Before that time, Mach
and coworkers had experimented with spark discharges and
chemical explosives, thus using the terms spark wave
[Funkenwelle] and explosion wave [Explosionswelle], as well
as the terms percussion wave [Knallwelle] and compression
shock [Verdichtungsstofg], the latter having adopting from
Riemann (--+ 1859).
University of Von Neumann 196 publishes a treatise on the longitudinal
KOnigsberg, impact of two thin cylindrical rods, a subject on which he
Germany lectured previously (1857-1858). His approach, based on
D'Alembert's solution of the wave equation, allows one to
evaluate the normal velocity and axial stress in the rods as a
function of time.
1887 Private Lord Rayleigh 197 shows theoretically that waves passing
laboratory at along the surface of an elastic body probably play an impor-
Terling Place, tant part in earthquakes, inasmuch as, spreading only in two
Essex, U.K. dimensions, their intensity will gain the upper hand at great
History of Shock Waves 69

distances compared with waves spreading through the inter-

ior of the Earth. 9 His surmise was fully confirmed (and called
Rayleigh waves). For example, in the great Messina earth-
quake (1908), Prince Galitzin 198 at Petrograd traced the
seismic surface shocks that had traveled around in the
Earth in opposite directions. His measured data of the surface
wave velocity showed good agreement with Rayleigh's theory.
Generally, seismographic records show three separate groups
of waves: (i) longitudinal waves with the highest velocity of
propagation velocity; (ii) distortion waves with mainly trans-
verse motion; and (iii) surface or Rayleigh waves with the
smallest propagation velocity but largest amplitudes.

Karl- E. Mach and Salcher 199 start a long series of very successful
Ferdinand, and unique ballistic experiments. Salcher, who performs the
Universitat, experiments at the Adriatic Naval Test Station in Fiume
Prague, & together with his colleague Riegler, discusses with Mach via
Imperial correspondence the progress of his work. Using two super-
Austro- sonic infantry riflesmthe Austrian Werndl (438 m/s) and later
Hungarian the Portuguese Guedes (530m/s)mSalcher photographs for
Marine the first time supersonic projectiles in flight. The photos
Academy, reveal that a supersonic projectile, similar to a "bow wave"
Fiume [now [Bugwelle] of a ship, produces a hyperbolic-like "head wave"
Rijeka], [Kopfwelle] (a shock wave), which is followed by a "tail wave"
Croatia [Achterwelle] (an expansion wave) and, depending on the
projectile geometry, a series of intermediate waves. Addres-
sing also the analogy to the motion of a body in water, they
write, "It is possible to reproduce this phenomenon if we take
a rod of cross section AB in a large water tank and move it at a
velocity which exceeds the velocity of wave propagation." To
find the density distribution around the supersonic projectile,
they also propose Nobili-Guebhard's electrolytic method by
using "a silver-coated copper sheet on the bottom of a
container filled with an electrolyte, placing a non-conducting
model projectile on the sheet and dipping metal probes
connected to a battery to find the equipotentials." ,, This
method was indeed used successfully by Taylor and
Sharman 2~176 to investigate the field of flow of a compressible
fluid past a cylinder. Unfortunately, Mach and Salcher did not
consider themselves obliged to cite Doppler (---~1847) as the
spiritual originator of the head wave phenomenon. In the
20th century the cone geometry was termed Mach cone and
the head wave Mach wave. In the case of the sonic boom,
resulting for example from an aircraft flying with supersonic
speed, the region outside of the Mach cone was be called the
zone of silence.
70 P. Krehl

Tumlirz, 2~ a coworker of E. Mach, presents his shock wave

theory, which is based on Riemann's mathematical model
(--~ 1859) and assumes an adiabatic law. To avoid Riemann's
error, he explicitly uses the principle of energy applicable to
continuous motion, in place of the principle of momentum.
He concludes that as soon as a discontinuity is formed, it
immediately disappears again, this effect being accompanied
by a lengthening of the wave and a more rapid advance of the
disturbance. He takes this process to be an explanation for the
increased velocity of the wave.

Ecole Hugoniot 2~ obviously not knowing Rankine's previous work

Polytechnique, (---~1869), formulates a general theory of discontinuous flow
Paris and, following the behavior of a point in the fluid (Lagrangian
coordinates), being initially at rest, he uses the laws of
conservation of mass, momentum and energy. His most
remarkable results an be summarized as follows: (i) He
shows that Riemann's assumption that a shock wave is an
isentropic process is not correct and that the p,v data are not
positioned along the static adiabate [Poisson's law,
p - po(Vo/V);], but rather along a dynamic adiabate, later
called the Hugoniot curve. Under the consideration that, at
the discontinuity, kinetic energy is transformed into internal
energy, he derives the famous relation el - e0 -
1
-~(Po + Pl)(Vo- vl). Later to be called the Rankine-Hugoniot
relation (Rankine--~ 1869), it contains no velocity terms, only
thermodynamic quantities. Here e0, P0, v0 and e l, Pl, Vl
denote the thermodynamic states before and after such a
discontinuity, respectively. (ii) Hugoniot shows that for a
perfect gas of constant ratio of specific heats, m, the maxi-
mum shock compression is given by (m + 1 ) / ( m - 1), which
for air with m = 1.4 is equal to 6. He uses the letter m instead
of ~, which, coined by Poisson (--~ 1808) and also used by
Rankine (---~1869), will later generally be adopted through-
out. (iii) Hugoniot also addresses the propagation of shock
waves in solids. Considering the conditions at the contact
area of two colliding bodies, he states, "It is doubtful whether
the discontinuities which are described by the theory of wave
propagation are only a simplified analytical fiction or whether
they correspond to the physical reality. This is an open
question which is difficult to answer at the present state of
science.". For an ideal gas the dynamic adiabate, not expli-
citly given by him in his memoirs, was later derived by
Hadamard (--+1903). If the initial state is the standard
laboratory state (25~ and 1 bar), the Hugoniot curve is
called the principal Hugoniot. Sometimes the term Hugoniot
History of Shock Waves 71

relation is also used in the literature, meaning the dependency

of the shock front velocity in terms of the overpressure at the
shock front. Apparently, it was first derived by Vieille
(--->1900). In the modern literature the Rankine-Hugoniot
equations (conservation of mass, momentum and energy)
are often given in the Eulerian representation which is
preferable both from a mathematical and from a physical
point of view: (i) (U - up)v o = Uv; (ii) p - P0 = Uup/vo; and
(iii) e - e0 = 1/2(p + po)(Vo - v). Here e, e0; p, P0; and v, v0
are the specific internal energy, pressure and specific volume
at the disturbed and undisturbed state, respectively; U is the
shock front velocity and u r the particle velocity to which the
shock-compressed material is accelerated. From (i) and (ii)
the following expressions for U and up can be derived:
u = v 0 [ ( p - po)/(Vo - v)] ~/'-" up = [ ( p - po)/(Vo - v)] ~/~.
Depending on the particular application, the Lagrangian
representation might be more convenient. 2~

1888 University of Tait 2~ suggests his empirical isothermal equation of state

Edinburgh (the "Tait equation") to fit data for the compressibility of sea
water up to 500 bar. 9 Kirkwood and Richardson 2~ modified
the Tait equation of sea-water for use from initial conditions
(r0, P0) up to 25 kbar. Their form (p + B)/( po + B) = (p/po) A,
resembles an isentropic in a perfect gas. Here A and B are two
empirical functions of temperature, and p and p are pressure
and density, respectively. The Tait equation has also been used
to describe the p(p)-relation of organic liquids. 2~
Tait and Lord Kelvin publish their book Treatise on Natural
Philosophy, in which they also treat the collision of spherical
bodies. They introduce a "restitution coefficient," which they
define as the quotient of velocities after and before impact.

Ecole Normale, Journee, 2~ De Labouret, 2~ and Sebert 2~ perform super-

Tir du Champ sonic ballistic experiments that essentially confirm Mach and
de Chalon; Salcher's observed head wave phenomenon (--+ 1887). They
Artillerie de la do not use high-speed photography, but rather measure the
Marine front velocity of the head (shock) wave along a line perpen-
dicular to the Mach cone periphery and compare the data
with Doppler's cone model of wave propagation (---~1847).
U.S. Naval Munroe 21~ discovers by accident how to shape explosives to
Torpedo concentrate energy. He observes that, by increasing the depth
Station, of the cavity in the explosive, greater and greater effects on a
Newport, RI metal plate facing the explosive can be generated. The
phenomenon, later to be called the Munroe effect and
caused by an oblique collision of explosive waves, will be
used by him to imprint designs on iron plates by interposing a
72 P. Krehl

stencil between the explosive and plates of iron (explosive

engraving). 9 His discovery was partly a rediscovery of the
hollow cavity effect of an unlined shaped charge (von
Baader---~ 1792; von Foerster--+ 1883).

University of Von Oettingen and yon Gernet 211 resume Bunsen's hypoth-
Dorpat, Russia esis (---~1867) on the discontinuous nature of oxyhydrogen
[now Tarpu, explosions. Using a high-speed rotating mirror and a still
Estonia] camera, they produce time-resolved records from the propa-
gation of the flame front originating from an oxyhydrogen
explosion in a straight, 40-cm-long tube. To visualize the
otherwise dark oxyhydrogen explosion, they add a small
quantity of salt. With this unique streak diagnostics they
determine an initial explosion velocity of 2560m/s, thus
confirming Berthelot's previous result (--* 1881). After several
reflections the shock wave diminished to a velocity of
600m/s. They call the explosion wave the "main wave"
[Hauptwelle] or "Berthelot wave" and its reflection at the
tube end the "shock wave" [Stoj~welle]. They also observe
various secondary waves, which they call "Bunsen waves".

AB Separator De Lava1212 receives a Swedish patent for his "Laval nozzle".

Company, Apparently knowing that previous studies on straight nozzles
Stockholm had shown that the gas can be expanded best with sound
velocity (critical speed, de Saint Venant and Wantzel---~ 1839)
and following his intuition, he uses a convergent-divergent
nozzle geometry. This expands the gas isentropically from
subsonic to supersonic speeds, thus increasing the efficiency
of steam turbines. In his patent he claims: "At rotating steam
engines, a steam inlet channel, having cross sections in the
vicinity of the rotating part of the steam engine that are
increasing in the direction of the said rotating part with the
objective to expand the steam in that way that the steam will
achieve its highest possible speed before its contact with the
rotating, working part of the steam engine.", De Laval had
experimented with nozzles 12 years before. As recorded in his
personal notes of 1876, he observed that the severe shock
behind a nozzle consumes a lot of energy. 213 It appears that he
resumed this subject when he experimented with the S-
shaped turbine (Heron's steam ball). In his notebook of
1886, there are entries on a 10-inch turbine "with conically
widened nozzles at the orifice." However, the idea did not
appear to be new: Traupe1214 annotates in his book on
thermal turbines that K6rting, owner of a factory for steam
apparatus in Hannover, already used this principle in 1878 for
steam ejectors.
History of Shock Waves 73

1889 Imperial Salcher and Whitehead 215 study the discharge parameters of
Austro- a "free-air jet" exhausting from a pressure reservoir through a
Hungarian small opening and compare their experimental data with
Navy Academy, various existing theories. Salcher performs the experiments
Fiume, Croatia at Whitehead's torpedo factory at Flume. Whitehead gained
much experience in the generation and storage of high-
pressure gases, because the torpedoes are propelled by pres-
surized air up to 100 bar. Illuminating the free air jet with a
flash light source of short duration (such as an electric spark)
or of long duration (such as by the Geisler discharge tube or
using even sun light), which allows the visualization of
nonstationary or stationary flow characteristics, respectively,
they first make the startling observation that a jet emerging
from a pressurized nozzle contains a crossed wave pattern.
Since this interference pattern reminds Salcher of an ancient
Greek harp, he calls it a lyre [Lyra] in a letter to E. Mach. 216
They correctly interpret this as a superposition of reflected
shock waves.. Later this structure--a sequence of pairs of
oblique shock fronts, each irregularly interacting and creating
a sequence of Mach disks--was coined shock diamonds. Today
this is a frequently observable phenomenon in the exhaust of
jet engines. The jet experiments described above were later
resumed by L. Mach (-~1897), who also first obtained
interferograms of excellent quality.
Navy Academy, The study of free-air jets inspires Salcher to suggest a super-
Fiume & Karl- sonic blow-down wind tunnel with the air flowing and the
Ferdinand- test body being at rest. In a paper written with E. Mach, 217 he
Universitat, says, "On the occasion of the experiments on projectiles
Prague Salcher hit upon the idea of likewise investigating the inverse
case of the flow of air against a body at rest in order to
confirm the results already obtained." They confirm that the
inverse case is indeed possible, but with the existing equip-
ment head wave studies of model projectiles were not practic-
able because of the available small jet diameter. Obviously,
Huguenard and Sainte kague in France were the first who
realized Salcher's idea for drag measurements of projectiles at
supersonic speeds (kangevin and Chilowsky --~ 1918).
Karl-Ferdinand E. Mach, together with his son L. Mach, first applies inter-
Universitdt, ferometry to visualize the flow field around a supersonic
Prague bullet. 218 They also apply schlieren photography to visualize
the interaction phenomena of two shock waves emerging
from two closely spaced point sparks and get the first
schlieren photos of the Mach disk. Their experiments fully
confirm the triple-point model that they had only assumed
hitherto on the basis of soot records (E. Mach and Wosyka
74 P. Krehl

--~1875, E. Mach and Gruss - ~ 1 8 7 8 ) . . 54 years later,

Campbell, Spitzer, and Price (-~ 1943), using two detonator
caps in a very similar geometry, first proved that Mach
reflection also exists in water.
1890 French Fire- Charpy 219 and Le Ch~telier 22~ review the first results of
Damp experiments the commission had performed to study possible
Commission, causes of firedamp explosions [le grisou] in coal mines. To
Paris avoid such explosions the commission recommends: (i)
provision of an effective ventilation system to prevent
sudden outbursts of firedamp, to reduce the concentration
of methane in the air below 5%, particularly in all higher
gallery sections; (ii) use of safe explosives; (iii) avoidance of
open fire, sparks, etc.; and (iv) exclusive use of such miner's
lamps as remain safe even at higher air speeds. 9 Pure coal-
dust explosions (without any presence of firedamp), hitherto
frequently observed in England but only rarely by French
mining engineers, were not yet considered a real hazard.
1891 Berlin- Man's longest flight (300m) to date is performed by von
Lichterfelde Lilienthal. At this date the basics of supersonics are under-
stood, but practical aviation is still in its infancy.
Chemische Haeussermann 221 discovers the explosive properties of trini-
Fabrih trotoluene (TNT), a substance that had already been synthe-
Griesheim, sized by Wilbrand (1865) by the nitration of toluene with
Germany mixed acid. 222 9 Haeussermann first suggested the military
use of TNT in shells and undertook its manufacture on an
industrial scale. TNT, indeed, gained great military impor-
tance in both world wars and remains important today.
Newport Munroe 223 invents a smokeless powder. He calls it Indurite
Torpedo because the final powder when dried is exceedingly hard.
Station, RI
Universiti~t Zehnder 224 and L. Mach 225 independently invent a special
Wf~rzburg & type of interferometer that will later be called the Mach-
Karl-Ferdinand Zehnder interferometer. Consisting of two beam splitters and
Universitiit two mirrors, it divides the source beam into two different
parallel light paths (object beam and reference beam) of
arbitrary distance. 9 This optical setup proved to be most
worthwhile to measure variations of refractive index in
compressible gas flow. Zehnder 226 invented and applied this
new type of interferometer prior to L. Mach in his Ph.D.
thesis at the University of Worzburg under the guidance of
R6ntgen in order to investigate the pressure dependency of
the refractive index of water. L. Mach, first using it in
nonstationary gas dynamics, commercialized his invention
and became a wealthy man.
1892 University of To measure the shock duration between an impinging block
Edinburgh and the material to be studied, T a i t 227 builds a simple but very
History of Shock Waves 75

effective percussion apparatus that he humorously calls the

"guillotine." The impactor, a block sliding freely between
vertical guide rails (precisely like the axe of a guillotine), is
attached with a pointer to continuously record the block
movement on a revolving plate-glass wheel that is coated
with soot. For time measurement he uses a tuning fork that
simultaneously produces a second trace on the revolving plate.
He also estimates the duration of impact between hammer and
nail (200 Its) and the associated time-average force (300 lb-wt).
9 One year later Tait 228 wrote to Hertz: "Some months ago, I
was told by Lord Kelvin that you had brilliantly attacked the
problem of the impact of elastic spheres. Being very busy at the
time, I glanced over your paper in Crellos 92 [J. Reine & Angew.
Math. 92 (1881)], but did not attempt to read it. I had been
working for some years at direct experiments on impact, but I
used a mass of 2; 4; and 8 kg falling through i m or so, and the
elastic body on which it fell was a cylinder whose upper surface
was very slightly convex. The amount of longitudinal distor-
tion was, in some cases, as much as 30mm. I found, by a
graphical method, that the force called into play was at the
power 3 of the distortion thus measured. On lately reading your
paper with some care, I found to my great surprise that this is
the same law which you have theoretically deduced for
spherical bodies . . . . " Unfortunately, we do not know today
whether Hertz answered this letter. Tait's records, now kept at
the Archives of the University of Edinburgh, do not contain any
such letters.
Ecole The first attempts are made to produce artificial diamonds.
Sup~rieure de However, there is no clear evidence of any incipient transfor-
Pharmacie, mation of carbon into diamond. Moissan 229 at Paris uses a
Paris & C. A. solution of carbon in a suitable molten metal at high
Parsons Co., temperature, which he quenches rapidly in water. 9 Later
Newcastle- Parsons, 23~ used a 0.303-inch caliber rifle to fire steel bullets
upon-Tyne, at 1500m/sec into an armored press steel house filled with
U.K. graphite powder. All his attempts, however, gave negative
results. Moissan and his contemporaries believed that
diamonds could be synthesized successfully by this method,
but later investigations rejected this conclusion. TM The spec-
tacular shock synthesis of diamonds did not succeed until
about 70 years later by DeCarli and Jamieson at Stamford
Research Institute, Menlo Park, CA and the Dept. of Geology
of the University of Chicago, IL, respectively. 232

Royal College of Boys 233 studies flow about bullets and interaction processes
Science, South of multiple shock waves by using the shadow method
Kensington, (Dvorak--+ 1880). He succeeds also in measuring the spin
U.K. rate of a shot by using photography. Since a professional
ballistic range is not available to him, he performs his shot
76 P. Krehl

experiments in a long public hallway in his institute. Boys,

who repeated E. Mach and Salcher's ballistic experiments
(--> 1887) and promoted the spreading of their method in
England, writes 234 to Mach, "I am much obliged to you for
your kindly sending me copies of your papers and the two
photographs. I have when speaking on bullet photography
thoroughly recognized that the whole credit of bullet photo-
graphy is yours, as you were the first, to carry it out
successfully and that your apparatus answers perfectly i.e.
so far as I can judge from your account of them. In the
English papers were inaccurate reports and in one case of a
scientific paper ! corrected it, as stated, what you had done.
The daily papers are always so untrustworthy that it is absurd
to credit them. I do not think I have failed to appreciate or to
recognize what you have done . . . . If you should think I have
not properly recognized your work, I am exceedingly sorry,
that it should be so, but I am sure if you had heard what I
have said at the Royal Society and elsewhere, that you would
not think so... " . In the same year E. Mach 23~ wrote, "Boys'
method is certainly a simplification when using it merely for
demonstration purposes in a lecture. However, I suppose that
everybody who wants to study this matter in more detail, will
prefer an optical image which allows to estimate the conden-
sation by its shading, rather than a mere silhouette which
only reveals the contours of the air waves . . . . Nevertheless, I
am grateful to Mr. Boys that he has taken over this assignment
hitherto not touched by others, and I hope that he intends to
continue it in future." Today, however, in most outdoor
ballistic facilities shadowgraphy is used more frequently
than the schlieren method because of its simplicity and
minor sensitivity toward temperature fluctuations.
Washington, U.S. President Harrison states 236 in his farewell message to
DC Congress, "I consider one of the great achievements of my
administration the invention of smokeless powder by Charles
E. Munroe." 9 However, the chief obstacle that eventually
prevented the general employment of Indurite (---~ 1891) by
the U.S. military was its inconsistency of composition due to
the use of improperly nitrated guncotton and to difficulties in
removing the residual solvent.
1893 University of Schuster 237 derives a simple formula to calculate the velocity
Manchester V of the detonation front, which, based on Riemann's
theory (-+ 1859), is given by V - [(P/Po)(P - Po)/(P - P0)]1/2-
He observes a good agreement with experimentally deter-
mined rates of explosion in various explosive gaseous
mixtures and writes, "Lord Rayleigh criticizing his
History of Shock Waves 77

[Riemann's] investigation, draws attention to the fact that a

steady wave is only possible for a particular relation between
the pressure and density of the gas, which is different from
the one actually holding. In the case of the explosion-waves it
seems possible, however, that the temperature, pressure, and
density of the gas should so adjust themselves as to make
Riemann's equations applicable. In fact, they must do so if the
front of the wave keeps its type, which it probably does when
the velocity has become constant . . . . In the strict sense of the
word I do not think the explosion-wave can be steady,
because if the motion is, as assumed, linear, compression
must precede the explosion, and Lord Rayleigh's objection
would hold for the front part of the wave in which no
combination takes place. But it seems possible to me that
the motion may not strictly be a linear one, and that yet
taking the average velocities over a cross-section of the tube
the ordinary equations would apply. It seems probable that
jets of hot gases are projected bodily forward from that part of
the wave in which the combination takes place, and that these
jets, which would correspond to the spray of a breaking wave
really fire the mixture.". His correct supposition of a steadily
moving detonation wave, made previously in a similar
manner by Berthelot 238 and in the same year worked out in
more detail by Dixon (-+1893), led to the first theory of
detonation (Chapman--+ 1899).
England Burton 239 resumes Lord Rayleigh's critiques on Riemann's
theory (see also his Theory of Sound, vol. II, p. 41, -+ 1878).
He also tackles the difficult problem of whether in the
absence of viscosity the motion of spherical waves of finite
amplitude can become discontinuous, as in the case of plane
waves.

Karl-Ferdinand E. Mach and Doss 240 assume that the sharp bang of a meteorite
Universitat, approaching the Earth is a supersonic phenomenon, thus
Prague, & creating a head wave. Mach's motivation to treat the phenom-
Polytechnikum enon of meteoric showers was a letter by C. Abbe, an employee
Riga at the Washington Weather Bureau who belonged to a commit-
tee of the Philosophical Society of Washington, which had
analyzed the fall of the Washington Meteor (-+ 1877). Abbe
claims to have already given in 1877 a "true theory of thunder
and meteorite explosions" and states, "We are disposed to
consider the so-called 'explosion', and subsequent 'rumbling'
not as due to a definite explosion of the meteor, but as a result
of the concentration at the observer's ear of the vast volume of
sound emanating, almost simultaneously, from a large part of
the meteor's path, being, in that respect, not dissimilar to
78 p. Krehl

ordinary thunder." Abbe then tries to explain the violent sound

by the Doppler effect and concludes: "we may remark that it
requires only comparatively feeble noises distributed along the
entire path of the meteor to produce, by their concentration at
the observer's station, a sound equal to that of loud thunder."
Mach, rejecting Abbe's theory and his prior claim, replies that
only the head wave phenomenon is the true cause of the
explosionlike sound effects. 9 Mach's interpretation was indeed
correct; however, although pioneering supersonics and being
far-sighted, he could not yet realize that the head wave of
meteoroite which enter the Earth's atmosphere at speeds up to
several 10 km/s, is closely wrapped around the meteorite and
forms the so-called "hypersonic boundary layer," thus creating
hitherto unknown surface heating and erosion effects.

World De Laval displays his reversible single-stage steam turbine.

Colombian The engine (15 hp at 16,000rpm) is designed for marine use
Exposition, and has been tested on Lake MOlaren in the vicinity of
Chicago Stockholm to drive a launch. Its novelty is that the turbine
blades are driven by a stream of hot, high-pressure steam
emerging from a series of unique convergent-divergent
nozzles (De Laval-+ 1888). 9 Today his turbine is part of the
collection of the Smithsonian Institution and on display in the
History of Technology Building at Washington, DC.

University of Mikhel'son 241 first proposes a linear law in his theory of

Moscow detonation and assumes steady propagation of the reaction
products--i.e., equal velocities at which any of the intermedi-
ate states propagate. Starting from the equations of mass and
momentum, he derives the elementary relation
P--Po 4-(U/vo)2(Vo- v), which, also derived in the same
year in England (Schuster-+ 1893), represents a straight line
in the p, v-plane. Here U denotes the shock front velocity, and v
and vo are the specific volume at pressure p and P0, respectively.
9 In the western world this line is called Rayleigh line, referring
to the work of Lord Rayleigh (--~ 1910) on aerial shock waves.
Zeldovich 242 coined this line the Mikhel'son-line in honor of
Mikhel'son's early contribution to the theory of detonation,
which was unknown among contemporary scientists outside
Russia. The theory of detonation was established indepen-
dently six years later by Chapman (--+ 1899).

Chair of reports on his observations of the high velocity of

D i x o n 243
Chemistry, explosions in gases. He put forth the view that the detonation
Owens College, wave travels with the velocity of sound in the burning gases,
Manchester essentially supporting Schuster's view of an unsteady motion
of the detonation front (Schuster-~ 1893). Using a coiled-up
History of Shock Waves 79

lead pipe (length, 55 m; inner diameter, 8 mm), he measures in

oxyhydrogen a velocity of 2821 m/s, thus essentially confirm-
ing Berthelot's previous measurements (Berthelot-+ 1881).
1895 Institution of Thornycroft 244 and Barnaby 245 investigate reasons for the
Naval failure of a British destroyer to meet its design speed. They
Architects, observe that a marine screw propeller, if turned too fast,
London might waste its effort by creating vacuous spaces in the water,
which afterward suddenly collapse. They also coin this
phenomenon cavitation. 9 The systematic search for the
origin of erosion by cavitation bubbles was initiated by the
finding of severe destructive effects on the propellers of the
British ocean liners "Lusitania" and "Mauretania". 246 A
committee was appointed in 1915 by the British Admiralty
to determine the cause of erosion of propeller blades which
resulted in pioneering results (Lord Rayleigh-+1917,
Cook--+ 1928).
1896 Komaishi, Tsunamis originating from a seaquake in the Pacific destroy
Japan the coastal town of Komaishimabout 27,000 people die and
5000 are w o u n d e d . . Then this puzzling wave phenomenon
was a subject of much discussion some years before this
disaster, Rudolph 247 had reviewed previous hypotheses on
the origin of seaquakes and associated tidal waves, and had
speculated that they are caused by submarine gaseous deto-
nations at the sea bottom. Rottok, 248 another German scien-
tist, had assumed that they might be caused by submarine
volcanic eruptions. In the past, tsunamis were often referred
to as tidal waves in the English literature. However, they are
not created by gravitation as are tidal waves, but rather by
tectonic displacements associated with earthquakes. Occa-
sionally, tsunamis can also be generated when a huge body
of water is displaced impulsively, e.g., by exploding islands
(Krakatao--+ 1883), landslides, and underwater explosions of
nuclear devices. Tsunamis cannot be felt aboard ships on the
open sea. When they approach the coastline and enter
shallow water, their velocity diminishes and their wave
amplitudes can increase to heights of up to 30 m. Tsunamis
then become very similar to hydraulic jumps of large ampli-
tudes. The term tsunami is a Japanese word composed of two
characters meaning "harbor" [tsul and "long wave" [nami], or
"long-wave-in-harbor." The term was adapted in the 1960s for
general use, in preference to either of the terms tidal wave or
seismic sea wave. An equivalent phenomenon, encountered in
rivers and confined waters and known as bores, attracted
many early naturalists such as Airy, Challis, Earnshaw,
Jouguet, Lord Rayleigh, Russell, and de Saint-Venant.
80 P. Krehl

Pressburg, Siersch, 249 director of the Dynamite AG, Wien and concerned
Hungary about the safe use of explosive in coal mines, applies photo-
graphy to classify the nature and intensity of the flash emitted
by an exploding charge. [He concludes that the shape and
dimensions of the flash afford a clue to the eventual security
of the explosive, since the smaller the flash the greater the
relative security of an explosive for use in the mining
industry. Using a still camera and photographing the flash
with an open shutter during night, he observes that the flash
intensity from an explosive depends on the geometry, the
mode of stemming, and the density and admixtures]. 9 On the
whole, this straight-forward method proved to be useful,
however, he was not yet aware that shock wave reflection
and interaction phenomena can also contribute considerably
to the geometry and intensity of the flash (Michel-L~vy and
Muraour--~ 1934).

1897 C.A. Parsons Parsons 25~ begins a three-decade study of marine propulsion.
Co., Newcastle- High propeller speeds are generally advantageous for the
upon-Tyne, steam turbine, but if too high, they lead to much cavitation.
U.K. With the help of flow visualization he minimizes cavitation
effects, thus also improving the propulsive efficiency. He
ascribes cavitation to the "water-hammer of collapsing
vortices" and compares this phenomenon to whip cracking
"whereby nearly all the energy of the arm that swings the
whip is finally concentrated in the tag.". The first mathema-
tical treatment of cavitation was performed by Lord Rayleigh
(---~1917).

Karl- L. Mach, 25~ resuming previous experiments by his father and

Ferdinand- Salcher (--~1889), visualizes free air jets emerging from
UniversitF~t, nozzles of various exit geometry. He applies not only the
Prague schlieren but also the interferometer technique, and makes
the important observation that with increasing driving pres-
sure (i) the jet diameter surmounts the nozzle diameter, and
(ii) the reflected wave fronts no longer intersect in a point
(regular reflection) but rather form a new wave, which later
will be called Mach reflection (von Neumann---~ 1943).

1898 Laboratoire Vieille 252 ignites small amounts of explosives at one end of an
Central, air-filled tube with a length of 4 m and a diameter of 22 mm.
Service des He measures the shock propagation velocity using chrono-
Poudres et graphy and obtains supersonic velocities for both gunpowder
Salp(.tres, Paris (337-1268 m/s) and mercuric fulminate (359-1138m/s). His
measurements of a fast-propagating discontinuity confirm
theoretical models provided by Riemann (---~1859) and
Hugoniot (---~1885, --~ 1887) as well as observations by E.
History of Shock Waves 81

Mach, who generated supersonic waves from both explosives

(E. Mach--+1877) and electric sparks (E. Mach--,1875,
--,1878).
Aleksejew Kareljskich and associates study the propagation of hydraulic
Water Line shocks in water pipes. They use water pipes with diameters of
Station, up to 6in. and lengths of up to 2494ft. The pipes are
Moscow connected with Moscow's main water line (24-in. in diameter)
via a fast-closing valve. For pipes ranging between 2-in. and
6-in. in diameter, they record pressure jumps between 3 and
4 bar. With the aid of an electrical chronograph they measure
speeds ranging between 4200 and 3290ft/s, regardless of
whether the shock is generated by a sudden opening or
closing of the valve. Zhukovsky, 253 supervising and analyzing
the experiments, notices that water hammer waves in plumb-
ing systems are related to shock discontinuities that propagate
with constant speed, being dependent only on the wall
material and thickness of the pipe and independent of the
shock intensity. He draws the following conclusions: (i) The
pressure jump p can be estimated by the simple relation
p = p0c0V, where P0 and co represent the ambient density and
sound velocity of the liquid, respectively, and V is the velocity
of the discontinuity carried by the wave, which he assumes is
moving with the acoustic speed. (ii) Reflected shocks can
generate detrimental periodic oscillations in the pipe system.
(iii) At transitions from large to small pipe diameters, the
shock intensity can double and, under unfavorable reflection
conditions, even further increase up to a fatal level of shock
loading. (iv) Hydraulic shocks can be prevented by using
slowly closing valves, with a closing time proportional to the
length of the water pipe, and by installing wind tanks in the
vicinity of the valves. 9 The problem of water hammer, a
steady companion in the extension of urban infrastructures,
was also tackled in the 1890s in England by Church 254 and in
the United States by Carpenter. 25~ Zhukovsky and associates,
however, were the first to thoroughly treat this subject both
experimentally and theoretically.
German Blochmann 256 first correlates the numerous underwater
Imperial Navy, explosion phenomena under local, temporal, and causal
Torpedo aspects. Based on pressure-time profiles recorded with a
Inspection mechanical apparatus [Dynamometer], he develops a theory
Organization, of underwater explosion that, along with gas bubble oscilla-
Kiel tion, allows the prediction of the shock pressure in the water
at any distance from the explosive. His analytical results
explain hitherto strange surface phenomena (Abbot-+
1881), such as the dome of spray thrown up from the surface
82 P. Krehl

(which he explains by reflection of the incident shock wave at

the surface) and, shortly after, the formation of spearlike
plumes of spray (which occur during breakthrough of the
gaseous explosion products).

1899 Physical Wood 257 repeats Toepler's shock propagation and reflection
Laboratory, experiments (---~1864), but instead of observing the phenom-
University of ena through a schlieren telescope he uses film for recording.
Wisconsin, In the introduction he states, "I have always felt that the very
Madison beautiful method derived in 1867 by Toepler for the study of
'schlieren' or stri~e, is not as well known outside of Germany
as it deserves to be, and trust that the photographs illustrating
this paper are sufficient excuse for bringing it before the
readers of the Philosophical Magazine. Sound waves in air
were observed by Toepler, but they have never to my knowl-
edge been photographed. When seen subjectively, the wave-
fronts, if at all complicated, cannot be very carefully studied,
as they are only illuminated for an instant, and appear in
rapid succession in different parts of the fields of the viewing-
telescope.". Wood failed to notice that 15 years before E.
Mach and Wentzel (---~1884) had successfully photographed
the shock wave emerging from a spark discharge. Never-
theless, Wood, who extended his experiments in the follow-
ing years, obtained interesting results of the reflection,
refraction, and diffraction of spark (weak shock) waves,
which made widely known the great potentials of shock
wave photography to the Anglo-American public.

Universities of The Emden Brothers, 258 studying in detail gas jets emerging
Leipzig and from orifices, make the important observation that stationary
Munich waves are generated in the jet as soon as the driving pressure
exceeds a critical value for provoking a gas flow propagating
with sound velocity.

Laboratoire Vieille 259 constructs the first bursting diaphragm shock tube to
Central, demonstrate that a shock wave propagates with a speed
Service des greater than the speed of sound. His device consists of steel
Poudres et tubes with a constant cross section 22 mm in diameter. The
Salpdtres, Paris driver section has a length of 2 m, followed by a 4-m-long
expansion tube. As diaphragms he uses collodion, paper,
glass, and steel. The diaphragm ruptures automatically at
reaching a certain overpressure, for example, at 35 bar for a
1.5-mm-thick glass plate. In air he achieves shocks with Mach
numbers up to M -- 2 and concludes with plain words that
"explosives do not play any essential role in phenomena of
propagation at great speeds," meaning that the phenomenon
of supersonics is not limited to the use of explosives, but for
History of Shock Waves 83

example can be generated also by a bursting membrane. ,, The

"shock tube", a term coined much later (Bleakney, Wimar and
Fletcher 1949) became an important diagnostic tool for a
variety of scientific disciplines, such as for aerodynamic
purposes, to study the kinetics of chemical reactions and
vibrational and rotational energy transfer, for plasma spectro-
scopy, to investigate vapor bubble dynamics in two-phase
flow, and even for fertilizer production. 26~
University of Chapman, 261 assistant to Prof. Dixon, treats an unsupported
Manchester detonation by assuming that, once the maximum velocity is
reached, the detonation frontmi.e., the front of the explosive
wave--is of such a character that (i) it moves steadily; (ii) the
flow is planar; (iii) the chemical reaction occurs instanta-
neously; and (iv) the flow, following immediately behind the
discontinuous shock, is exactly sonic. He analyzes the solu-
tions to the shock jump conditions for explosive gases and
observes that the minimum-wave-speed solution agrees with
experimental measurements previously made by Dixon
(41893). He concludes, "When an explosion starts, its
character and velocity are continually changing until it
becomes a wave permanent in type and of uniform velocity.
I think it is reasonable to assume that this wave--i.e., the
wave of which the velocity has been measured by Prof.
Dixon--is that steady wave which possesses minimum velo-
city; for, once it has become a permanent wave with uniform
velocity, no reason can be discovered for its changing to
another permanent wave having a greater uniform velocity
and a greater maximum pressure . . . . ",, His lasting contribu-
tions, which were later independently made by Jouguet
(--~1905), have been commemorated by the state of the
exploded gas immediately behind the explosion wave being
called the Chapman-Jouguet state.
Ballistic Test Wolf 262 first investigates large-scale explosions by order of
Range, Berlin- the Prussian Ministry of War. He (i) measures the velocity of
Cummersdorf the spherical blast wave emerging from the explosion of large
quantities of trinitrophenol and uses an electrical contact-
microphone, which triggers a "Le-Bouleng~-chronograph"; (ii)
studies the blast response on structures; and (iii) records the
pressure-time profile of blast waves using a thin rubber
membrane directly coupled to a drum chronograph. His
observations fully confirm Mach's previous observations
that the blast wave is supersonic close to the charge but
rapidly decreases with increasing distance. For a charge
weight of 1500kg, he measures a velocity of 858m/s at a
distance of 10m. His mechanically recorded pressure-time
84 v. Krehl

profiles of blast waves show all the typical characteristics,

such as the steep rise, the rapid decay, and the phase of
negative pressure.
1900 Laboratoire Vieille, 263 starting from Hugoniot's theory (---~1887), first
Central, derives a relation between the shock front velocity, V, as a
Service des function of the overpressure, (p - P0), at the shock front. This
Poudres et relation, V -- a [1 4- (m 4- 1)/2m x (p - po)/Po] 1/2, will later
Salp~.tres, Paris be known as the Hugoniot relation. Here P0 and a denote the
pressure and sound velocity at rest, respectively, and m is the
constant ratio of specific heats. He also confirms this relation-
ship experimentally.
In another study, Vieille 264 speculates on hypersonic flight,
predicting stagnation pressure and temperature for flight in
ideal air at speeds up to M ~ 30, and associated surface
phenomena such as incandescence and erosion, leading for
example in meteorite falls to thermal ruptures. He concludes,
"Without admitting these numbers an absolute value, one can
imagine that the incandescence of meteorites, the erosion of
the surface and the rupture which accompanies their passage
through our atmosphere are explicable by pressures and
temperatures predictable by the law of the propagation of
discontinuities, even when taking into account of the rarefac-
tion of the medium passing through."
University of Wood 26~ photographs focused spark (weak shock) waves by
Wisconsin, using spherical, parabolic, and elliptical mirrors.
Madison
Royal In an evening lecture entitled Some Modern Explosives,
Institution, Noble 266 reports on the physical and chemical effects of
London detonating explosives in the bore of a gun and states, "I am
not without hope that the experiments I have been describing
may, in some small degree, add to our knowledge of the
kinetic theory of gas . . . . The kinetic theory of gases has,
however, for us artillerists a special charm, because it indi-
cates that the velocity communicated to a projectile in the
bore of a gun is due to the bombardment of that projectile by
myriads of small projectiles moving at enormous speeds, and
parting with the energy they possess by impact to the
projectile . . . . But in the particular gun under discussion,
when the charge was exploded there were no less than
20,500 cubic centimetres of gas, and each centimetre at the
density of explosion contained 580 times the quantity of gas,
that is, 580 times the number in the exploded charge is 8 31
quadrillions, or let us say approximately for the total number
eight-followed by twenty-four cyphers . . . . "
History of Shock Waves 85

1901 Chair of Weber 267 presents his revised edition of Riemann's lectures
Mathematics, on mathematics, which he had delivered in the period 1855-
University of 1866 at the University of G6ttingen. He extends Riemann's
Stra~burg theory (--->1859) and treats shock waves in two chapters
entitled "Propagation of Shocks in a Gas" and "Aerial Vibra-
tions of Finite Amplitude." Returning to Lord Rayleigh's
previous objection (---~1878) on Riemann's theory (see also
his Theory of Sound, vol. II, p. 41), he demonstrates that
Riemann's theory is indeed correct and compatible with the
law of energy. 268 Lord Rayleigh (-->1910) will resume this
problem in his classic review paper on the evolution of shock
wave theories.
1903 Coll~.ge de Hadamard 269 treats discontinuities mathematically and in a
France, Paris general form. For an ideal gas he derives the "Hugoniot
curve" [loi adiabatique dynamique] as 1/2(p I + po)(Vo - vl) =
(ply1-poVo)/(7 - 1) which, plotted in the p,v-plane, is
steeper than Poisson's adiabatic law [loi adiabatique statique].
While studying the works of Riemann (-~ 1859) and Hugo-
niot (--~ 1887), he noticed that the shock front problem can
be considered separately and can be mathematically trans-
formed by a particular simple procedure not connected with
any specific problems and that can be fully described by the
so-called "identity and kinematic conditions" and their deri-
vations. He postulates, "If a function of the coordinates and of
time, together with all its derivatives, is defined both outside
of and at the surface of discontinuity, then the rule for
compound differentiation can be applied to it at the surface
of discontinuity . . . . " . Referring to Hadamand's theorem, v o n
Karman 27~ later annotated, "According to his theorem, a
vortex-free flow ahead of a shock wave can remain vortex-
free after passing through the shock only when the wave is
straight. If the shock wave is curved, it produces vorticity.
This is a fact which makes the analysis of motion behind a
shock wave rather complicated." Hadamard used also the
terms shock wave [onde de choc] to illustrate the wave-type
character of this phenomenon and acceleration wave [onde
d'accglgration] to elucidate the steepening process behind the
shock. He distinguished the characteristics as propagation
paths of vanishingly small shock waves, as the energy defect
across them becomes zero.
Institut fftr Stodola 271 publishes his famous book on steam turbines,
Thermische which contains the first studies of flow characteristics
Maschinen, through a supersonic (Laval) nozzle. He measures the pres-
ETH Zftrich sure distribution along the nozzle axis at different back
pressures and, noticing a sequence of steep pressure increases,
86 P. Krehl

states, "I see in these extraordinary heavy increases of pres-

sure a realization of the 'compression shock' theoretically
derived by Riemann, because steam particles of great velocity
strike against a slower moving steam mass and are therefore
compressed to a higher degree . . . . " 9 Each zone of maximum
pressure is visible in a photograph as a vertical line in respect
to the nozzle axis, which was called by Cranz 272 the "barrier
line" [Staulinie]. A historical review on the outflow of gases
and steam from orifices was given by Prandtl. 273
Kitty Hawk, The Wright Brothers start their wind tunnel experiments to
North Carolina optimize the design of wings and propeller blades. On
December 17, Wilbur Wright performs the first controlled
motor flight over a distance of 260m; total duration is 59 s
(i.e., average velocity 4.4 m/s). 9 Later v o n K a r m a n 274 stated
in his memoirs, "The peak event of this part of my visit to the
U.S.A. was my meeting in Dayton, Ohio, with Orville
Wright . . . . To my surprise and enormous interest, I found
that Orville Wright was familiar with the fundamentals of
aerodynamic theory. He told me that before the historic flight
at Kitty Hawk, he and his brother spen~almost two thousand
hours with their small wind tunnel, studying the relative
merits of various wing shapes."
1904 Technische M. Toepler 275 visualizes and photographs spark (weak shock)
Hochschule waves by using the schlieren method of his father (A. Toepler
Dresden --+ 1864).
Owens College, Lamb 276 solves the theoretical problem of surface waves
Manchester excited by impulsive line or point loads. He finds that the
surface disturbance may be divided roughly into two parts:
(i) a minor tremor, composed of both longitudinal and
transverse waves, which starts with some abruptness and
may be described as a long undulation leading up to the
main shock and decaying gradually after this has passed;
and (ii) the main shock propagating as a solitary wave with
the velocity found by Lord Rayleigh (--+1887). Lamb's
contribution is of fundamental significance to theoretical
seismology.
Institut far Prandt1277 begins a study on wave propagation phenomena
angewandte inside and ouside of nozzles of various geometry when stored
Mechanik, high pressure air is exhausted through them. Starting from
Universitiit Riemann's theory (---~1859), he gives a quantitative explana-
G6ttingen tion on the periodic formation of stationary waves in free jets
(Salcher---~ 1889): Expansion waves originating at the edge of
the outlet are reflected at the boundary of the free jet as
compression waves, which in turn are reflected as expansion
waves. This process repeats periodically, thus resulting in
History of Shock Waves 87

crossed lines (later to be called "shock diamonds"). He also

deduces the "wavelength" of the crossed wave pattern in the
photograph from the ratio c/w (w - supersonic flow velocity
along the axis, c = sound velocity at that state) which can be
estimated with sufficient accuracy from the inclination of the
characteristic lines with respect to the axis of the jet using
Mach's law sin a = c/w. Later he will coin this angle 0~ the
"Mach angle" ( P r a n d t l ~ 1913).

University of Jouguet 27s derives an expression for the entropy change in a

Bordeaux, small-amplitude shock wave in terms of the second derivative
France (~2v/~p2)s. Since the adiabatic curve p(v) in the pressure-
volume diagram is concave down for practically all
substances--i.e., this expression is always positivemJouguet
concludes that a rarefaction shock is impossible.
Zeldovich 279, however, theoretically showed that rarefaction
shocks are indeed possible, which later was also proven
experimentally by Kutateladze 2s~ at the Institute of Heat
Physics, Novosibirsk.
III. Prandtl 2sl proposes his concept of a "boundary layer"
Internationaler [Grenzschicht] near the surface of a body moving through a
Mathematiker- fluid. This concept will prove extraordinarily fruitful in the
Kongref~, development of fluid m e c h a n i c s . . During World War II,
Heidelberg some aerodynamicists considered the removal of a part of
the boundary layer air by suction through a porous surface or
a number of slots to increase the laminar stability, to delay
transition, and to reduce drag. 2s2 The flow in a boundary
layer may likewise be laminar or turbulent, and the flow
pattern and location of shock waves are dependent on the
type of flow in the boundary layer. 283
1905 Breslau Lummer TM publishes his shock theory [Theorie des Knalls],
University, which, outlined only briefly by him, approaches the shock
Germany problem by using the Huygens principle of wave front
propagation and referring to the Doppler principle. Lummer
also first speculates on whip cracking as being a supersonic
phenomenon. First successful attempts to tackle this puzzle
experimentally were undertaken in France by Carri/~re
(--~ 1927). 9 It seems that von Neumann (-->1942) had a
similar approach of modeling shock wave propagation in
mind, but obviously did not follow it up.
Humboldt Nernst, 2s5 an avid automobile fan and in the late 1890s the
Universitat, owner of one of the first automobiles in G6ttingen, indicates
Berlin that the shock phenomenon of knocking [Klopfen, Schlagzan-
dung] in reciprocating internal combustion engines might be
due to the buildup of a detonation wave. 9 His correct
88 P. Krehl

hypothesis later initiated a long period of international

research on this important practical problem.

University of Jouguet 286 after having studied detonation in more detail,

Bordeaux, concludes, independelty of Chapman (-+ 1899), that (i) the
France chemical reaction at the detonation front occurs instanta-
neously from unburnt into burnt gas, (ii) the detonation
products propagate at constant velocity; and (iii) behind the
detonation front the velocity of detonation products with
respect to this front is equal to the local velocity of sound.
JOUGUET correctly postulates that a detonation wave
comprises a shock wave followed by a combustion wave
and arrives at very similar conclusions as Chapman (thus
the Chapman-Jouguet hypothesis 1899/1905). Assuming that
the detonation products are at thermodynamic equilibrium
and using previously measured data of heat capacities at high
temperatures, Jouguet calculates the velocity of the detona-
tion wave for various gaseous mixtures and obtains good
agreement with previously measured values (Berthelot and
Vielle---~ 1883; Dixon--~ 1893). 9 The Chapman-Jouguet
model assumes a homogeneous layer of reaction; however,
most surprisingly, later studies of detonation waves in gases
rather showed complicated patterns, such as a "spin" structure
(Bone, Fraser and Wheeler-+1936) or a "periodic cell"
strucutre (Shchelkin and Troshin 1965).

New York City Percy Maxim, 287 an American gunsmith, invents the first
silencer for small fire arms. He founds the Maxim Silent
Firearms Company and will obtain a German patent in
1910. His design is based on the modern concept of a
multiple baffle arrangement, which is screwed onto the
barrel. In his legendary indoor demonstrations, he proves
the efficient reduction of muzzle blast. 9 However, the
commercial success failed, because the interest of military
circles to introduce "silent firearms" into the army was
small--perhaps since in the use of common firearms the
sound of explosion is also an effective physiological factor.

Cambridge Hopkinson 288 repeats previous experiments of his father John

Engineering Hopkinson (-~ 1872) and reconfirms that the tensile strength
School, of metal wires is indeed much greater under rapid conditions
University of than when measured statically. 9 This important result stimu-
Cambridge, lated research on the dynamic elastic behavior of solids as
U.K. well as that of shock-loaded materials, and initiated the "one-
dimensional finite-amplitude theory" on dynamic plasticity of
metals derived by Taylor 289 (1942), von Karman zg~ (1942),
and Rakhmatulin 291 (1945).
History of Shock Waves 89

University of Zemplen 292 considers an ideal gas with constant specific heat
Gi~ttingen and shows that entropy changes in a shock wave: It rises with
increasing pressure and falls with decreasing pressure. From
this he concludes that a rarefaction shock is impossible (the
Zempl~n theorem). In his paper he gives the first concise and
modern definition of a shock wave: "A shock wave is a surface
of discontinuity propagating in a gas at which density and
velocity experience abrupt changes. One can imagine two
types of shock waves: (positive) compression shocks which
propagate into the direction where the density of the gas is a
minimum, and (negative) rarefaction waves which propagate
into the direction of maximum density."
1906 Institut fur Prandt1293 obtains a first estimate of the shock front thickness
angewandte for an ideal gas of constant viscosity and heat conductivity.
Mechanik, Starting from heat conduction processes in the transition
Universiti~t layer, he calculates for an aerial shock wave with a pressure
GOttingen jump of 0.2 atm a shock front thickness of 0.5 ~tm and states
that "the thickness of shock layers range within the wave-
lengths of visible light.".
University of Duhem 294 demonstrates that true shock waves--i.e., waves
Bordeaux, having a discontinuous front according to Riemann's and
France Hugoniot's theory--are only stable in perfect fluids. In real
fluids, however, only "quasi shock waves" are possible.
Lehmanns Foundation of the German journal Zeitschrift far das gesamte
Verlag, SchieJ~- und Slprengstoffwesen ( 1 . 1 9 0 6 - 3 9 . 1 9 4 4 ) with the
M~nchen goal to "improve and promote the communication between
science and industry, and to advance the development and
application of explosives and propellants." Editor-in-chief is
R. Escales. 9 It was the second international journal that
exclusively dedicated to the quickly growing field of explo-
sives, ballistics and shock waves (cf. Memorial des Poudres &
Salp~tres-~ 1882).
Laboratoire de Dautriche 295 describes a simple method of measuring the
la Commission detonation velocity of a test explosive. His "difference
des Substances method" uses a match [cordeau] of known detonation velocity
Explosives, (6500m/s) placed on a lead plate, their two ends being
Paris inserted into the test cartridge at a known distance are ignited
subsequently by the passage of the detonation wave in the
cartridge. When the two waves in the cordeau meet, they
make a sharp furrow in the lead plate that, shifted from the
midpoint of cordeau, is a measure of the detonation velocity
in the cartridge. For confined dynamite he measures detona-
tion velocities ranging from 1991 to 6794 m/s, depending on
the initial density of the cartridges. 9 His method much
90 P. Krehl

resembles E. Mach and Sommer's interference method

(---~1877), which they used to determine the propagation of
velocity of explosion waves.
1907 EcoleNationale Crussard 296 first applies the Rankine-Hugoniot equations
des Mines, (--~1887) on a reactive fluid, thereby using a graphical
Saint-Etienne, representation. He shows that the explosion wave is
France composed of a shock and a combustion wave that propagates
with a velocity equal to the speed of sound in the medium
that follows them, thus anticipating the supplementary Chap-
man-Jouguet relation (Jouguet---~ 1917).
Institut ffir Prandt1297 resumes his previous studies (---~1904) on super-
angewandte sonic wave propagation of gases and steam exhausting from
Mechanik, nozzles. The use of plane nozzles confined between two glass
Universitdt plates allows the visualization of wave phenomena of the free
GOttingen jet as well as of the nozzle interior. Schlieren photography
clearly shows the formation of a shock wave inside the nozzle,
indicating the need for considering area ratio distribution to
obtain uniform supersonic flow.
1908 Institutfflr Meyer, 298 one of Prandtl's Ph.D. students, visualizes the
angewandte propagation of Mach waves inside the divergent section of a
Mechanik, supersonic nozzle and theoretically treats the oblique inter-
University of action of shock waves. He presents shock wave tables of
GOttingen pressure ratios at various angles of incidence and reflection
and derives the "Prandtl-Meyer function."
Podkamennaja On June 30, at about 7 a.m. local time, an asteroid, impacts
Tunguska, the Earth's surface in the Stony Tunguska, about 3400 km east
Siberia, Russia of Moscow. It generates a huge blast wave, equivalent to the
energy liberated by the explosion of about 107 tons of TNT
and devastates an unpopulated, 720-square-mile area of
forests, but does not form a crater. 299 Accounts from the
town of Kansk (about 600 km south from the impact site) and
from Kuriski-Popovich Village, District of Kansk state that "a
first shock caused the doors, windows and votive lamp to
shake, a minute later a second shock followed, accompanied
by subterranean rumbling,", and "a severe earthquake and two
loud bursts, like the firing of a large caliber gun, were
observed in the vicinity," respectively. 9 Seismic shocks and
air pressure waves were recorded as far away as Central
Europe, but the fall of the meteor was not brought immedi-
ately to the notice of the scientific world, although strange
barometric phenomena were recorded in England.3~176
Napier, discussing wave motion at the meeting of the British
Association at Dublin in the same year, showed microbaro-
grams of a series of waves which were taken on the day of the
History of Shock Waves 91

meteorite fall and remarked, "the succession of four undula-

tions, commencing with a range of about five thousandths of
an inch, lasting about a quarter of an hour and then violently
interrupted by a sudden, though slight explosive disturbance,
which set up different, and much faster oscillations for a
similar interval . . . . It would seem that the disturbance, if not
simultaneous at the different places, traveled faster than 100
miles per hour."
University of Auerbach, 3~ reviewing the present state of the art of physical
Jena, Germany acoustics, addresses also the enormous progress achieved in
supersonics since Antolik's soot experiments. Under the
headings "Aeromechanics" [Aeromechanik] and "Anomalies
of the Propagation Velocity" [Anomalien der Fortpflanzungs-
geschwindigkeit], he discussed many most notable early
contributions to gas dynamics., Subsequent handbook arti-
cles covering this rapidly growing field of compressible flows
were given by Prandtl 3~ (1905), Prandtl 3~ (1913),
Ackeret TM (1927), and Busemann 3~ (1931). It appears that
the term gas dynamics [Gasdynamik], to some extent forming
a link between thermodynamics and hydrodynamics, 3~ was
first used in Ackeret's handbook article.
Pittsburgh, PA Several severe accidents in the American coal mining industry
in the previous year, partly attributed to dust explosions,
result in the establishment of the U.S. Bureau of Mines.
Focusing also on the nature of dust explosions, it will study
over a period of 60 years the properties of hundreds of
different powders.
Compagnie des Lorin, 3~ a French engineer, obtains a patent on a "propulsive
Omnibus, Paris duct" [propulseur a reaction], a compressor-less jet engine
that, shortly after, he proposes for use in aeronautics. 3~ Based
on the ram effect and later to be called ramjet, it derives its
thrust by the addition and combustion of fuel with air
compressed solely as a result of forward speed. 9 At that
time, only five years after the first motor flight (Wright Bros.
-~ 1903), the application of this engine type was far out of
sight. The first successful application of ramjet to flight was
not made until 1945, when supersonic flight was maintained
by a ramjet developed by the Applied Physics Laboratory at
Johns Hopkins University and associated contractors under
the sponsorship of the U.S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance. A
review of early ramjet developments was given by Avery. 3~
The principle of ramjet was later extended to scramjet (Billig
1959).
1909 University of Ramsauer 31~ investigates the phenomenon of percussion and
Heidelberg shows that discrepancies with de Saint-Venant's theory
92 e Krehl

(--+ 1867) are due to the nonperfect elastic behavior. He also

shows that the resulting complex interaction process can be
divided into a shock due to the actual collision and another
(impairing) shock due to oscillation.
1910 Technische Kobes 311 investigates the question of whether the application
Hochschule of shock waves could improve the performance of railway air-
Wien suction brakes, then an important practicle problem particu-
larly on long trains to avoid overrunning by the last cars.
Kobes publishes the first shock tube theory. 9 His "shock
tube," [a term not yet coined until Bleakney et al. 312 (1949)]
was not a laboratory-type, smooth and straight pipe, but
rather consisted of a test train with 71 cars (total length
746m) with the common arrangement of brake hoses,
elbows, joints, and valves. He determined an average shock
wave velocity of 370m/s from the measured shock arrival
time at the last car.
Militarte- Bensberg and Cranz 313 provide a series of quantified drag
chnische measurements on projectiles that reveal that the drag coeffi-
Akademie, cient gradually decreases after passing the sound barrier.
Berlin
Royal Colonial Cornish, 314 publishes photographs of all kinds of wave
Institute, phenomena in nature--such as the oblique interaction of
London hydraulic jumps in very shallow water--thereby also obser-
ving by chance Mach reflection. 9 In addition, he published
propagation phenomena of snow and sand waves and waves
in rivers, which apparently are barely known among modern
fluid dynamicists.
Private Lord Rayleigh 315 thoroughly reviews and comments on
laboratory at previous theories of "sound of finite amplitudes." Starting
Terling Place, from the Navier-Stokes equations, he investigates possible
Essex, U.K. influences of heat conduction on the shape of the disconti-
nuity. He resumes his earlier critiques (-~ 1877, --~ 1878) and
states, "The problem now under discussion is closely related
to one which has given rise to a serious difference of opinion.
In his paper of 1848 Stokes considered the sudden transition
from one constant velocity to another, and concluded that the
necessary conditions for a permanent regime could be
satisfied . . . . Similar conclusions were put forward by
Riemann in 1860. Commenting on these results in the
Theory of Sound (1878), I pointed out that, although the
conditions of mass and momentum were satisfied, the condi-
tion of energy was violated, and that therefore the motion was
not possible; and in republishing this paper Stokes admitted
the criticism, which had indeed already been made privately
History of Shock Waves 93

by Kelvin. On the other hand, Burton and H. Weber main-

tain, at least to some extent, the original view . . . . Inasmuch
as they ignored the question of energy, it was natural that
Stokes and Riemann made no distinction between the cases
where energy is gained or lost. As I understand, Weber
abandons Riemann's solution for the discontinuous wave
(or bore, as it is sometimes called for brevity) of rarefaction,
but still maintains it for the case of the bore of condensation.
No doubt there is an important distinction between the two
cases; nevertheless, I fail to understand how a loss of energy
can be admitted in a motion which is supposed to be the
subject to the isothermal or adiabatic laws, in which no
dissipative action is contemplated. In the present paper the
discussion proceeds upon the supposition of a gradual transi-
tion between the two velocities or densities. It does not
appear how a solution which violates mechanical principles,
however rapid the transition, can become valid when the
transition is supposed to become absolutely abrupt. All that I
am able to admit is that under these circumstances dissipative
forces (such as viscosity) that are infinitely small may be
competent to produce a finite effect . . . . " He derives a simple
formula to estimate the shock front thickness x, which is on
the order of p/pu, where u is the velocity of the wave and/~/p
is the specific gas viscosity. He writes, "For the present
purpose we may take u as equal to the usual velocity of
sound, i.e., 3 x 104 cm per second. For air under ordinary
conditions the value of pip in C.G.S. measure is 0.13; so that x
is of the order ~1 x 10 -5 cm. That the transitional layer is in
fact extremely thin is proved by such photographs as those of
Boys, of the aerial wave of approximate discontinuity which
advances in front of a m o d e m rifle bullet; but that according
to calculation this thickness should be well below the micro-
scopic limit may well occasion surprise."

Cavendish G. I. Taylor 316 investigates the thermodynamic conditions at

Laboratory, the shock front. He extends Lord Rayleigh's approach
Cambridge (---> 1910) by including not only heat conduction, but viscos-
ity as well, and establishes theoretically that a propagating
sharp transition layer of permanent type is possible only
when the pressure increases across the layer and when
diffusion processes operate in its interior. To obtain an
estimate of the thickness of a shock wave, he set up the
continuum equations for the perfect gas with constant visc-
osity p and heat conductivity ~ and shows that they can be
solved exactly if either p - 0 or ~c = 0 and approximately if
the velocity jump across the layer is relatively small.
94 P. Krehl

1911 Harvard Bridgman 317 describes a gauge for the measurement of static
University, pressures based on the electrical properties of manganin, an
Cambridge, MA alloy consisting of Cu (84%), Mn (12%), and Ni (4%). The
resistance of manganin is shown to be a linear function of
pressure up to 12 kbar and, by extrapolation, enables pressure
measurements to be made with some certitude to 20 kbar.
Later he will extend 31s the linear gauge response up to
30kbar. 318 9 After World War II manganin gauges became
an important diagnostic tool to measure the pressure (or
stress) in shock-loaded samples (Hauver 1960).

1912 Royal In an evening discussion with Lord Rayleigh in the chair, B.

Institution, Hopkinson 31~ reports on new fracture phenomena that occur
London in metal specimens when small quantities of explosive are
detonated in contact with them. Using charges of guncotton
placed upon steel plates, he observes that for plates with a
thickness greater than 1 inch a circular disk of metal from the
opposite side of the plate is broken away and thrown off; he
calls this "scabbing.". This phenomenon of separation, today
also called "back spalling" or the "Hopkinson effect", occurs
when a strong compressive shock of short duration is
reflected from the back surface of a body, thus producing a
tensile wave.

1913 Point Hawkins, The British cargo ship "Alum Chine", destined to transport
MD explosives to the Panama Canal for use in blasting operations
and having 285 tons of dynamite on board, explodes during
loading of freight at Point Hawkins (about 6.5 km southeast
of Baltimore). The disaster leaves 62 dead and 60 wounded.
The explosion is felt as a blast and/or seismic shock, depend-
ing on the distance and the direction from the origin of the
explosion. 9 Analyzing a large number of observations at
distances ranging from 6.4 to 160km, Munroe 32~ later
concluded that these differences are attributed to the acoustic
phenomenon of zones of silence and the orientation of the ship
at the moment of the explosion. 321 This study is important as
it was the first detailed documentation on the destructive
effects of a large-yield explosion.

Elektro- Bodenstein, 322 studying the photochemical-induced chlorine-

chemisches hydrogen explosion (Gay-Lussac and Thenard--~ 1807), finds
Institut, TH, that the reaction velocity is proportional to the square of the
Hannover chlorine concentration and inversely proportional to the
oxygen concentration. Through the concept of a chain reac-
tion he correctly explains this law and, simultaneously, the
fact that the photochemical yield exceeds the Einstein law of
equivalents by a factor of 104. The concept of atomic "chain
History of Shock Waves 95

reaction" [Kettenreaktion] will gain great importance in deto-

nation and combustion physics. 9 In the example of a
detonating chlorine-hydrogen mixture, a long-time puzzle
to physicochemists [Nernst (1918): "die boshafte Chlorknall-
gasexplosion"], the chain reaction occurs in three steps:
initiation propagation and termination. 323
Institut ff~r PRANDTL,324 reviewing the progress of gas dynamics and
angewandte supersonics, coins the term Mach angle" [Machscher Winkel].
Mechanik,
Universitat
G6ttingen
1914 Cambridge B. Hopkinson 325 describes a novel and ingenious variant of
Engineering the ballistic pendulum to analyze the force and time of a blow.
School, Instead of a pendulum, he uses a long, thin steel rod of high
University of strength (the "Hopkinson pressure bar"), divided by a trans-
Cambridge verse joint into a long and a short portion. The rod takes the
blow longitudinally and transmits it as a wave of elastic
compression, which proceeds from the long piece to the
short one. At the extreme end of the short piece, the wave
of compression is reflected back along the rod as a wave of
tension. When the reflected wave reaches the joint, the short
piece flies off and carries with it a fraction of the whole
momentum, which depends on the length of the short piece.
This enables the length of the pressure wave to be deter-
mined, and from that the duration of the blow is readily
inferred. Moreover, by using a very short length for the
detachable piece, the maximum pressure is also measured.
He examines the blows given by a bullet striking the end of
the rod normally and by the detonation of guncotton posi-
tioned at or close to one end of the rod.
1915 University of B. Hopkinson 326 proposes his cube-root law (the "Hopkinson
Cambridge law") for scaling the blast field about conventional explosive
charges under sea-level conditions. He states that self-similar
blast (shock) waves are produced at identical scaled distances
when two explosive charges of similar geometry and the same
explosive but different sizes are detonated in the same atmo-
sphere.
1917 Private Lord Rayleigh 327 solves the problem of the collapse of a
laboratory at spherical empty cavity in a large mass of liquid and calculates
Terling Place, the velocity of contraction. Introductorily he writes, "I learned
Essex, U.K. from Sir C. Parsons that he also was interested in the same
question in connection with cavitation behind screw-propel-
lers, and that at his instigation Mr. S. Cook, on the basis of an
investigation by Besant, had calculated the pressure devel-
96 P. Krehl

oped when the collapse is suddenly arrested by impact against

a rigid concentric obstacle . . . . It appears that before the
cavity is closed these pressures may rise very high in the
fluid near the inner boundary." To find the pressure in the
interior of the fluid during the collapse, he extends Besant's
calculation and shows that the final volume is extremely
small when the initial pressure of the gas is only a small
fraction of that of the surrounding fluid. In reality, however,
the bubble undergoes isentropic compression, and a high
temeprature as well as a high dynamic pressure should be
reached. In the same paper he also considers the problem that
the cavity contains a small amount of gas, which is isother-
mally compressed and converts the energy of collapse into the
pressure of this imprisoned gas. (cf. also Parsons---~1884,
1897; and Cook--+ 1928). 9 Rayleigh's famous paper stimu-
lated many subsequent researches on caivtation. The first
experimental evidence of the high-pressure pulse originating
from a collapsing bubble was given by Harrison (1952) using
acoustic diagnostics and by Giith (1954) using optical schlie-
ren technique. Bubble jet formation, a result of unstable,
asymmetric bubble wall collapsing, was suggested by Korn-
feld and Suvorov (1944) as a possible damaging mechanism
in cavitation erosion. It was first experimentally confirmed by
Naud~ and Ellis (1961). A review of cavitation-generated
erosion phenomena was given recently by Philipp and
Lauterborn. 328

Ecole Jouguet, 329 resuming previous studies on detonation

Polytechnique, (Chapman--1899; Jouguet-~1905) and referring to Crus-
Paris sard's graphical method (--~ 1907), assumes that the Rankine-
Hugoniot relation is not only valid to describe discontinuities
(shock waves) propagating in the same fluid but also to
describe two separate, chemically distinct environments
(reactive waves). Jouguet explains the mechanism of detona-
tion at constant speed by considering the detonation front as
a shock wave of a special kind to which the Rankine-
Hugoniot relation can be applied by inducing in the energy
balance the part due to chemical reaction (the "supplemen-
tary Chapman-Jouguet condition").

1918 Mac Cook Caldwell and Fales 33~ design and build the first American
Field, Dayton, high-speed wind tunnel (14-inch diameter, 200m/s) and
OH study compressibility effects on airfoils. They note that at a
"critical speed" there is a large decrease in lift coefficient
accompanied by a large increase in drag coefficient.. Their
wind tunnel can be seen in the USAF Museum at Dayton, OH.
History of Shock Waves 97

Moscow Tupolev organizes, together with Zhukovsky (the "Father of

Russian Aviation"), the Centralized Aerohydrodynamic Insti-
tute [LIAFId]. In 1922 he will become head of the institute's
design bureau.

Coll~ge de Langevin and Chilowsky suggest the first supersonic wind

France tunnel using a high-speed current of air at supersonic velocity
Governmental emerging from a Laval nozzle to test a new type of projectile.
Laboratory, Hugenard and Sainte Lagu/~ carry out such experiments on a
France stationary high-speed current of air at velocities greater than
the velocity of sound TM. Initially using a Laval working
section 8cm in diameter obtain a Mach number barely
above 1 (M = 1.07). Later, however, after changing the
diffuser angle, they will reach Mach numbers up to 1.4. The
drag is measured by a torsion balance. 332 9 A British ballistic
commission, paying a visit to them, initiated similar studies at
the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Teddington. 333

1919 U.K. British researchers begin to study propeller tip phenomena

and recognize that a propeller is a wing whose flow char-
acteristics and, therefore, propulsion efficiency vary along the
span. They observe a loss in thrust and a large increase in
blade drag when the rotational speed of the blade tips
approaches or even exceeds the sound velocity. Contempor-
ary theories of the airscrew, however, are still limited to
subsonic tip speeds, and even seven years later Glauert TM
will write, "Little is known on the effect of the compressibility
of the air on the characteristics of an aerofoil moving with
high velocity and further progress, both in theory and in
experiment, is necessary before the theory of the airscrew can
be modified to take account of this effect." This important
practical problem is rather complex and can be divided in
three cases: (i) subsonic tip velocity; (ii) subsonic flight and
supersonic tip velocity; and (iii) supersonic flight velocity. 9
Doppler (--, 1847) had already shown that a body moving in
a circle at supersonic speed produces a rotating Mach wave.
This was later investigated theoretically by Prandt1335 and
experimentally by Hihon. 336 A theory of high-speed propel-
lers, referring to all three cases mentioned above, was first
worked out by Frankl. 337

1920s National Stanton 338 and coworkers set up a supersonic wind channel,
Physics probably the first in the world with a Mach number signifi-
Laboratory, cantly above 1. The mini blow-down facility, having only a
Teddington, diameter of 0.8 in. but approaching M = 2, is used initially to
U.K. investigate the drag, lift, and upsetting moment of projectile
models of diameters not exceeding 0.09 in. Later Stanton 339
98 P. Krehl

will study airfoils of various geometric configurations at

supersonic speed in a more advanced, continuously driven
wind channel with a 3.07-in. diameter and speeds up to
M - 3.25. 9 This wind tunnel has survived and is now kept
in the NPL Museum at Teddington.
1920 Ecole Jouguet 34~ discusses the similarity between shooting channel
Polytechnique, flow and supersonic compressible flow and suggests this
Paris analogy to study two-dimensional gas flows by means of
experiments with a rectangular water channel. An extension
for three-dimensional motion will be given later by
Riabouchinsky 341 (1932).
France Fauchon-Villepl~e 342 obtains a German patent on his "elec-
tromagnetic rail gun," which he invented during World
War I by order of the Minist~re de l'armement et des fabrica-
tions de guerre (1916-1918). His idea was resumed after
World War II by various research institutions to possibly
generate ultrahigh velocities.
Mount Wilson Anderson, 343 father of scientific exploding wire research, uses
Observatory, exploding wires to produce temperatures in excess of the
CA 3000~ available at that time for high temeprature spectro-
scopic studies. He investigates the pressure shift of spectral
lines in exploding wires and concludes that the brilliant flash
has an intrinsic intensity that corresponds to a temperature of
about one hundred times the intrinsic brilliancy of the sun.
Using a rotating mirror, he visualizes the dynamics of the
flash size, apparently the emitted shock wave, and measures a
speed of propagation in open air of about 3300m/s. 9 The
visualization of the shock and flow field around exploding
wires, a small-size phenomenon that requires optical magni-
fication and therefore virtually increases the velocity on the
film plane, requires ambitious ultrahigh-speed diagnostics 344
and was not realized until the late 1950s.
1921 Humboldt Becker 345 presents his thesis entitled Stoj~welle und Detona-
Universit~t, tion for the certificate of habilitation. Published one year
Berlin later, this thesis will become renowned for its clarity. His
achievements can be summarized as follows: (i) To illustrate
on a qualitative basis how shock waves in gases are formed,
he proposes his simple "Becker piston model" which, assum-
ing a stepwise motion of a piston in a tube and the
coalescence of pressure pulses, explains on a qualitative
basis how shock waves in fluids are formed; (ii) Treating
the Navier-Stokes equations for non-weak shocks, he obtains
the first solution involving both viscosity and heat conduc-
tion. (iii) He calculates the thickness of a shock front in air
History of Shock Waves 99

by assuming constant values for the transport coefficient and

the specific heats. For air (1 bar, 0~ he finds for a shock
pressure of 8 bar that the front thickness becomes already
smaller than the mean free path length (about 90nm) and
for strong shocks at 2000 bar even remains under the mean
distance of two molecules (about 3.3 nm). He concludes that
classical kinetic theory is inapplicable to very intense shock
waves in gases, because in the shock front the temperature
increase is the result of only a few collision processes. (iv)
Starting from the Tamman equation of state, he also esti-
mates shock wave data in liquids. For example, for a strong
shock wave propagating in ethyl ether at 10 kbar the
calculated shock front thickness amounts to 0.65nm
which is comparable to 0.55 nm, the mean distance of two
molecules. (v) He calculates the detonation velocity in gases
and essentially confirms Jouguet's theory (---~1905). For
liquid and solid explosives, however, similar calculations
are not yet possible, because the equation of state of the hot
burnt gases are still unknown.
1922 Lynn Works, Briggs, Hall, and Dryden 346 begin with measurements of the
General characteristics of wing sections at sonic and supersonic
Electric speeds, with the wing sections corresponding to tip sections
Company, of propeller blades. They do not use a wind tunnel but
United States rather open-air jets from 2 to 12 in. in diameter, thus follow-
ing Salcher's suggested principle of supersonic testing (Mach
and Salcher--. 1889).
1923 University of Ramsauer 347 studies systematically full-scale underwater
Danzig, explosions with charges of gun-cotton up to 2 kg fired at
Germany depths up to 30 ft in 40 ft of water and first determines the
position of the gas bubble boundary. He uses an ingenious
"electrolytic probe method" which consists of an arrange-
ment of electrodes supported at suitable distances from the
charge by a rigid frame and together with a common
electrode forms conducting circuits with the seawater
acting as an electrolyte. The bubble radius expansion, inter-
rupting the electrode circuits successively, is recorded with a
mechanical chronograph. He finds that the maximum radius
rmax (M/P)1/3, with M being the mass of the explosive and
"~

P the total static pressure at the depth of the explosion. He

also makes the important observation that the bubble
migrates upwards. 9 His method was limited to the recording
of the bubble expansion, but could not detect its oscillation
which during World War II was recognized as a further
source of underwater shock waves endangering submarines
(--.1941).
100 P. Krehl

1924 Siemens- Berger 348 investigates collision phenomena in solid bodies

Schuckert and proves experimentally that the shocked contact surface of
Werke, Wien collision moves impulsively. This phenomenon is attributed
to the rarefaction wave, which is created by reflection of the
compression wave at the free surface (surface shock unload-
ing).
1925 Harvard Bridgman 349 makes first systematic measurements of the
University, piezoresistivity of metals and recognizes the tensor nature
Cambridge, MA of this effect in crystals. In the 1960s this "piezoresistive
effect" will become important in solid-state shock physics as a
diagnostic tool to measure the response of shock-loaded
materials.
Aero- Ackeret 35~ publishes his famous "two-dimensional linearized
dynamische wing theory," where he considers a thin wing exposed to a
Versuchs- uniform and parallel supersonic flow. According to his
anstalt, theory, the deflection of the stream causes a pressure inc-
GOttingen rease at a concave corner and a pressure drop at a convex
corner. Consequently, in the case of supersonic flow, a shock
wave emanates from the concave corner and an expansion
(rarefaction) wave from the convex corner. Both wave types
had already been observed by Mach and Salcher (--+ 1887) in
their pioneering supersonic ballistic experiments.
1926 Physikalisch- Grfineisen 351 proposes an equation of state for solid matter
Technische based on his "lattice vibration theory," which he derived
Reichsanstalt, from previous investigations by Mie 352 and himself. 353 The
Berlin so-called "Mie-Gruneisen equation" can be written as
pv + G ( v ) - F(v)e, where e is the specific internal energy, v
is the specific volume, F(v) is the Gruneisen coefficient for
the material, and G(v) is related to the lattice potential. First
applied to shock-compressed solids by Walsh, Rice, McQu-
een, and Yarger, 354 it proved most worthwhile to describe the
thermodynamic state of shock-compressed matter.
1927 Institut Carri/~re 355 studies the phenomenon of whip cracking, the
Catholique de oldest means of man to generate shock waves. He uses a
Toulouse, machine-driven whip and high-speed schlieren photography
France 9 The first pictures showing the shock wave emerging from a
real whip were not obtained until 1958 by Bernstein et al. at
the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. 356 More recent investiga-
tions using high-speed videography and laser stroboscopy,
however, revealed that for generating strong shocks the
supersonic motion of the tuft is only a conditio sine qua
non, but that the essential mechanism of shock generation
occurs in the final stage of acceleration and is due to the
abrupt flapping of the tuft at the turning point. 3~7
History of Shock Waves 101

TH Berlin- Hildebrandt, 358 investigating the nonstationary flow in long

Charlottenburg lines of railway airbrake systems, extends Kobes' shock tube
theory (--~ 1910).

General Langmuir, who had studied gas discharges in electron tubes

Electric with his colleagues since the early 1920s, coins the term
Company, plasma for a quasi-neutral system of ionized gas that he
Schenectady, considers to be the fourth state of matter, consisting of
NY neutrals, ions, and electrons. Mott-Smith, 359 a coworker of
Langmuir for many years, will later remember, "We noticed
the similarity of the discharge structures [between mercury
vapor discharges, Geissler tubes and gas-filled thermionic
tubes] they revealed. Langmuir pointed out the importance
and probable wide bearing of this fact. We struggled to find a
name for it. For all members of the team realized that the
credit for a discovery goes not to the man who makes it, but
to the man who names it . . . . We tossed around names.., but
one day Langmuir came in triumphantly and said he had it.
He pointed out that the 'equilibrium' part of the discharge
acted as a sort of sub-stratum carrying particles of special
kinds, like high-velocity electrons from thermionic fila-
ments, molecules and ions of gas impurities. This reminds
him of the way blood plasma carries around red and white
corpuscles and germs . . . . So he proposed to call our
'uniform discharge' a "plasma".... Langmuir 36~ will not use
the word plasma in a scientific paper until 1929. 9 Shock
waves propagating in a plasma without an applied external
magnetic field behave much like shock waves propagating in
a neutral gas, because submicroscopic forces among the
electrically charged particles can be neglected in the first
order. In the case of strong shock waves, collision processes
at the shock front provoke an ionization of the neutral gas
particles leading to luminous phenomena (Michel-L~vy,
Muraour, and Vassy-~ 1941).

1928 Swampscott, The first Symposium on Combustion is held at the 76th

MA Meeting of the American Chemical Society with the goal
"to emphasize the practical significance of combustion
research, particularly in the area of high-output combus-
tion in aviation power plants." General chairman is
Brown.

Royal Aircraft Glauert 361 gives the first interpretation of Prandtrs aerody-
Establishment, namic theory of airfoils in England and thereupon derives a
Farnborough, rule, the so-called "Prandtl-Glauert rule", that enables
U.K. designers to calculate the amount of lift needed at high
speed---up to the speed of sound but not beyond.
102 P. Krehl

Parsons Marine C o o k 362 reports on his investigations of the hydrodynamic

Steam Turbine properties of collapsing cavities in an incompressible fluid
Co., Wallsend- and his calculations of the pressures that might arise from
on-Tyne, U.K. the collapsing vortices of cavitating propellers. His studies,
verified by experimental methods, convince the Committee of
Erosion Research that the deterioration of propeller blades of
cruisers and destroyers by erosion is indeed caused by the
water-hammer effect, i.e., is resulting from cavitation, thus
essentially confirming Parsons' previous hypothesis
(-->1897).
Budapest Fono, 363 a Hungarian engineer, obtains a German Patent for a
propulsive device. Furnishing a design for a convergent-
divergent inlet, he describes its use specifically for supersonic
flight. ~ His engine is clearly recognizable as a prototype of
today's ramjet.
1929 Kaiser- Prandtl and Busemann 364 develop a graphical method based
Wilhelm- on the method of characteristics to approximately determine
Institut fur smooth supersonic flows at arbitrary initial and boundary
StrOmungs- conditions. Their method replaces the stationary two-dimen-
forschung, sional supersonic potential flow by a crossing system of
GOttingen stationary sound waves. 9 Busemann later mentioned that
Prandtl had already used a primitive form of the character-
istics method as early as 1906 to shape the exit of his Laval
nozzles for parallel supersonic jets. 365
ETH Zurich & Ackeret 366 delivers his inaugural lecture [Privatdozent],
Escher Wyss thereby coining the term Mach number [Machsche Zahl]
AG, Zf~rich with the argument "since the well-known physicist E. Mach
clearly recognized the fundamental significance of this ratio
in our field and confirmed it by clever experimental meth-
ods." 9 The term Mach number denotes the ratio of the velocity
of a body or disturbance to the velocity of sound and was
introduced into the English literature in the late 1930s.
However, it was not immediately accepted by the Russians,
who at one time preferred Bairstow 367 number, or the French,
who proposed Moisson 368 number 369 (-~Moisson 1883).
Nowadays Mach's name is used by almost anyone describing
something that is very fast. In fact, Mach is more known for
this than for his numerous contributions to the philosophy of
science.
University of G. I. Taylor 37~ investigates long gravity waves in the atmo-
Cambridge sphere. These waves can result from extraordinary strong
blast waves, such as those observed during the huge volcanic
eruption of Krakatao (--~ 1883) that traveled at great height
with a velocity of about 320m/s around the Earth. Taylor's
History of Shock Waves 103

results, presented at the 4th Pacific Science Congress in Java,

show good agreement with recorded data of 1883.
Institut fiir Cranz and Schardin 371 invent the "Cranz-Schardin multiple
Technische spark camera," the prototype of which provides 8 frames of
Physik, Berlin excellent quality at a maximum frame rate of 3 x 105 frames
per second. They immediately apply the camera to record
head waves and the oblique interaction of shock waves
(Mach reflection). They also investigate the well-known
phenomenon of why an implosion is always accompanied
by a sharp report and show that it is not caused by the
rarefaction wave itself but rather by the blast wave created
shortly after the implosion. They demonstrate this phenom-
enon by using a 34-m-long evacuated tube that they
suddenly open at one end. The air masses, then rushing
in violently and being reflected at the other end of the tube,
return to the open end of the tube after about 0.2 s, thereby
perceptible as a report.
Zornig from the United States, later becoming Colonel of the
U.S. Army and involved in the Manhattan Project (---~1943),
apparently discusses with Schardin the historic soot record-
ing experiments of irregular shock reflection (Mach and
Wosyka---~1875), their possible interpretation, and related
problems of nonacoustic reflection of air shocks. 372 9 This
subject became important for selecting the optimum height of
burst (von Neumann---~1943, 1945) of the two nuclear
explosions in Japan (---~1945).
Mount Wilson Hubble 373 publishes a plot of the "Doppler shift" of light
Observatory, versus distance for 22 galaxies and reports that all distant
Pasadena, CA galaxies recede from us and more distant galaxies recede
faster (Hubble's l a w ) . . Two years later, after having
compiled more data on velocities of nebulae, he stated 374
(together with Humason), "The relation [between radial
velocity and distance] is a linear increase in the velocity
amounting to about +500km/sec per million parsecs of
distance." This simple statement had an enormous impact
on cosmology: It suggested the idea that the expanding
universe may have its origin in a huge explosion (the Big
Bang theory). Estimates on the age of the universe range
from 10 to 20 billion years.
1930 Maschinen- Schmidt, stimulated by previous works of the Frenchmen de
und Karavodin (1906-1909) and Marconnet (1909), develops his
Apparatebau "Schmidt tube" [Schmidtrohr], a pulse jet engine, and obtains
Mfinchen German and British patents. 375 Using a tube resonator with a
length of about 3.6 m, a valve matrix at the entrance and a
104 P. Krehl

Laval nozzle at the exit, it applies the reflected shock wave for
periodical reignition (at about 50 Hz). 9 Further developed in
Berlin by the Argus Motoren GmbH [Argus-Schmidtrohr], it
served in World War II to power the V-l, the world's first
cruise missile ( M - 0.47),
Applied Donnel1376 studies longitudinal shock wave transmission in
Mechanics solid bodies when impacted and the dimensions are no
Division, longer very small compared to the velocities of such waves.
University of He theoretically treats various cases of practical importance,
Michigan, Ann such as the impact of thin bars with free or fixed ends,
Arbor, MI effects of a sudden change in the cross section or material of
a bar, and waves due to a force applied at an intermediate
section.
Television Farnsworth 377 suggests the continuous dynode "electron
Laboratories multiplier.". This simple but most effective and versatile
Inc., San device led in the 1960s to the development of the micro-
Francisco, CA channel plate (MCP) at Bendix Research Laboratories. Its
outstanding features, such as high intensification and fast
shuttering, allowed CCD cameras to be used in the 1990s at
ultrashort exposure times down to only a few nanoseconds
(intensified CCD or ICCD), an important requirement for
applications to shock wave recording in solids and high-
temperature plasmas. In addition, MCPs provided trace
intensity multiplication of about 1000 times, which allowed
single-sweep viewing up to the oscilloscope's rise-time
specification at bandwidths of as much as 1 GHz.
1931 Harvard Bridgman publishes his book The Physics of High Pressures,
University, which will earn him the Nobel Prize in physics in 1946.
Cambridge, MA Although exclusively dealing with static pressure phenomena,
his book will stimulate following generations of solid-state
shock physicists to study also the dynamic properties of
materials beyond pressures not accessible by static compres-
sion techniques.
Imperial Chapman and Ferraro 378 suggest that the "sudden
College, commencement" impulse coming from the sun is the front
London of a plasma cloud emitted from the sun and hitting the Earth's
magnetic field. Their hypothesis will lead to the discovery of
planetary shock waves by Gold 379 and planetary bow waves
by Axford 38~ and Kellog. 3sl
School of General Gaetano A. Crocco, 382 a former pioneer of Italian
Aeronautical aviation and director of research of the Italian Air Force, coins
Engineering, the term aerothermodynamics, a combination of fluid
University of mechanics and thermodynamics, to take account of aerody-
Rome namic heating at supersonic speeds that at this time are only
History of Shock Waves 105

reached by the propeller tips of high-speed aircraft. 9 This

particular branch of super/hypersonic flow, later introduced
and propagated by yon I~rman, 383 still is a serious problem
in the design of high-speed air- and spacecraft, because one
has to meet with the reduction of materials strength at
elevated temperatures, which already begins at rather low
Mach numbers. For the example of the Soviet SST Tu-144
(1968), it was observed that, when it flew for hours at Mach
2, air friction heated up the airframe over 300~ (150~
above the surrounding air with heat concentrations on the
nose and leading edges of the wings. TM
1932 Zeiss-Ikon AG, Joachim and Illgen 385 measure the gas pressure of rifles by
Dresden using their "piezo-indicator," an instrument consisting of a
piezo-crystal, an amplifier, and an oscilloscope with a cathode
ray tube. Time sweeping occurs with a rotating drum covered
with photo paper. Being the archetype of modern shock
pressure recording techniques, it allows for the first time
the recording of pressure-time profiles with a high temporal
resolution.
Institut far Schardin 386 investigates theoretically the shock propagation
Technische in tubes and the condition for ignition of hydrogen-oxygen
Physik, Berlin mixtures by incident and reflected shocks. His work, together
with that of Kobes (-~ 1910) and Hildebrand (--~ 1927), form
the basis of modern shock tube theory.
Milan, Italy G. A. Crocco 387 reads a paper at the 20th Meeting of the
Italian Association for the Advancement of Science that
discusses future possibilities of superaviation, i.e., flight at
very high altitudes (above 37,000 feet) up to about M = 3. He
addresses the particular problems of high-speed flights in the
stratosphere--such as lift and propulsion--and illustrates the
economic efficiency.
Flugwissen- Wagner 388 studies the fundamental processes of percussion
schaftliches and gliding when a body at high speed hits the free surface of
Institut, TH a fluid. 9 The water impact of a body under a small angle of
Berlin- incidence leads to a periodic bouncing along the surface,
Charlottenburg which can easily be demonstrated by throwing a small stone
on a pond's surface under a low angle. This phenomenon,
called ricocheting, had already attracted some early percussion
pioneers, such as Marci (1639) who explained this effect by
the law of reflection [De proportione motus, Propositio XXXX].
The skipping effect to which seaplanes are subject when they
land on water is of great practical importance for the float
construction and was tackled also in the United States 389 and
the Soviet Union. 39~
106 P. Krehl

Guggenheim Von K,4rm/m and Moore 391 perform a pioneering study on the
Aeronautical resistance of slender, spindle-like bodies (such as projectiles) at
Laboratory at supersonic speed. Their study takes into account a new type of
CalTech, drag (wave drag) that occurs when the body approaches the
Pasadena, CA sound velocity. Later their study will be generally considered as
the starting point of supersonic aerodynamics. ,, In the following
year Taylor and Maccol1392 extended the study to the more
general case of axisymmetric cones having any semivertical
angle that is less than a certain critical angle under which the
shock wave detaches from the body (Mach angle). For narrow
cones both methods showed consistency.
Cavendish G. I. Taylor 393 calculates the forces on a thin biconvex airfoil
Laboratory, moving at supersonic speed and compares his result with
Cambridge Stanton's drag data obtained in the wind tunnel at NPL,
Teddington (Stanton-+ 1920s).
Langley Stack and Jacobs first photograph the transonic flow field
Aeronautical over airfoils at speeds above the critical Mach number. They
Laboratory of use the schlieren technique and correlate their flow analysis
NACA, with detailed pressure measurements. 394 9 In 1951 Stack and
Hampton, VA his colleagues were awarded the prestigious Collier Trophy for
their pioneering transonic wind tunnel work.
1933 Institut ff~r Ackeret 395 operates the world's first continuous-flow super-
Aerodynamik, sonic wind tunnel with a closed loop using a kaval nozzle
ETH Zf~rich (M = 2; 40 x 40 cm2). It is anticipated not only for the
testing of model aircraft but for use in ballistic research,
and steam and gas turbine design as well. He designed the
facility when he was still working at Brown-Boveri Company,
which also built the device.
British Museum Spencer, 396 keeper of minerals, summarizes the available
of Natural information on meteorite craters and cites five craters or
History, London crater clusters with associated meteoritic material: the
Arizona Meteor Crater, the Odessa Crater of Texas, the
Henbury craters of Australia, the Wahar craters of Arabia,
and the Campo del Cielo craters of Argentina. 9 Since 1931
various authors have appealed to the impact and explosion of
meteorites to account for the Ries and Steinheim basins of
Germany, the Ashani Crater of the African Gold Coast, the
K6fels Crater of the Tyrolian Alps, and the Pretoria Salt-Pan of
South Africa. Most contemporary theoreticians, however, still
favored some form of cryptovolcanic hypothesis, maintaining
that the explosions were due to expansion of gases associated
with ascending magmas.
University of Bucher 397 discovers in a large quarry, about two miles east of
Cincinnati, OH Kentland [Newton County, Indiana] curious striated cup-and-
History of Shock Waves 107

cone structures, so-called "shatter cones," with apical angles

ranging from 75 to nearly 90 degrees, and as long as 2 meters
in limestone and 12 meters in shale. Considering these
unusual "cryptovolcanic structures" (Branca and Fraas
1905) as disturbances in deranged Paleozoic beds, he ascribes
their origin to a deep-seated explosion of gases derived from
an igneous intrusion.

1934 Institute of Semenov 398 publishes his monograph Chain Reactions, which
Chemical contains the development of a theory of nonbranching chain
Physics of the reactions. It is the result of previous discoveries that he and
Soviet Union, his team made on the basis of the study of critical phenom-
Leningrad enamsuch as the limit of ignition--during oxidation of
vapors of phosphorus, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and
other compounds. He writes, "In 1927 and 1928 in Oxford,
Leningrad and partly at Princeton the chain theory was
applied to a study of the reactions leading to inflammation
and explosion. What is particularly important, the theory has
advanced here hand in hand with new experiments, which led
to a discovery of new and the explanation of old, long ago
forgotten, and quite unintelligible phenomena, and they have
outlined the field of those reactions which are specific in the
new conception. They have aroused a broad interest in this new
reaction field and have brought to life in 1930, 1931, 1932, and
1933 a wave of new kinetical investigation . . . . It is hoped that
the analysis given here will enable us to make some new general-
ization and thus to advance somewhat further in the question
of the classification of reactions and of finding new laws
common to wide classes of chemical change." J His thorough
and continuous investigations earned him the 1956 Nobel Prize
in chemistry which he shared with the British Hinshelwood.

Lehrstuhl fur The first German supersonic wind tunnel 399 is installed at
Luftfahrt- Wieselsberger's institute under the leadership of R.
technik, TH Hermann. The Laval nozzle is covered with a layer of plaster
Aachen of Paris, which ensures a sufficient surface smoothness and is
easier to form than wood or metal. The ideal nozzle geometry
was determined graphically using the method of character-
istics. The 10 • 10 cm 2 wind tunnel can be operated up to
M = 3 and will be used in 1936 to test models of the liquid-
propellant rocket A-3 (short for Aggregat 3), the forerunner of
the V-2 (Peenem~nde -~ 1942).

Mt. Wilson Only 18 months after Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in

Observatory England, Baade and Zwicky 4~176 connect supernova explosions
and CalTech, to the formation of neutron stars, stating, "With all reserve, we
Pasadena, CA advance the view that a supernova represents the transition
108 e Krehl

of an ordinary star into a neutron star." 9 The first observational

evidence was given 33 years later with the discovery of a
rapidly rotating magnetic neutron star, a so-called "pulsar," in
the center of the Crab Nebula, which is a remnant of an
explosion seen by the Chinese (1054). Further evidence was
given by the spectacular event 4~ of the Supernova 1987a.

Institute of (2erenkov, 4~ then a postgraduate student, observes that

Physics, radiation of blue light is emitted when an energetic charged
U.S.S.R. particle passes through a transparent nonconductive material
Academy of at a velocity greater than the velocity of light within the
Sciences m a t e r i a l . . Later Tamm and Frank (1937) theoretically
treated this "Cerenkov effect" and concluded that velocity
phenomena, similar to a head wave in supersonic aerody-
namics, exist also in the micro cosmos when an energetic
particle moves through a medium at a velocity greater than
the phase velocity of light in this medium. For this unique
discovery and interpretation, the three Soviet scientists
earned together the 1958 Nobel Prize in physics. 4~

Services des Michel-L~vy and Muraour 4~ study the interaction of a single

Poudres, shock wave generated by an explosive with a solid boundary or
France of two shock waves generated by two simultaneously fired
explosives and observe in both cases an intense luminosity.
This effect is also observed when a shock wave is reflected from a
very light obstacle, such as cigarette paper. They give a correct
interpretation that the luminosity is solely attributed to the
shock wave itself and not to any phenomena due to the
explosion processmfor example by the emission of burnt par-
ticle--thus rejecting a previous hypothesis (Siersch-+ 1896).

1935 5th Volta G. A. Crocco is president of this international meeting with

Conference, the topic High Velocity in Aviation. It is the first time that
Rome leading supersonic aerodynamic engineers from around the
world discuss together the possibilities of supersonic flight.
Shortly afterward, however, some nations, starting with
Germany and Italy, will classify this topic because of its
military relevance. Busemann 4~ extends the existing linear
airfoil theory to include terms of higher orders. In his famous
concept of "sweepback wings," he predicts that his "arrow
wings," with a geometry such that they remain within the
shock cone at supersonic speed, would have less drag than
straight wings exposed to the head wave (a shock wave).
However, since propeller-driven aircraft of the 1930s still lack
the ability to enter supersonics, his idea cannot be realized
immediately, but will influence most future high-speed
aircraft designs. Prandtl 4~ reports on strange shock-like
History of Shock Waves 109

phenomena that he has observed in his supersonic nozzle.

Wiese|sberger first suggests that this phenomenon, later
named condensation shock, might be caused by condensed
water vapor when using atmospheric (moist) air. 4~ Studies
by Oswatitsch 4~ and Hermann 4~ will prove that this suppo-
sition is indeed correct. Ackeret 41~ discusses the supersonic
wind tunnel he has just completed for the Italians at Guido-
nia. Von K , q r m a n 411 presents a new theory of supersonic flow
from the viewpoint of drag.

Princeton Wigner and Huntington 412 suggest that insulating diatomic

University, NJ molecular solid hydrogen, subjected to very high pressures,
might transform into a metallic monatomic solid phase, and
estimate a pressure of transition to be not less than 250 kbar. 9
Their hypothesis stimulated numerous static and dynamic
high-pressure studies. An experimental evidence for the
existence of "metallic hydrogen" would be important not
only fundamentally in condensed matter physics and astro-
physics, but also technologically for possibly producing a
high-temperature superconductor. 413

School of Luigi C r o c c o 414 publishes a fundamental theoretical study on

Aeronautical the relative merits of different types of supersonic wind
Engineering, tunnels. Later von Karm~in referred to this review article as
University of the "bible of supersonic wind tunnels."
Rome
1936 Chair of Bone, Fraser, and Wheeler 415 study "spin detonation" in a
Chemical moist 2CO + 0 2 medium and use a high-speed rotating
Technology, mirror camera to measure the flame speed of detonation
Imperial phenomena in tubes. They observe a periodic structure in
College of the detonation wave and come to the following important
Science & conclusion: "A new view of the detonation-wave in gaseous
Technology, explosions is advanced. For it can no longer be regarded as
London simply a homogeneous 'shock wave,' in which an abrupt
change in pressure in the vicinity of the wave-front is
maintained by the adiabatic combustion of the explosive
medium through which it is propagated; but it must now
be viewed as a more or less stable association, or coalescence,
of two separate and separable components, namely of an
intensively radiating flame-front with an invisible shock wave
immediately ahead of it; and whether persistent 'spin' is
developed or not depends upon the stability or otherwise of
their association . . . . " 9 Their observations stimulated other
researchers who, although coming to a different explanation
of the origin of the periodic phenomena, essentially
confirmed the inhomogeneity of the detonation front.
110 P. Krehl

Supersonic Hermann, Wieselsberger's assistant at the supersonic wind

Wind Tunnel tunnel facility (M -- 3.3, working section 10 x 10 cm2),
Division, performs aerodynamic tests on models of the A-3 rocket,
Institute of the first large liquid-fuel rocket (length 6.74m, weight
Aerodynamics, 740kg) and antecedent of the A-4, later renamed V-2
TH Aachen (Peenemfinde--~ 1942). 416 By increasing the length of the tail
unit he verifies a stable flight even at high Mach numbers. 9 In
the following year plans were worked out "to build an
aerodynamic-ballistic research institute, capable of furnishing
all aerodynamic, stability, aerodynamic control, and heat
transfer data needed for the development of numerous
projects, such as supersonic projectiles (fired from guns),
rocket-powered vehicles without wings, stabilized by fins
(called missiles) and rocket-powered supersonic vehicles
with wings and fin-assemblies or with delta wings. ''417
1937 Safety in Mines Payman and Shepherd 418 rediscover the shock tube
Research (although this term was not yet coined) as a powerful tool
Board, to study combustion processes in air-methane mixtures and
Sheffield, U.K. to clarify whether a shock wave alone could start an explosion
in a firedamp/air atmosphere.
5&ool of L. Crocco 419 investigates fluids in chemical equilibrium and,
Aeronautical combining the entropy equation with the momentum equa-
Engineering, tion, obtains a relation between flow velocity V, vorticity
University of V x V, and thermodynamic properties. The "Crocco equation"
Rome contains the important result that a vortex-free flow behaves
isentropically in the whole flowfield. 9 His equation was later
extended by Vazsonyi 42~ to take into account fluid viscosity
and became known as the "Crocco-Vazsonyi equation."
General Tonks, 421 studying high-current-density phenomena in low-
Electric pressure arcs, coins the designation "pinch effect.". In the
Company, dynamic pinch, the radius of the plasma column decreases
Schenectady, with time and the cylindrical current shell moves inward,
NY thus acting like a magnetic piston and sweeping up all of the
charged particles it encounters (the snowplow concept). The
pinch effect is mostly used to compress gaseous matter.
Bless, 422 however, using pinched hollow metal conductors,
first demonstrated the suitability of the pinch method for
shock compression of solid miniature specimens as well.
1938 Luftkriegs- O. von Schmidt 423 treats wave propagation at the boundary
akademie between two media of different wave speeds. He observes that
Berlin-Gatow any wave that enters a material with a higher wave propaga-
tion velocity produces a "von Schmidt head wave" [von
Schmidt'sche Kopfwelle] in the material with the lower propa-
gation velocity that appears similar to a head wave produced
History of Shock Waves 111

by a supersonic bullet. Other wave types in solids, such as

transversal and bending waves, can produce head waves
under different angles as well. The von Schmidt head wave,
however, is a pseudo-supersonic phenomenon, independent
of the presence of any shock waves and observable also with
sound wave. Nevertheless, it is of great importance for
seismology. 424

Southern Boon and Albritton 425 show that geologic structures of the
Methodist Kentland type ("shatter cones", Bucher--+1933) are the
University, product of a meteorite impact. According to their theory,
Dallas, TX high-velocity impact~many times faster than the velocity of
a shock wave in any type of rock--compressed the rocks
elastically, rather than deforming them plastically, after which
they were "backfired" into a damped-wave disturbance. They
assumed that the shatter-cones, typically pointing toward the
impinging body, were formed during the initial or compres-
sional stage of such a meteorite i m p a c t . . Later Dietz 426
suggested shatter cones as useful field criteria ("index
fossil") for shock-wave fracturing in the geological past,
thus constituting presumptive evidence for astroblemes--
ancient meteorite impact scars.

U.S.S.R. Belajev 427 first applies an exploding wire to produce detona-

tion in nitrogen chloride and nitroglycerine. Subsequently
Johnston 428 in the United States found that the shock wave,
generated by an exploding wire, could also produce detona-
tion in PETN (pentaerythritol tetranitrate), a less sensitive
explosive in which detonation cannot normally be effected by
a heated wire. This important discovery allowed one to
replace the pill of primary explosive in the conventional
detonator (Nobel---, 1863) with a secondary explosive, thus
substantially reducing the handling hazards. The "safety
detonator" became a much-applied device in missile and
space vehicle technology, where exploding bridge-wire deto-
natorsmsuch as in state separators, cable cutters, and explo-
sive bolts--are widely used. Another great advantage is the
reduction in the time delay from milliseconds to microse-
conds, which allows an exact synchronization.

S iemens- Werke The flash X-ray technique--the generation of high intensity

Berlin; Research X-ray pulses of microsecond durationmis introduced.
Laboratory, Steenbeck, 429 who invented the method the year before at
General Electric the Siemens-werke Berlin, uses a capacitor discharge through a
Company, mercury-vapor-filled capillary discharge tube, which provides
Schenectady, a small focus. He immediately recognizes flash radiography as
NY an outstanding diagnostic tool to stop motion of projectiles in
112 p. Krehl

flight, shock waves in optically nontransparent media, and

self-luminous events such as detonation waves. In the same
year this new method is applied to make flash radiographs of
detonating hemisphere-shaped charges (Thomanek-+ 1938).
Kingdon and Tanis 43~ in the United States independently
generate flash X-rays by using a different diode type to study
mutation effects in biological samples.

Luftkriegs- Thomanek 431 discovers the importance of the cavity liner and
akademie documents the "shaped charge lined cavity effect." He started
Berlin-Gatow his studies on Schardin's hypothesis that the cavity effect
might be caused by the Mach effect (Mach and
Wosyka--+ 1875). Thomanek's first liner material is the glass
recipient used in experiments to evacuate the cavity. His
colleague Thomer 432 visualizes for the first time the jet
formation by using the recently developed flash radiography
technique (Steenbeck -+ 1938). This method allows the study
of the collapse of the liner without the interference of smoke
and flame associated with the explosion. 9 After World War II,
the Swiss Mohaupt 433 claimed in an article to have already
discovered the lined cavity effect as early as 1935.

Institut fiir Preiswerk 434 investigates the applicability and limitations of

Aerodynamik, the analogy between a two-dimensional shock wave and a
ETH Zfirich hydraulic jump (i.e., a horizontal water flow at low depths
and with a free surface). With examples of a hydraulic jump
propagating through a plane Laval nozzle or being reflected
obliquely at a solid boundary, he notices that with increas-
ing strength of the hydraulic jump the water flow measure-
ments increasingly deviate from the gas dynamic solution. 9
At this time this analogy was of particular interest because
it would have allowed the replacement of expensive high-
speed diagnostics--such as are required in the case of shock
wave diagnostics--by relatively simple water-table installa-
tions.

Kaiser- Hahn and Strassmann 435 perform the first artificial nuclear
Wilhelm- fission of uranium using neutrons. They cautiously annotate
Institut far that their results (published Jan. 6, 1939) "are in opposition
Chemie, Berlin to all the phenomena observed up to the present in nuclear
physics.",, In the following year, their colleague Fl~igge436
first estimated the released energy of the uranium fission
process and stated that one cubic meter of uranium oxide
(corresponding to approximately 4.2 tons of pitchblende)
contains sufficient fission energy to cover the consumption
of electric energy of central Germany for a period of 11 years.
He also speculated on the huge quantity of explosive energy
History of Shock Waves 113

that could be released artificially by nuclear fission within

milliseconds. In nature, however, this event is quite unlikely
because the concentration of uranium, even in highly
enriched deposits, is far too low to maintain a chain reaction.
Shortly thereafter, he states 437 in a Berlin newspaper that the
fission energy of about 4 tons of uranium oxide would be
sufficient "to throw the water mass of Lake Wannsee [a
renowned lake in the Southwest of Berlin with a length of
about 3 km] into the stratosphere." Given in a popular-science
manner, it is the earliest example of illustrating the huge
amount of energy that could be released explosively by
nuclear fission. Less than six years later it will be realized
in the first American atomic bomb. It is interesting here to
note that in the same year when FLOGGE published his
estimations, Zeldovich and Khariton delivered a report on
this topic at a seminar held at the Leningrad Physico-Techni-
cal Institute, in which they elucidated the conditions for a
nuclear explosion and estimated its destructive force. 438 Later
they both contributed mainly to the developmenht of the first
Soviet atomic bomb (1949).
1939 Heeresver- The world's most advanced supersonic wind tunnel is
suchsanstalt installed under the leadership of R. Hermann. It is a blow-
Peenemfinde, down-to-vacuum complex (M----4.4, later extended to 5.3;
Baltic Sea, working section 4 0 • 4 0 c m 2) with a three-component
Germany balance for measuring drag, lift, and pitching moment. Its
main task will be the aerodynamic optimization of the rockets
A-4, A-5, and the guided missile Wasserfall. Aerodynamic
characteristics of these models, such as drag and lift, can be
measured using an electromagnetic balance. Operation above
M = 5, however, reveals that condensation effects of the air
become significant and impair visualization. This discovery
eventually will led to the installation of the first dryer system
to take moisture out of the air before it enters the nozzle. 9
After the war the famous Peenem(inde wind tunnel was
confiscated by the U.S. Army, dismantled and shipped to
the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL) at White Oak, MD.
Later the facility was operated by the Naval Surface Warfare
Center (NSWC), now defunct.
Heinkel The first successful flight of the Heinkel He-178 occurs
Factory, (max. velocity 700 kin/h), the world's first turbojet aircraft
Warnemfinde which leads to an aviation revolution. It was designed by
Pabst von Ohain, a graduate from the University of GOttin-
gen.
114 P. Krehl

Aero- The first measurements are carried out on sweepback wings

dynamische in a high-speed tunnel (cross section 11 • 11 cm 2) at velo-
Versuchs- cities close to the sound velocity, thus following suggestions
anstalt made by Busemann (--+ 1935) and Betz. 439 These studies were
GOttingen not published until after World War II and caused consider-
able sensation among foreign aerodynamic experts. 44~
1940 New York City The Manhattan Project--code name for the U.S. effort during
World War II to produce the atomic bomb--is initiated. 441
The initially slow-growing project was named after the
Manhattan Engineer District of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, because much of the research was done in New
York City. 442 O n April 1943 Serber, one of Oppenheimer's
assistants, defines the goal more specifically: "The object of
the project is to produce a practical military weapon in the
form of a bomb in which the energy is released by a fast
neutron chain reaction in one or more of the materials to
show nuclear fission.",, The project had an enormous impact
on the further evolution of shock wave physics and detonics.
It led to the installation of a large number of special labora-
tories and test sites, operated by both governmental agencies,
private research organizations and universities.
1940 United States Von Form~in and Dryden, both on a business trip to
Washington DC, discuss shock phenomena in planes that
occurred at transonic speeds. In his memoirs von
Karman 443 writes, "We talked about the phenomenon and
decided that if we invented a word, it had to be something
between subsonic and supersonic to indicate that the body
travels 'through' the speed of sound and back. We chose
'trans-sonic'. However, there was an argument as to whether
to spell it with one s or with two s's. My choice was one s.
Dr. Dryden favored two s's ..... We agreed on the illogical
single s and thus it has remained. Incidentally, I used this
new expression in a report to Wright Field. Although we
just made up the word, nobody asked me what it meant.
They just accepted transonic as if it had always belonged to
the language . . . . " . The transonic regime was then of great
practical importance because pilots of the Lockheed P-38
reported that around Mach 0.8 their aircraft was shaken
wildly and lost equilibrium. At high flight speed, the air
moved over certain parts of the wing and tail at a speed
greater than the speed of the plane because of the curvature
of these sections. This phenomenon created shock waves
that, dancing forward and back, caused dangerous vibra-
tions of the skin structure (shock stall). In 1941 a Lockheed
test pilot died when shock waves from the plane's wings
History of Shock Waves 115

created turbulence that tore away the horizontal stabilizer,

sending the plane into a fatal plunge.
Safety in Mines Payman and Shepherd 444 continue their shock tube combus-
Research tion studies (---,1937) and make schlieren pictures of the
Establishment, shock wave with different driver gases. They notice that
Sheffield, U.K. hydrogen as a driver gas results in higher shock pressures
in the test chamber.
Institute of Zeldovich 445 presents his steady detonation model, assuming
Chemical that a nonreactive shock wave is the leading element in the
Physics, detonation, followed by a reaction zone in which detonation
Leningrad is initiated and completed, thereafter followed by the non-
[now reactive flow. 9 Shortly thereafter the same idea was worked
Petersburg] out independently by von Neumann 446 in the United States
and by D6ring 447 in Germany, and is known today as the
Zeldovich-von-Neumann-DOring (ZND) theory.
1941 Messerschmitt The Messerschmitt Me-262 becomes the world's first sweep-
AG, Augsburg back jet fighter. It is the fastest aircraft of that time (870 k m / h
at an altitude of 6100m). Prior to this, the usefulness of
sweepback wings was first proven at the Messerschmitt
Company by wind tunnel tests. 448 9 In the same year the
Me-163, a rocket plane that already approached the delta-
wing geometry, made its maiden flight (M = 0.84). At the end
of the war, the plane was built with a 45 ~ sweepback in its
wings.
Services des Michel-Levy, Muraour, and Vassy 449 study luminous
Poudres, phenomena in various gases behind the shock front. They
France generate strong shock waves by head-on collision of shock
waves emitted by explosives, and in argon they observe an
intense light emission that increases toward the ultraviolet.
Abteilung fur Schardin 45~ first suggests the possibility that phase transfor-
Technische mations might be induced by shock waves (shock-induced
Physik & freezing). He fired bullets into a tank filled with carbon
Ballistik, tetrachloride and water at speeds varying from 800 to
Luftkries- 1800m/s and photographed the process. He found the
akademie region surrounding the bullet to be opaque in tetrachloride
Berlin-Gatow at 1200m/s and in water at 1800m/s, whereas water
remained transparent at 800m/s.
Cavendish G. I. Taylor TM assumes a high-intensity point explosion and
Laboratory, calculates the propagation law of the blast wave. 9 His results,
Cambridge then of greatest military importance and top secret, were not
published in the open literature until 1950. At the beginning
of his paper he stated, "This paper was written early in 1941
and circulated to the Civil Defense Research Committee of the
Ministry of Home Security in June of that year. The present
116 e. Krehl

writer had been told that it might be possible to produce a

bomb in which a very large amount of energy would be
released by nuclear fission--the name atomic bomb had not
been used---and the work here described represents his first
attempt to form an idea of what mechanical effects might be
expected if such an explosion could occur. In the then-
common explosive bomb mechanical effects were produced
by the sudden generation of a large amount of gas at a high
temperature in a confined space. The practical question which
required an answer was: Would similar effects be produced if
energy could be released in a highly concentrated form
unaccompanied by the generation of gas? This paper has
now been declassified, and though it has been superseded by
more complete calculations, it seems appropriate to publish it
as it was first written, without alterations . . . . " He found that
only for a point explosion with an instantaneous energy
release (the ideal case) the shock wave moves with a steady
speed (D = const), analogous to the case of a plane detona-
tion, but that the pressure p with increasing distance r very
rapidly decreases (p "- 1/r3). Independently from Taylor, an
analogous solution for a point explosion was also obtained in
the Soviet Union by Sedov. 452 The corresponding cylindrical
problem was solved by Lin, 453 (1954), he obtained similar
results (D = const, but p "~ l/r2).

1941 David W. Studies in the United States 454 and Germany 455 are initiated
Taylor Model to study the oscillation of the gas globe ("bubble") of an
Basin, underwater explosion, beginning on a laboratory-scale using
Carderock Edgerton-stroboscopy and high-speed cinematography,
Division, MD respectively. The experimental investigations stimulate theo-
[now retical studies in the United States and England on the bubble
NSWCCD]; motion and shock wave generation, leading throughout the
Chemisch- war to a wealth of new data on underwater shock wave
Physikalische propagation and interaction phenomena with boundary
Versuchsanstalt surfaces (published in 1950 as UNDEX Reports). Berthe and
der Kirkwood 456 will demonstrate that after reaching the rebound
Kriegsmarine, point in bubble dynamics, a shock wave is emitted into the
Kiel surrounding liquid, thus essentially confirming the photo-
graphy studies. 9 Early investigations of an explosion from a
single charge had revealed that the main shock is followed by
a second large pulse and further small ones (Blochmann
--~ 1898). Probably not later than in submarine warfare of
WWI this phenomenon was recognized as a particular threat
to a submarine's hull. Campbell 457 appropriately wrote in his
report, "For some time, submarine personnel have noticed
that more than one impact results from a single nearby
History of Shock Waves 11 7

underwater explosion, such as a depth charge. Successive

shocks were noted, and it was believed that the intensity and
the time between blows decreased with each successive blow.
Motion pictures of the action of floating models subjected to
underwater explosions corroborated this impression."
1942 Heeresver- On October 3 the rocket A-4 (later named V-2) covers a range
suchsanstalt of 191 km and reaches a record height of 84.5 km, thus being
Peenemfinde, the first man-made vehicle to penetrate into space. 458 The
Germany missile has a total length of almost 14 meters and was capable
of transporting a payload of 750 kg with a velocity of up to
Mach 4.
LASL, Los The Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (LASL) is established by
Alamos, NM the U.S. government to centralize nuclear bomb research and
development for the Manhattan Project (---~1940s), which had
hitherto been performed at the Universities of Chicago,
Cornell, Minnesota, Purdue, Stanford and Wisconsin, and
the Carnegie Institution of Washington. 459
Institut far Guderley, 46~ treating the implosion of cylindrical and sphe-
Gasdynamik, rical shock waves mathematically, predicts infinite shock
LFA, strengths at the implosion center. Real gas effects, however,
Braunschweig furnish a natural limit to these theoretical singularities.
Institute for Von Neumann speculates on a method to find an equivalent
Advanced Huygens principle for waves of finite amplitude (shock
Study, waves). 461 9 Unfortunately, details of this interesting approach
Princeton, NJ have not been passed onto us.
Dept. of Bethe 462 calculates the stability of shock waves for an arbi-
Physics, trary equation of state and deals with the case when a phase
Cornell transition is induced by the shock, at that time a phenomenon
University, thought to be possible in strong underwater explosions. In his
Ithaca, NY introduction he circumscribes the goal of his study: "The
theory of shock waves thus far has been developed mainly for
ideal gases. Even for these, the question of stability of shock
waves has received little attention. Recently, the problem of
shock waves in water has gained much practical importance.
Therefore, it seems worthwhile to investigate the properties of
shock waves under conditions as general as possible . . . . "
He treats the Hugoniot curve H(v, s) in terms of volume per
unit mass, v, and entropy per unit mass, s, and derives
the following three stability conditions of a shock wave:
(i) 32p(v,s)/3v2>O; (ii) v Op(v,e)/3e>-2; and (iii)
3p(v, e)/Ov < 0 He concludes that the transition from solid
to liquid, from solid to gas, and from liquid to gas, as well as
the reverse transitions, should not affect the stability of the
shock, while in the solid-solid transitions the shock front
118 P. Krehl

would split into successive shocks, the first one raising the
medium to a metastable state and the second one transform-
ing it into the new stable phase.
1943 Applied Von Neumann 463 develops a "two-shock theory" of regular
Mathematics reflection and a "three-shock theory" of Mach reflection. He
Group, Institute also coins the term Mach effect to denote such a three-shock
for Advanced configuration. 9 The quantitative experimental evidence of his
Study, theory of oblique reflection of shock waves came mainly from
Princeton, NJ the four following sources (all provided in 1943): (i) Aberd-
een ballistic photographs; (ii) Princeton shock-wave tube
photographs; (iii) Teddington supersonic wind-tunnel photo-
graphs; and (iv) Prof. Wood's model shock interaction experi-
ments at Johns Hopkins University using Mach and Wosyka's
method of shock generation and soot recording (--->1875).
The Mach effect was actually used in the bombing of
Hiroshima and Nagasaki (--+ 1945) to determine the position
(height of burst, HOB) of the atomic bomb best suited for
optimum damage. 464
The Johns Wood 465 repeats E. Mach and Wosyka's soot experiments
Hopkins (-+ 1875) and E. Mach's and L. Mach's schlieren photography
University, of two interacting spark waves (-+ 1889). Wood's results fully
Baltimore, MD confirm the existence of "Mach disk" (or "Mach bridge")
formation.
Ballistic Charters 466 analyses Wood's soot experiments (--+1943)
Research and discovers in E. Mach's "opposite V-gliding-spark"
Laboratories arrangement (--+ 1875) "lines of discontinuity" that separate
(BRL), areas of equal pressuremi.e., are not shock waves. However,
Aberdeen, MD they represent discontinuity lines for entropy, temperature
and density, 467 = Later they were called contact discontinuity
lines (Courant and Friedrichs 1948) or slipstreams (Blea-
kney and Taub, 1949).
Institut fftr Schultz-Grunow 468 publishes a pioneering paper on shock
Mechanik, TH wave propagation in ducts having an area change segment. He
Aachen correctly treats the flow up- and downstream of the area
change segment as an unsteady, one-dimensional flow using
the theory of characteristics, but approximates the flow in the
area change section as being quasi-one-dimensional and
steady. 9 His method of approximation was an important
achievement for many engineering applications in the pre-
computer era. For example, it allowed for the first time the
determination of the exhaust flow of internal combustion
engines, the flow in diffusers such as in shock tunnels and in
converging/diverging nozzles used in rockets and jet propul-
sion engines. Today the flow through ducts with inserted area
History of Shock Waves 1 19

change segments can easily be handled as a truly two- (or

three-) dimensional unsteady flow.469
David W. Campbell, Spitzer, and Price 470 study interference effects of
Taylor Model spherical shock waves resulting from two underwater detona-
Basin, tions of small charges and first prove that Mach reflection also
Carderock exists in water. However, they cannot detect any slipstreams,
Division, MD which is possibly caused by the fact that the pressure level of
intersecting shock waves is too low.
Princeton Reynolds 471 uses a pressurized "pot" terminated by a
University diaphragm, which, when pierced, produces a steep pressure
Station, NJ pulse with a rise time of only a few nanoseconds. His device, a
kind of short shock tube, is very appropriate to calibrate
piezoelectric gauges. 9 Since then the piezoelectric gauge has
become the standard pressure gauge in most shock tube
facilities and is used routinely at most head-on and side-on
shock front positions.
1944 Guggenheim Von I~rm~in designs the first large modern American super-
Aeronautical sonic wind tunnel (working section 15 • 15 in.) for the BRL
Laboratory, in Aberdeen, MD. The famous astronomer Hubble will
Pasadena, CA temporarily act as a director of this facility.
BRL, Aberdeen Sachs 472 extends the Hopkinson scaling law (B.
Proving Hopkinson-+1915) to account for effects of altitude or
Ground, MD other changes in ambient conditions on air blast waves
("Sachs scaling law").
Heel'esver- Erdmann 473 modifies the nozzle of the supersonic wind
suchsanstalt tunnel and performs the first hypersonic wind tunnel tests
Peenemfmde, at a Mach number close to 9. Shortly thereafter the evacuation
Kochel, of the Peenem~inde Supersonic Laboratory to Kochel begins.
Bavarian Alps Plans are worked out to directly use the Walchensee Hydro-
electric Plant for providing the required enormous power
(about 60 MW) to operate a huge hypersonic wind tunnel
(1 • 1 m 2, M = 10) in the future. 9 Hypersonic wind tunnel
studies were not resumed until 1947 after the completion of
the first American hypersonic facility by the NACA at Lang-
ley, VA. The tunnel had an l 1-in. 2 test section, capable of
reaching hypersonic flow up to M -- 7.
University of Oswatitsch 474 performs for the German Army Ordnance
GOttingen [Heereswaffenamt] the first theoretical and experimental
studies to determine the factors influencing muzzle (or
recoil) brake efficiency. These brakes recover momentum
from the exhausting propellant gases by deflecting the flow
away from the direction of fire. However, they also increase
significantly the blast overpressure behind the gun in the
vicinity of crew members. This problem will remain a
120 e. Krehl

permanent challenge to postwar designers of large caliber

cannons.
BRL, Aberdeen Thomas 475 discusses Becker's theory of the shock front
Proving (---~1921). He shows that the shock front's thickness is
Ground, MD always at least of the order of magnitude of a free path
length and that the Boltzmann equation can be applied
even for the most violent shocks.
Applied Von Neumann 476 proposes a new approach to the hydrody-
Mathematics namical shock problem that he applies to the collision of
Group, Institute shock and rarefaction waves. His method, based on a simple
for Advanced pressure-density relationship as already proposed by Riemann
Study, ( ~ 1859), provides also a computational procedure and will
Princeton, NJ be resumed in the following years by yon Mises and Geir-
inger (1948).
1945 Palmer Smith 477 uses a shock tube and photographs the oblique
Physical reflection of plane shocks in air, thus giving the first quanti-
Laboratory, tative information about the validity of von Neumann's two-
Princeton and three-shock solutions (von Neumann --~1943). He
University, NJ discovers that, contrary to the reflection of sound waves, a
reflected shock reflects at a larger angle than the angle of
incidence. At large shock strengths, the Mach reflection
begins at nearly the angles at which the theory says regular
reflection is not possible. For weak shocks, regular reflection
continues to be seen at larger angles of incidence than where
they are theoretically impossible. 478 His discrepancy will later
be named the "von Neumann paradox." Smith also first
observes complex Mach reflection. 9 In the same year YON
NEUMANN,479 treating various shock wave interaction
phenomena, termed in the case of Mach reflection the new
shock wave--a mergence of the reflected shock with the
incident shock in the vicinity of the reflecting wall---the
Mach stem.
ISL, Saint- The Laboratoire de Recherches Balistiques et Ad.rodynamiques de
Louis, Alsace, Saint-Louis (LRSL), is founded. The first directors are Prof. H.
France Schardin and Gen. R. Cassagnou. 9 In 1959 it was trans-
formed into a joint French-German research institute to
promote the scientific cooperation between France and
Germany and renamed Institut Saint-Louis (ISL).
LASL, Los Goranson and coworkers initiate a program to determine
Alamos, NM equation-of-state data of shock-compressed materials, a
subject of immediate interest for the design of nuclear
weapons and their effects. It will stimulate also other labora-
tories in the United Statesmand shortly after also in the
Soviet UnionNto initiate research in shock wave physics on
History of Shock Waves 121

a large scale.. At that time some theoretical studies on the

behavior of shock waves in solids already existed, provided
for example by early pioneers such as Christoffe148~ (1877),
Hugoniot 481 (1889), Duhem 482 (1903), Hadamard 483 (1903),
and Jouguet 484 (1920)] and some as well as on the theory of
plastic waves (B. Hopkinson-+1905). Even so, the long-
planned systematic campaign at Los Alamos and other
national research laboratories and private research organiza-
tions can be regarded as the birth of modem solid state shock
wave physics. 485
Trinity Site, On July 16, the first nuclear fission bomb is ignited at an
Alamogordo, altitude of 100 ft. The bomb is an implosion-type weapon that
NM uses high explosive lenses to rapidly implode a hollow
subcritical sphere of fissionable material into a solid super-
critical sphere. Measurements are made by Fastax cameras (i)
of the shock wave expansion by positioning cameras at half-
mile stations; and (ii) of the mass velocity, using suspended
Primacord and magnesium flash powder (upon analysis of the
results, a total yield of 19,000 tons TNT equivalent was
found). The peak pressure is recorded, using spring-loaded
piston gauges. The excess shock velocity in relation to sound
velocity is measured with a moving-coil loudspeaker pickup.
Fermi 486 devised his own order-of-magnitude method of
roughly determining the blast yield: "About 40 seconds after
the explosion the air blast reached me. I tried to estimate the
strength by dropping from about six feet small pieces of paper
before, during, and after passage of the blast wave. Since, at
that time, there was no wind, I could observe very distinctly
and actually measure the displacement of the pieces of paper
that were in the process of falling while the blast was passing.
The shift was about 2~ meters, which, at the time, I estimated
to correspond to the blast that would be produced by 10,000
tons of TNT . . . . " 9 Later investigations showed that, depend-
ing on the height of burst, about 45-55% of the fission energy
appears as blast and shock. Since the positive duration of a
blast wave from a nuclear explosion is longer than from a
chemical one, damage effects to air blast loading are more
severe than hitherto observed from conventional explosions.
Japan On August 6 Hiroshima is bombed (Little Boy, uranium-gun-
type bomb, equivalent to 15,000 tons of TNT, HOB ~ 1900 ft)
and on August 9 Nagasaki is bombed (Fat Man, plutonium
implosion bomb, equivalent to 21,000 tons of TNT,
HOB ~, 1850ft). Later the crew of the B-29 (Enola Gay),
which dropped the bomb and witnessed the explosion from
on board, contributed to the following official account 487 of
122 P. Krehl

the first atomic air raid in history: "The flash after the
explosion was deep purple, then reddish and reached to
almost 8,000 feet; the cloud, shaped like a mushroom, was
up to 20,000 feet in one minute, at which time the top part
broke from the 'stem' and eventually reached 30,000. The
stem of the mushroom-like column of smoke, looking now
like a giant grave marker, stood one minute after the explo-
sion upon the whole area of the city, excepting the southern
dock area. This column was a thick white smoke, darker at
the base, and interspersed with deep red. Though about
fifteen miles (slant range) from the target when the explosion
occurred, both escort aircraft, as well as the strike plane,
reported feeling two shock waves jar the aircraft. Approxi-
mately 390 statute miles away from the target area, the
column of smoke still could be seen piercing the morning
sky." The second shock was caused by reflection of the
primary shock at the ground. The precise yield of these two
bomb explosions was difficult to state for that early type of
weapon and remained a subject of later discussions and
investigations. 488 In the subsequent long period of Cold
War, the knowledge of yields was of particular interest in
understanding the mechanism of observed damage on a wide
spectrum of civilian targets and radiation effects on man, and
in predicting damage scenarios in a possible future nuclear
war.

1.9 NOTES

1. C. A. Truesdell. Euler's two letters to Langrange in October, 1759. In Leonardi Euleri Opera
Omnia XIII [II]. Teubner, Leipzig (1926). See also Editor's introduction, pp. xxxvii-xli.
2. H. Cavendish. A measurer of explosions of inflammable air (laboratory note). In The scientific
papers on the Honorable Henry Cavendish, F.R.S., (E. Thorpe, ed.) Chemical & Dynamical, vol.
II, Univ. Press, Cambridge (1921), pp. 318-320.
3. J. Canton. Experiments to prove that water is not incompressible. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London
52:640-643 (1762); Experiments and observations on the compressibility of water and some
other fluids. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 54:261-262 (1764).
4. D. Bernoulli. Examen physico-mechanicum de motu mixto qui laminis elasticis a percussione
simul imprimitur. Novi Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae XV: 29-
31 (1770).
5. G. Monge. M~moire sur la construction des fonctions arbitraires dans les int~grales des
equations aux differences partielles. M~noires des mathCmatiques et de physique pr~sent~s
l'AcadCmie...par divers sc~avans... 7 [l'ann~e 1773, 2e partie]:267-300, 305-327 (1773).
Imprimerie Royale, Paris (1776); Sur la d~termination du fonctions arbitraires dans les
int(.grales de quelques (.quations aux differences partielles. Miscellanea taurinensia (Torino) 5,
16--78 (1770-1773).
History of Shock Waves 123

6. R. Taton. ~oeuvre scientifique de Gaspard Monge. Presse Universitaire de France, Paris (1951);
Gaspard Monge. Dict. Scient. Biogr. 9: 469-478. Scribner's Sons, New York (1973).
7. K. Oswatitsch. Uber die Charakteristikenverfahren der Hydrodynamik. ZAMM 25//27: 195-
208, 264-270 (1947).
8. R. Courant and K. O. Friedrichs. Supersonic flow and shock waves. Interscience Publ., New
York (1948).
9. M. B. Abbott. An introduction to the method of characteristics. American Elsevier, New York
(1966), pp. 35-44, 128-163.
10. E. Nairne. Electrical experiments by Mr. Edward Nairne, of London, mathematical instruJ
mentJmaker, made with a machine of his own workmanship, a description of which is
prefixed. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 6 4 : 7 9 - 8 9 (1774).
11. H. Mtiller. Gewehre, Pistolen, Revolver. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart (1979). See also: Windbfchsen
und elektrische Zundung, pp. 154-156.
12. J. L. Lagrange: Memoire sur la th~orie du mouvement des fluides. Nouv. M~m. Acad. Roy. Sci. &
Belles-Lettres Berlin (1781), pp. 151-198.
13. E R. Gilmore, M. S. Plesset, H. E. Crosley, Jr.: The analogy between hydraulic jumps in liquids
and shockwaves in gases. J. Appl. Phys. 21:243-249 (1950).
14. C. Hutton. New experiments in gunnery, for determining the force of fired gunpowder, the
initial velocity of cannon ball, the ranges of projectiles at different elevations, the resisatnce of
the air to projectiles, the effect of different length of guns, and of different quantities of
powder, &c, &c. In: Tracts on mathematical and philosophical subjects. T. Davidson, London
(1812). See vol. 2, Tract XXXIV, pp. 306-384.
15. C. Hutton. Theory and practice of gunnery, as dependent on the resistance of the air. In: Tracts
on mathematical and philosophical subjects. T. Davidson, London (1812). See vol. 3, Tract
XXXVII, pp. 209-315.
16. H. Cavendish. Experiments on air. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 74: 481-502, 510-514 (1784),
7 5 : 1 5 - 2 2 (1785).
17. Count Morozzo. Account of a violent explosion which happened in a flour~warehouse, at
Turin, December 14th, 1785; to which are added some observations on spontaneous
inflammations. The Repertory of Arts and Manufactures 2:416-432 (1795).
18. J. L. Lagrange. Sur la percussion des fluides. Mcm. Acad. Roy. Sci. Turin I: 95-108 (1784-
1785).
19. D. Bernoulli: Hydrodynamica, sive de viribus et motibus fluidorum commentarii. Dulsecker,
Strassburg (1738); translated into English by T. Carmody, H. Kobus: Hydrodynamics. Dover
Publ., New York (1968).
20. J. Goodricke. A series of observations on, and a discovery of the period of the variations of
light of the star marked ~ by Bayer, near the head of Cepheus. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 16:
48-61 (1786).
21. L. I. Sedov. Similarity and dimensional methods in mechanics. Infosearch Ltd., London (1959),
pp. 305-353.
22. E yon Baader. Versuch einer Theorie der Sprengarbeit. Bergmannisches J. 1 (No. 3):193-212
(March 1792).
23. D. R. Kennedy. History of the shaped charge effect. The first 1O0 years. Company brochure
prepared by D. R. Kennedy & Associates, Inc., Mountain View, CA (1983).
24. G. Pinet: Histoire de l'~cole polytechnique. Baudry, Paris (1887).
25. E. E E Chladni. ~ber den Ursprung der yon Pallas gefundenen und anderer ahnlicher
Eisenmassen, und fiber einige damit in Verbindung stehende Naturerscheinungen. J. E Hartknoch,
Riga (1794).
26. Journal der Physik 8, 20-21 (1794).
124 e. Krehl

27. I. I. Glass and J. P. Sislian. Nonstationary flows and shock waves. Clarendon Press, Oxford
(1994), pp. 271-275.
28. J. M. Montgolfier: Note sur le belier hydraulique, et sur la maniere d'en calculer les effets. J. des
Mines XIII, 42-51 (1802-1803).
29. Weinmann Sondermaschinen- und Steuerungsbau GmbH, 91217 Hersbruck, Germany.
30. J. B. Biot. Theorie mathematique de la propagation du son. J. Phys. 55:173-182 (1802).
31. J. B. Biot. Account of a fire-ball which fell in the neighborhood of EAigle: In a letter to the
French Minister of the Interior. Phil. Mag. 16 [I]:224-228 (1803).
32. Brockhaus Konversationslexikon. Brockhaus, Leipzig (1908). See vol. 11, p. 815.
33. E L. Neher. Die Erfindung der Photographie. Kosmos, Stuttgart (1938), p. 36.
34. S. D. Poisson. Memoire sur la theorie du son. J. Ecole Polytech. (Paris) 7:319-392 (1808).
35. J. L. Lagrange. Sur une nouvelle methode de calcul integral pour les differentielles affectees
d'un radical carre, sous lequel la variable ne passe pas le 4 e degre. Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Turin
II: 218-290 (1784-1785).
36. J. L. Gay-Lussac and L. J. Thenard. De la nature et des proprietes de racide muriatique et de
l'acide muriatique oxigene. M~n. Soc. Arcueil 2:339-358 (1809).
37. G.J. Singer and A. Crosse. An account of some electrical experiments by M. De Nelis. Phil.
Mag. 46 [I]:161-166 (1815).
38. P. S. Laplace. Sur la vitesse du son dans l'air et dans l'eau. Ann. Chim. & Phys. 3:238-241
(1816).
39. H. Davy. (I) On the fire-damp of coal mines, and on methods of lighting the mines so as to
prevent its explosion. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 106:1-22 (1816); (II) An account of an
invention for giving light in explosive mixtures of fire-damp in coal mines by consuming the
fire-damp. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 106:23-24 (1816).
40. Technisches Museum Wien, A-1140 Vienna, Austria.
41. L. M. H. Navier. Memoire sur les lois du mouvement des fluides. Mem. Acad. Roy. Sci. Paris 6:
389-440 (1823).
42. S. D. Poisson. Memoire sur les equations generales de l'equilibre et du mouvement des
corps solides elastiques et des fluides. J. Ecole Polytech. (Paris) 13 (Cahier 20):1-174
(1831).
43. A. J. C. de Saint-Venant. Note sur l'ecoulement de l'air. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 21:366-369
(1845).
44. G. G. Stokes. On the theory of the internal friction of fluids in motion, and of the equilibrium
and motion of elastic solids. Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 8:287-319 (1845).
45. J. C. Maxwell. On the dynamical theory of gases. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 157:49-88
(1867).
46. S. D. Poisson. Sur la vitesse du son. Ann. Chim. & Phys. 2 3 : 5 - 1 6 (1823).
47. S. D. Poisson. Sur la chaleur des gaz et des vapeurs. Ann. Chim. & Phys. 23:337-353 (1823).
48. W. E. Parry. Journal of the third voyage for the discovery of a North-West Passage from the
Atlantic to the Pacific; performed in the years 1824-25, in His Majesty's ships Hecla and Fury,
under the orders of...W.E. Parry. J. Murray, London (1826). See Experiments to determine the
rate at which sound travels at various temperatures and pressures of the atmosphere,
Appendix, p. 86.
49. W. E. Parry. Journal of a second voyage for the discovery of a North-West Passage from the
Atlantic to the Pacific; performed in the years 1821-22-23, in His Majesty's ships Fury and Hecla,
under the orders of...W.E. Parry. J. Murray, London (1824-25). See p. 140; and Abstract of
experiments to determine the velocity of sound at low temperature, Appendix, pp. 237-239.
50. W. E. Parry and H. Foster. Reply to Mr. Galbraith's remarks on the experiments for
ascertaining the velocity of sound at Port Bowen. Phil. Mag. 1 [II]:12-13 (1827).
History of Shock Waves 125

51. D. Colladon and C. E Sturm. Ober die Zusammendruckbarkeit der Flussigkeiten. Ann. Phys.
12 [II]:161-197 (1828).
52. J. B. C. B~langer. Essai sur la solution num~rique de quelques problCmes relatifs au mouvement
permanent des eaux courantes. Carilian-Gceury, Paris (1828).
53. E. Jouguet. Quelques probl~mes d'hydrodynamique g~n~rale. J. Math. Pures & Appl. 3
[VIII]:1-63 (1920). See p. 12.
54. D. E C. Arago. Uber die Explosionen der Dampfmaschinen. Ann. Phys. 18 [II]:287-314, 415-
436 (1830).
55. C. Wheatstone. An account of some experiments to measure the velocity of electric light.
Proc. Roy. Soc. London 3:299-300 (1834).
56. E. Sabine. President's address. Proc. Roy. Soc. London 18:145-147 (1869).
57. L. Foucault. M~thode g~neral pour mesurer la vitesse de la lumi~re dans l'air et dans les
milieux transparents. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 30:551-560 (1850).
58. B. W. Feddersen. Beitrage zur Kenntnis des elektrischen Funkens. Ann. Phys. 103 [II]:69-88
(1858).
59. P. W W. Fuller and J. T. Rendell. The development of high speed photography. In High speed
photography and photonics, S. E Ray, ed. Focal Press, Oxford (1997), pp. 21-23; V. Parker and
C. Roberts: Rotating mirror and drum cameras. Ibid. pp. 167-180.
60. D. E J. Arago. On thunder and lightning. Edinburgh New Phil. J. 26: 81-144, 275-291 (1839);
Meteorological essays, with an introduction by A. yon Humboldt (translated by R. A. Sabine).
Longman & Co, London (1855).
61. M. Faraday. On some supposed forms of lightning. Phil. Mag. 19 [III]:104-106 (1841).
62. G. K. Hubler. Fluff balls of fire. Nature 403:487-488 (2000).
63. A.J.C. de Saint-Venant and P. L. Wantzel. M4moire et exp4riences sur l'4coulement de l'air. J.
Ecole Polytech. (Paris) 16:85-122 (1839).
64. C. Wheatstone. Description of the electromagnetic clock. Proc. Roy. Soc. London 4 : 2 4 9 - 2 7 8
(1840).
65. J. S. Russell. The wave of translation in the oceans of water, air and ether. Trubner & Co.,
London (1885), p. 315.
66. C. S. M. Pouillet. Note sur un moyen de mesurer des intervalles de temps extremement
courts, comme la duree du choc des corps ~lastiques, cell du debondement des ressorts, de
l'inflammation de la poudre etc.; et sur un moyen nouveau de comparer les intensit~s des
courants ~lectriques, soit permanents, soit instantan~s. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 19:1384-1389
(1844).
67. M. Faraday and C. Lyell. On explosions in coal mines. Phil. Mag. 26 [III]:16-35 (1845).
68. G. B. Airy. Tides and waves. In Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. Fellowes, London (1845).
69. C. Haeussermann: Gedachtnisrede auf Christian Friedrich SCHONBEIN [Referat]. Z. f. d. gesamte
Scheit~- und Sprengstoffwesen 4, 433-434 (1909).
70. J. Taylor. "Improvements in the manufacture of explosive compounds, communicated to me
from a certain foreigner residing abroad." Brit. Patent No. 11,407 (Oct. 8, 1846).
71. E A. Abel. On the manufacture and composition of gun-cotton. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London
156:269-308 (1866).
72. J. C. Doppler. Uber den Einflut~ der Bewegung des Fortpflanzungsmittels auf die Erscheinun-
gen der ,~ther-, Luft- und Wasserwellen (presented in 1847). Abhandl. BOhm. Gesellsch. Wiss.
Prag 5 [V]:293-306 (1848).
73. A. Sobrero. Sur plusieurs composes d~tonants produits avec l'acide nitrique et le sucre, la
dextrine, la lactine, la marnite, et la glycerine. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 25:247-248 (1847).
74. G. B. Airy. The Astronomer Royal's remarks on Prof. Challis' theoretical determination of the
velocity of sound. Phil. Mag. 32 [III]:339-343 (1848).
126 ~ Krehl

75. J. Challis. On the velocity of sound. Phil. Mag. 32 [III]:494-499 (1848).

76. G. G. Stokes. On a difficulty in the theory of sound. Phil. Mag. 33 [III]:349-356 (1848).
77. G. B. Airy. On a difficulty in the problem of sound. Phil. Mag. 34 [III]:401-405 (1849).
78. J. C. Maxwell. On the equilibrium of elastic solids. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh 20:87-120
(1850).
79. W. Goldsmith. Dynamic photoelasticity. In Kurzzeitphysik, K. Vollrath and G. Thomer, eds.
Springer, Wien (1967), pp. 579-619.
80. W. H. E Talbot. On the production of instantaneous images. Phil. Mag. 3 [IV]:73-77 (1852).
81. W.J.M. Rankine. On Laplace's theory of sound. Phil. Mag. 1 [IV]:225-227 (1851).
82. S. Earnshaw. On the velocity of the sound of thunder. Phil. Mag. 20 [IV]:37-41 (1860).
83. G. G. Stokes. An examination of the possible effect of the radiation of heat on the propagation
of sound. Phil. Mag. 1 [IV]:305-317 (1851).
84. J. Challis. Theoretical determination of the velocity of sound. Phil. Mag. 32 [III]:276-284
(1848); On the theory of the velocity of sound. Phil. Mag. 1 [IV]:405-408 (1851).
85. C. E. Munroe. Modern explosives. Scribner's Mag. 3:563-576 (1888).
86. J. Jamin. Description d'un nouvel appareil de recherches, fondr sur les interferences. C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris 42:482-485 (1856).
87. A. Toepler and L. Bohzmann. Uber eine neue optische Methode, die Schwingungen t6nender
Luftsaulen zu analysieren. Ann. Phys. 141 [II]:321-352 (1870).
88. A. Kr6nig. Grundz~ge einer Theorie der Gase. Ann. Phys. 99 [II]:315-322 (1856).
89. R. Clausius. Uber die Art der Bewegung, welche wir Warme nennen. Ann. Phys. 100 [II]:353-
380 (1857).
90. J. C. Maxwell: Illustrations of the dynamical theory of gases. Part I: On the motion and collisions
of perfectly elastic spheres. Phil. Mag. 19 [IV], 19-32 (1860); Part II: On the process of diffusion
of two or more moving particles among one another. Ibid. 20 [IV], 21-37 (1860); On the
dynamical theory of gases. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 157, 49-88 (1867).
91. L. Boltzmann. Weitere Studien tiber das Warmegleichgewicht unter Gasmolekulen. Sitzungs-
ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 66 [II]:275-370 (1872).
92. T. Koga: Introduction to kinetic theory stochastic processes in gaseous systems. Pergamon Press,
Oxford etc. (1970). Cf. Appendix G: An historical sketch of kinetic theory, pp. 261-277.
93. J. P. Joule and W. Thomson. On the thermal effects of fluids in motion. (I) On the temperature
of solids exposed to currents of air. Proc. Roy. Soc. 8:178-185 (1856-1857); (II) Temperature
of a body moving through air. Proc. Roy. Soc. 8: 41-42, 556-567 (1856-1857).
94. T.J. Rodman. Reports of experiments on the properties of metals for cannon, and the qualities of
cannon powder; with an account of the fabrication and trial of a 15-inch gun. Crosby, Boston, MA
(1861); Mitteilungen fiber Gegenstande des Artillerie- und Geniewesens (Wien). Notizen S. 57
(1881); C. Cranz: Lehrbuch der Ballistik III. Springer, Berlin (1927).
95. A. Noble. On methods that have been adopted for measuring pressures in the bores of guns.
Rept. Meet. Brit. Assoc. 64:523-540 (1894).
96. K. W. Knochenhauer. Uber den elektrischen Zustand der Nebenbatterie wahrend ihres
Stromes. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 33 [II]:163-204 (1858).
97. S. Earnshaw. On the mathematical theory of sound (communicated in Nov. 1858). Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc. London 150:133-148 (1860).
98. S. Earnshaw. "On the mathematical theory of sound." Rpt. Meet. Brit. Assoc. 28:34-35 (1858).
99. B. Riemann. Uber die Fortpflanzung ebener Luftwellen yon endlicher Schwingungsweite.
Abhandl. KOnigl. Ges. Wiss. GOttingen 8 (Math. Physik. Kl.):243-265 (1860).
100. R. Carrington. Description of a singular appearance seen in the sun on Sept 1, 1859. Month.
Not. Astron. Soc. 20:14-16 (1860); On two cases of solar spots in high latitudes, and on the
surface currents indicated by the observation. Month. Not. Astron. Soc. 20:255-259 (1860).
History of Shock Waves 127

101. A. von Humbold. Kosmos. Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung, vol. III. Cotta, Stuttgart
& Augsburg (1858), p. 127.
102. S. Earnshaw. On the velocity of the sound of thunder. Phil. Mag. 20: [IV] 37-41 (1860); On
the triplicity of sound. Phil. Mag. 20 [IV]:186-192 (1860).
103. C. Montigny. Note sur la vitesse du bruit du tonnerre. Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg. 27 [II]:36-46
(1860); Observations sur l'acc~l~ration de la vitesse du bruit du tonnerre. Bull. Acad. Roy.
Belg. 27 [II]:62-63 (1860); Fortschritte der Physik 16:165-167 (1860).
104. G. A. Hirn. Sur le bruit du tonnerre. Cosmos (Paris) 16:651-655 (1860).
105. E Raillard. Sur le bruit du tonnerre. Cosmos (Paris) 1 6 : 3 7 2 - 3 7 4 (1860); Du bruit du
tonnerre, de ses variations ou de ses roulements, de sa vitesse &. Cosmos (Paris) 17: 166-172,
675-677 (1860).
106. A. B. Nobel. "Nitroglycerin" (manufacturing and fining). Brit. Patent No. 1813 (1864).
107. P. E. Le Bouleng~. M~moire sur un chronographe r (prCsentr 5 Dr 1863).
MCm. Couronn. & M~'m. Savants Etrangers de l'Acad. Roy. (Bruxelles) 3 2 : 3 9 pages (1864-
1865).
108. G. B. Airy. "Report on steam boiler explosions." Rpt. Meet. Brit. Assoc. 33:686-688 (1863).
109. R. Armstrong and J. Bourne. The modern practice of boiler engineering, containing observations
on the construction of steam boilers. Spon, Leipzig (1856). See also chp. III: Explosions: an
investigation into some of the causes producing them, and the deterioration of boilers
generally.
110. Dampfkesselexplosionen. In Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, vol. IV Verlag Bibliograph. Inst.,
Leipzig (1875), pp. 954-956.
111. V. Regnault. On the velocity of the propagation of waves in gaseous media. Phil. Mag. 35
[IV]:161-171 (1868).
112. H.J. Rink. l]ber die Geschwindigkeit des Schalls nach Hrn. Regnault's Versuchen. Ann. Phys.
149 [II]:533-546 (1873).
113. A. Toepler. Beobachtungen nach einer neuen optischen Methode. Max Cohen & Sohn, Bonn
(1864), p. 43.
114. H.W. Robinson and W. Adams (eds.). The diary ofR. Hooke. Taylor & Francis, London (1953).
115. L. Foucault. M~moire sur la construction des t~lescopes en verre argentS. Ann. de l'Observa-
toire Imperial de Paris 5:197-237 (1859).
116. A. Nobel. "Improvements in the manufacture of gunpowder and powder for blasting
purposes." Brit. Patent No. 2359 (Sept 24, 1863).
117. E. Bergengren. Alfred Nobel. The man and his work. Nelson & Sons, London etc. (1962).
118. J. Le Conte. On the adequacy of Laplace's explanation to account for the discrepancy between
the computed and the observed velocity of sound in air and gases. Phil. Mag. 27 [IV]: 1-32
(1864). The paper was written in 1861 but did not arrive in England until two years later
because of the interruption of communication incident to the great revolutionary struggle.
119. H.W. Schr6der van der Kolk. On the velocity of sound. Phil. Mag. 30 [IV]:34-49 (1865); Note
on the velocity of sound, and on the mechanical energy of chemical actions. Phil. Mag. 30
[IV] :391-392 (1865).
120. A. B. Nobel: Results of blasting experiments made with nitroglycerin at Vieille-Montagne mine.
Phil. Mag. 30 [IV], 236-238 (1865).
121. R. D. Napier. On the velocity of steam and other gases, and the true principles of the discharge of
fluids. Spon, London (1866).
122. O. Reynolds. On the flow of gases. Manchester Lit. & Phil. Soc. 2 5 : 5 5 - 7 1 (1885).
123. This letter, dated April 29, 1867, is now in the archives of the Technische UniversitFzt Dresden.
124. A. Toepler. Die vom elektrischen Funken in Luft erzeugte Welle. Ann. Phys. 131 [II]:180-215
(1867).
128 P. Krehl

125. A. Nobel. "Explosive compounds." Brit. Patent No. 1345 (May 7, 1867).
126. H. de Mosenthal. The life-work of Alfred Nobel. J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 18:443-451 (1899).
127. R. W. Bunsen. Uber die Temperatur der Flammen des Kohlenoxyds und Wasserstoffs. Ann.
Phys. 131 [II]:161-179 (1867).
128. Dr. Pisko. Optische, astronomische und geodatische Instrumente. In Officieller Ausstellungs-
Bericht. Instrumente ffir Kunst und Wissenschaft auf der Welt-Ausstellung zu Paris im Jahre 1867.
K. u. K. Osterreichisches Central-Comit~ (Hrsg.), Braumtiller, Wien (1867), pp. 118-119.
129. A.J.C. de Saint-Venant. Sur le choc longitudinal de deux barres r de grosseurs et de
mati~res semblables ou diff~rentes et sur la proportion de leur force vive, qui est perdue pour
la translation ult~rieure. Et gCnCralement sur le mouvement longitudinal d'un syst~me de
deux ou plusieurs prismes r J. Math. Pures & Appl. 12 [II]:237-376 (1867).
130. This letter, dated April 7, 1868, is now in the archives of the Technische Universitat Dresden.
131. A. Toepler. Optische Studien nach der Methode der Schlierenbeobachtung. Ann. Phys. 131
[II]:33-55, 180-215 (1867).
132. E A. Abel. (II) Contributions to the history of explosive agents (Abstract). Proc. Roy. Soc.
London 18:395-397 (1869).
133. W. Pfeifer (ed.). Etymologisches W6rterbuch des Deutschen. Verlag dvt, Munchen (1999); G.
Drosdowski (ed.). Duden. (VII) Etymolo~e. Dudenverlag, Mannheim (1997).
134. W.J.M. Rankine. On the thermodynamic theory of waves of finite longitudinal disturbance
(read Dec. 16, 1869). Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 160:277-286 (1870).
135. J. W. Gibbs: Graphical methods in the thermodynamics of fluids. Trans. Connecticut Acad. II:
309-342 (1871-73).
136. W.J.M. Rankine. Supplement to a paper "On the thermodynamic theory of waves of finite
longitudinal disturbance." Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 160:287-288 (1870).
137. E A. Abel. (XIV) Contribution to the history of explosive agents. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London
159:489-516 (1869).
138. M. Berthelot. Sur la force des poudres et des mati~res explosives. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 71:
619-625, 667-677, 709-728 (1870).
139. R. L. Maddox. An experiment with gelantino-bromide. Brit. J. Photogr. 18:422-423 (1871).
140. L. H. E Melsens. Note sur les plaies des armes a feu. J. M~d. Chir. Pharm. (Soc. Roy. Sci. Med.
Natur. Bruxelles) 54: 421-437, 513-527 (1872); 55: 21-29, 121-126, 217-222, 293-303
(1872).
141. E. Mach. Popular-wissenschaftliche Vorlesungen, J. Barth, Leipzig (1903). Ober Erscheinungen
an fliegenden Projektilen, p. 352.
142. P. G. Tait. Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger Report. H. M. Stationery Office, London (1888).
143. J. Hopkinson. On the rupture of iron wire by a blow. Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 11: 40-45,
119-121 (1872).
144. A. Noble. On the tension of fired gunpowder. Proc. Roy. Inst. 6:274-283 (1872).
145. The estimations of John and Daniel Bemoulli were mentioned by C. Hutton in a note to the
new edition of Robin's book Gunnery (1805), cf. p. 57.
146. A. Noble, E A. Abel: Researches on explosivesmfired gunpowder. Introductory history. Phil.
Trans. Roy. Soc. London 165, 49-60 (1875).
147. E H. Shelton. Reflections of a nuclear weaponeer. Shelton Enterprise Inc., Colorado Springs
(1988), pp. 2.38-2.39.
148. R. H. Cole. Underwater explosions. Dover Publ., New York (1948), pp. 147-148.
149. E Abel and E. O. Brown. The rapidity of detonation. Nature 8:534 (1873).
150. L. Roux and E. Sarrau. Experiences sur les effets de la dynamite. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 76:
1089-1092 (1873).
151. K. Antolik. Das Gleiten elektrischer Funken. Ann. Phys. 151 [II]:127-130 (1874).
History of Shock Waves 129

152. E. Mach and J. Wosyka. Ober einige mechanische Wirkungen des elektrischen Funkens.
Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 72 [II]:44-52 (1875).
153. E Schuhz-Grunow. Ober die Mach'sche V-Ausbreitung. ZAMM 28:30-31 (1948).
154. P. Krehl. Single and double Mach reflectionmits representation in Ernst Mach's historical soot
recording method. In Proc. 18th Int. Syrup. on Shock Waves, Sendai (July 1991), K. Takayama,
ed. Springer, Berlin (1992), pp. 221-226.
155. A. Nobel. On modem blasting agents. Amer Chemist 6: 60-68, 139-145 (1876).
156. A. Noble and E A. Abel: Researches on explosives--Fired gunpowder (Part I). Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc. London 165:49-155 (1875); (Part II). Ibid. 171:203-279 (1880).
157. R. Sabine. On a method of measuring very small intervals of time. Phil. Mag. 1 [V]:337-346
(1876); Dauer eines Schlages. Dingler's Polytech. J. 222:499-500 (1876).
158. W Rosicky. Ober mechanische Wirkungen des elektrischen Funkens. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss.
Wien 73 [II]:629-650 (1876).
159. E Rieber. "Shock wave generator." U.S. Patent No. 2,559,227 (July 3, 1951).
160. B. Forgmann, W Hepp. C. Chaussy, E Eisenberger, and K. Wanner. Eine Methode zur
bel~hrungsfreien Zertrflmmerung von Nierensteinen durch Stot~wellen. Biomed. Tech. 22
(Heft 7):166-168 (1977).
161. The correspondence between Stokes and Lord Rayleigh was taken from P. A. Thompson.
Compressible-fluid dynamics. McGraw-Hill, New York (1972), pp. 311-313. See also: Math-
ematical and physical papers by the late Sir George Gabriel Stokes, with a preface by C. A.
Truesdell. Johnson Reprint, New York (1966).
162. E. Mach and J. Sommer. Ober die Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit yon Explosionsschallwel-
len. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 75 [II]:101-130 (1877).
163. E. B. Christoffel. Untersuchungen uber die mit dem Fortbestehen linearer partieller Differ-
entialgleichungen vertraglichen Unstetigkeiten. Ann. di Mat. 8 [II]:81-112 (1877); Fortpflan-
zung von StOgen durch elastische feste Korper. Ann. di Mat. 8 [II], 193-243 (1877).
164. Report of the committee to collect information relative to the meteor of Dec. 24, 1873
Washington D.C. Bull. Phil. Soc. Wash. 2:139-161 (1874-1877).
165. E. Mach and J. von Weltrubsky. Uber die Formen der Funkenwellen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss.
Wien 78 [II]:551-560 (1878).
166. E. Mach, O. Tumlirz, and C. Kogler. Ober die Fortpflanzungsgeschwindigkeit der Funken-
wellen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 77 [II]:7-32 (1878).
167. E. Mach and G. Gruss. Optische Untersuchungen der Funkenwellen Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss.
Wien 78 [II]:467-480 (1878).
168. P. A. Thomson. Compressible-fluid dynamics. McGraw-Hill, New York (1972), pp. 311-313.
169. C. (V.) Dvorak. l~lber eine neue einfache Art der Schlierenbeobachtung. Ann. Phys. 9 [III]:502-
511 (1880).
170. D. W Holder and R. J. North: Schlieren methods. National Physical Laboratory, Notes on
Applied Science No. 31. H.M.S.O., London (1963), p. 36.
171. E. Mallard and H. L. Le Ch~telier. Sur les vitesses de propagation de l'inflammation dans les
m~langes gazeux explosifs. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 93:145-148 (1881).
172. M. Deprez: Perfectionnement aux chronographs dectriques et recherches sur les electroaimants.
C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 78:1562-1565 (1874)
173. N. Maiyevskii: Sur les rSsultats des experiences concernant la r~sistance de l'air et leur appli-
cation a la solution des problr du tir. Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersbourg 27:1-14 (1881).
174. F. I. Frankl: On the priority of EULER in the discovery of the similarity law for the resistance of
air to the motion of bodies at high speeds. Dokl. AN (SSSR) 70:39-42 (1950).
175. H. L. Abbot. "Experiments and investigations to develop a system of submarine mines." Rpt.
No. 23 of the Professional Papers. U.S. Army Engineers Corps, Washington, DC (1881).
130 P. Krehl

176. M. Berthelot. Sur la vitesse de propagation des phenom~nes explosifs dans les gaz. C. R. Acad.
Sci. Paris 93:18-22 (1881).
177. M. Berthelot. Detonation de l'acetylhne, du cyanoghne et des combinaisons endothermiques
en general. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 93:613-619 (1881).
178. C. F. Aten and E. E Greene. The rate of formation of carbon from the pyrolysis of acetylene in
shock waves. Disc. Faraday Soc. 22:162-166 (1956).
179. H. Hertz. Uber die Benihrung fester elastischer K6rper. J. Reine & Angew. Math. 92:156-171
(1882).
180. P. Vieille. Sur la mesure des pressions developpees en vase close par les melanges gazeux
explosifs. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 95:1280-1282 (1882); Etude sur le rOle des discontinuites
dans les phenomhnes de propagation. Mtm. Poudres & Salpttres. 10:177-260 (1900).
181. M. Berthelot and P. Vieille. Nouvelles recherches sur la propagation des phenom~nes explosifs
dans les gaz. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 95:151-157 (1882); Sur la periode d'etat variable qui
precede le regime de detonation et sur les conditions d'etablissement de l'onde explosive. C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris 95:199-205 (1882); Eonde explosive. Ann. Chirn. & Phys. 28 [V]:289-332
(1883).
182. M. von Foerster. Versuche mit homprimirter Schiej~baumwolle. Verlag Mittler & Sohn, Berlin
(1883). See also: Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag. 31:13-119 (July-Dec. 1984).
183. H. Freiwald. Zur Geschichte der Hohlraumwirkung bei Sprengladungen. Ber. Dtsch. Luft-
hriegsahademie Berlin-Gatow (Sept. 1941).
184. D. R. Kennedy. History of the shaped charge effect. The first 100 years. Company brochure
prepared by D. R. Kennedy & Associates, Inc., Mountain View, CA (1983).
185. A. Moisson. Evaluation de la r~sistance de Fair Extraits Mem. Artill. Marine 11:421-457 (1883).
186. E. Mallard and H. L. Le Chatelier. Recherches sur la combustion des melanges gazeux
explosifs. Annales des Mines 4 [VIII]:274-568 (1883).
187. G.J. Symons (ed). "The eruption of Krakatao and subsequent phenomena." Report of the
Krakatao Committee of the Royal Society, London (1888).
188. G. P. de Laval. "Turbine." Swed. Patent No. 325 (1883).
189. L. C. Burrill. Sir Charles Parsons and cavitation (1950 Parsons Memorial Lecture). Trans. Inst.
Marine Engineers 63:149-167 (1951).
190. P. H. Hugoniot and H. Sebert. Sur la propagation d'un ebranlement uniforme dans un gaz
renferme dans un tuyau cylindrique. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 98:507-509 (1884).
191. E. Mach and J. Wentzel. Ein Beitrag zur Mechanik der Explosionen. Sitzungsber. Ahad. Wiss.
Wien 92 [II]:625-638 (1885).
192. A first note on his Experiments with currents of air, without mentioning his name, was
published in Engineering (London) 40:160-161 (Aug. 14, 1885).
193. M. Berthelot and P. Vieille. Sur la chaleur specifique des elements gazeux, a tr~s hautes
temperatures. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 98:770-775 (1884).
194. P. Vieille. Etude des pressions ondulatoires produites en vase clos par les explosifs. Mtm.
Poudres & Salpttres 3:177-236 (1890).
195. E. Mach and J. Wentzel. Ein Beitrag zur Mechanik der Explosionen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss.
Wien 92 [II]:625-638 (1885).
196. E Neumann. Theorie des geraden Stot~es cylindrischer KOrper. In Vorlesungen fiber die Theorie
der Elasticitat der festen KOrper und des Lichtathers. Teubner, Leipzig (1885), chp. 20, pp. 332-
350.
197. J. W. Strutt (Lord Rayleigh). On waves propagated along the plane surface of an elastic solid.
Proc. London Math. Soc. 17:4-11 (1887).
198. Flirst B. Galitzin. Vorlesungen fiber Seismometrie (gehalten 1911) (O. Hecker, ed.). Teubner,
Leipzig & Berlin (1914), p. 78.
History of Shock Waves 131

199. E. Mach and P. Salcher. Photographische Fixierung der durch Projectile in der Luft
eingeleiteten Vorg/mge. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 95 [Iia]:764-780 (1887).
200. G. I. Taylor and L. Sharman. On a mechanical method for solving problems of flow in
compressible fluids. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A121:194-217 (1928).
201. O. Tumlirz. Uber die Fortpflanzung ebener Wellen endlicher Schwingungsweite. Sitzungsber.
Akad. Wiss. Wien 95 [Iia]:367-387 (1887).
202. P. H. Hugoniot. MCmoire sur la propagation du mouvement dans les corps et plus
spr dans les gaz parfaits, i e PartJe. J. Ecole Polytech. (Paris) 5 7 : 3 - 9 7 (1887); 2 e
Partie. J. Ecole Polytech. 5 8 : 1 - 1 2 5 (1889). Hugoniot's manuscript, entirely ready for print
before his premature death in 1887, was edited by the French mathematician R. Liouville.
203. R. Courant and K. O. Friedrichs. Supersonic flow and shock waves. Interscience Publ. Inc.,
New York (1948), chp. 1.
204. See also Tait's scientific papers vol. 2, Paper Nos. 61 and 107. Cambridge Univ. Press, London
(1900).
205. J. G. Kirkwood and J. M. Richardson. "The pressure wave produced by an underwater
explosion. III. Properties of salt water at a shock front." Rpt. OSRD-813 (1942).
206. J. S. Rowlinson. Liquids and liquid mixtures. Butterworth, London (1969), chp. 2; J. O.
Hirschfelder, C. Curtiss, and R. Bird. Molecular theory of gases and liquids. Wiley, New York
(1964), p. 261; Yu. A. Atanov. An approximate equation for the liquid state at high pressures.
Russ. J. Phys. Chem. 40:655-656 (1966).
207. E A. Joumae. Sur la vitesse de propagation du son produit par les armes a feu. C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris 106:244-246 (1888).
208. C. M. De Labouret. Sur la propagation du son produit par les armes a feu. C. R. Acad. Sci.
Paris 106:934-936 (1888); 107:85-88 (1888).
209. H. Sabert. Sur le mode de propagation du son des detonations, d'apres les expariences faites
au camp de Chalons par M. le capitaine Journee. Seances Soc. Franc. Phys. (1888), pp. 35-61.
210. C. E. Munroe. On certain phenomena produced by the detonation of guncotton. Proc.
Newport Nat. Hist. Soc. Rpt. No. 6 (1883-1888); Wave-like effects produced by the detonation
of gun-cotton, Am. J. Sci. 3 6 : 4 8 - 5 0 (1888).
211. A. von Oettingen and A. von Gernet. Uber Knallgasexplosionen. Ann. Phys. 33 [III]:586-609
(1888).
212. G. P. de Laval. "Steam inlet channel for rotating steam engines." Swed. Patent No. 1902 (Nov.
24, 1888).
213. Private communication of Prof. C. G. Nilsson, Djursholm, Sweden.
214. W. Traupel. Thermische Turbomaschinen, vol. 1. Springer, Berlin (1988), p. 100.
215. P. Salcher andJ. Whitehead. Uber den Ausflug stark verdichteter Luft. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss.
Wien 98 [Iia]:267-287 (1889).
216. See also Salcher's letter to E. Mach, dated April 19, 1888 (now in the Archives of the Deutsches
Museum, Munchen).
217. E. Mach and P. Salcher. Optische Untersuchungen der Luftstrahlen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss.
Wien 98 [Iia]:1303-1309 (1889).
218. E. Mach and L. Mach. Ober die Interferenz von Schallwellen von gro~er Excursion.
Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 98 [Iia]:1333-1336 (1889).
219. G. Charpy. Les travaux de la Commission du grisou. Rev. G/'n. Sci. Pures & Appl. 1:541-546 (1890).
220. H. L. Le Chatelier. Le grisou et ses accidents. Rev. G~n. Sci. Pures & Appl. 1:630-635 (1890).
221. C. Haeussermann. Uber die explosiven Eigenschaften des Trinitrotoluols. Z. Angew. Chem. 4:
508-511 (1891).
222. J. Wilbrand: Notiz uber Trinitrotoluol. Liebig's Ann. Chem. & Phys. Pharm. 128:178-179
(1863)
132 P. Krehl

223. C. E. Munroe. "Indurite," U.S. Patent No. 489,684 (1891).

224. L. Zehnder. Ein neuer Interferenzrefraktor. Z. f. Instrumentenkunde 11:275-285 (1891).
225. L. Mach. Uber ein Interferenzrefraktor. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 101 [IIa]:5-10 (1892).
226. L. Zehnder. Uber den Einflug des Druckes auf den Brechungsexponenten des Wassers. Ann.
Phys. 34 [III]:91-121 (1888).
227. P. G. Tait. Sur la dur~e du choc. Rev. G~. Sci. Pures & Appl. 3:777-781 (1892).
228. This letter, dated Jan. 4, 1893, is now in the Archives of the Deutsches Museum, Mfinchen.
229. E E H. Moissan. Sur quelques experiences nouvelles relatives/~ la preparation du diamant. C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris 140:277-283 (1905).
230. C. A. Parsons. Bakerian Lecture, 1918: Experiments on the artificial production of diamond.
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A220:67-107 (1919).
231. M. Seal. Comments on some early attempts to synthesize diamond: The experiments of
Hannay and Moissan. Proc. 1st Int. Congress on Diamonds in Industry, Paris (1962), Industrial
Diamond Information Bureau, London (1963), pp. 313-327.
232. P. S. DeCarli and J. C. Jamieson. Formation of diamond by explosive shock. Science 133:
1821-1822 (1961).
233. C. V. Boys. Notes on photographs of rapidly moving objects, and on the oscillating electric
spark. Phil. Mag. 30 [V]:248-260 (1890).
234. This letter, dated July 29, 1892, is now in the Archives of the Deutsches Museum, Munchen.
235. E. Mach. Erganzungen zu den Mitteilungen uber Projektile. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 101
[IIa] :977-983 (1892).
236. C. A. Browne. Charles Edward Munroe 1849-1938.J. Am. Chem. Soc. 61:1301-1316 (1939).
237. A. Schuster. Note by Professor Schuster, ER.S. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A184:152-154
(1893).
238. M. Berthelot. Sur l'onde explosive. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 94:149-152 (1882).
239. C. V. Burton. On plane and spherical waves of finite amplitude. Phil. Mag. 35 [V]:317-333
(1893).
240. E. Mach and B. Doss. Bemerkungen zu den Theorien der Schallphanomene bei Meteoriten-
fallen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 102 [Iia]:248-252 (1893).
241. V. A. Mikhel'son. "On the normal ignition velocity of explosive gaseous mixtures" (in
Russian). Ph.D. dissertation, Moscow University Printing Service, Moscow (1890); repub-
lished in Scient. Papers of the Moscow Imperial University on Mathematics and Physics 10:1-93
(1893).
242. Y. B. Zeldovich and A. S. Kompaneets. Theory of detonation. Academic Press, New York
(1960).
243. H. Dixon. The rate of explosion in gases. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London A184: 97-152, 154-188
(1893).
244. J. Thornycroft and S. W. Barnaby. Torpedo boat destroyers. Minutes of Proc. Inst. of Civil Eng.
122:51-103 (1895).
245. S. W. Barnaby. On the formation of cavities in water by screw propellers at high speeds. Trans.
Inst. Naval Architects 39:139-143 (1898).
246. D. Silberrad: Propeller erosion. Engineering (London) 93:33-35 (Jan. 1912).
247. E. Rudolph. "Uber submarine Erdbeben und Eruptionen". Dissertation, Kaiser-Wilhelms-
Universitat Strassburg. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart (1887); Beitrage zur
Geophysik 1:133-365 (1887).
248. D. Rottok. Unterseeische vulkanische Eruptionen und Erdbeben. Himmel und Erde 2: 509-
518 (1890).
249. A. Siersch. Photography in the technology of explosives. Trans Fed. Inst. Min. Eng. 1 1 : 2 - 8
(1896).
History of Shock Waves 133

250. J. A. E. (anonymous). Sir Charles Parsons. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A131: v-xxv (1931).
251. L. Mach. Optische Untersuchung der Luftstrahlen. Sitzungsber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 106
[Iia]:1025-1074 (1897).
252. P. Vieille. Sur la vitesse de propagation d'un movement dans un milieu en repos. C. R. Acad.
Sci. Paris 126:31-33 (1898), 127:41-43 (1898).
253. N. E. Zhukovsky. Uber den hydraulischen Sto~ in Wasserleitungsrohen. M~n. Acad. Sci. Imp.
St. P~tersbourg 9 [VIII] (No. 5):1-72 (1900).
254. I. P. Church. "Water ram" in pipes. Franklin Inst. J. 129: 328-336, 374-383 (1890).
255. R. C. Carpenter. Some experiments on the effect of water hammer. Eng. Rec. 30:173-175
(1894).
256. R. Blochmann. Die Explosion unter Wasser. Marine-Rundschau 9 (1. Teil):197-227 (1898).
257. R. W. Wood. Photography of sound-waves by the "Schlierenmethode." Phil. Mag. 48 [V]:218-
227 (1899).
258. R. Emden. "Uber die Ausstromerscheinungen permanenter Gase." Habilitationsschrift,
Universitat Leipzig (1899); P Emden. "Die Ausstr6merscheinungen des Wasserdampfes."
Dissertation, Universitat Munchen (1903).
259. P. Vieille. Sur les discontinuitCs produites par la d~tente brusque des gaz comprim~s. C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris 129:1228-1230 (1899).
260. A. Hertzberg. Nitrogen fixation for fertilizers by gasdynamic techniques. Proc. 10th Int. Shock
Tube Symp., G. Kamimoto, ed., Kyoto (1975). Shock Tube Research Society, Japan (1975), pp.
17-28.
261. D. L. Chapman. On the rate of explosion in gases. Phil. Mag. 47 [V]:90-104 (1899).
262. W Wolf. Uber die bei Explosionen in der Luft eingeleiteten Vorgange. Ann. Phys. 69 [III]:329-
371 (1899).
263. P. Vieille. Etude sur le r61e des discontinuit~s dans les ph~nom~nes de propagation. MCm.
Poudres & Salp~tres 10:177-260 (1900).
264. P. Vieille. Sur la loi de r~sistance de l'air au movement des projectiles. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris
130:235-238 (1900).
265. R. W Wood. The photography of sound-waves and the demonstration of the evolutions of
reflected wave-fronts with the cinematograph. Nature 62:342-349 (1900).
266. A. Noble. Some modern explosives. Proc. Roy. Inst. 16:329-345 (1902).
267. H. Weber. Die partiellen Differential-Gleichungen der mathematischen Physik (nach Riemann's
Vorlesungen), vol. II. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig (1901), pp. 469-521.
268. J. W Strutt (Lord Rayleigh): Theory of Sound. Macmillan, London (1878), vol. II, p. 41.
269. J. Hadamard. Ler sur la propagation des ondes et les ~quations de l'hydrodynamique. A.
Hermann, Paris (1903).
270. T. von Karman. Aerodynamics. McGraw-Hill, New York (1954), p. 119.
271. A. B. Stodola. Die Dampfturbinen und die Aussichten der Warmekraftmaschinen. Springer, Berlin
(1903).
272. C. Cranz. Innere Ballistik, vol. II. Springer, Berlin (1926), pp. 190-196.
273. L. Prandtl. Str6mende Bewegung der Gase und Dampfe. Encyclopadie der Math. Wiss. V
(1):287-319, Teubner, Leipzig (1903-1921). See chp. 18, Ausstr6men aus Offnungen und
Mundstucken.
274. T. von Karm~n. The wind and beyond. Theodore von Kdrman, pioneer in aviation and pathfinder
in space. Little, Brown and Co. Boston and Toronto (1967), pp. 128-129.
275. M. Toepler. Objektive Sichtbarmachung yon Funkenschallwellen nach der Schlierenmethode
mit Hilfe yon Gleitfunken. Ann. Phys. 14 [IV]:838-842 (1904).
276. H. Lamb. On the propagation of tremors over the surface of an elastic solid. Phil. Trans. Roy.
Soc. London A203:1-42 (1904).
134 R Krehl

277. L. Prandtl: Ober station~re Wellen in einem Gasstrahl. Physik. Z. 5:599-601 (1904).
278. E. Jouguet. Remarques sur la propagation des percussions dans les gaz. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris
138:1685-1688 (1904); Sur l'onde explosive. Ib. 139:121-124 (1904).
279. Y. B. Zeldovich. On the possibility of rarefaction shock waves. ZETP (SSSR) 16(No. 4):363-
364 (1946).
280. S. S. Kutateladze, A1. A. Borisov, A. A. Borisov, and V. E. Nakoryakov. Experimental detection
of a rarefaction shock wave near a liquid-vapor critical point. Sov. Phys. Dokl. 25:392-393
(1980).
281. L. Prandtl. Uber Flussigkeitsbewegung bei sehr kleiner Reibung. Verhandl. III. Int. Math.-
Kongr. Heidelberg 1904, publ. by Teubner, Leipzig (1905), pp. 484-491.
282. H. L. Dryden. Mechanics of boundary layer flow. In Advances in applied mechanic R. von
Mises, T. yon K~irman, eds. Academic Press, New York (1948), pp. 1-40.
283. W. Griffith: Shock tube studies of transonic flow over wedge profiles.J. Aeronaut. Sci. 19: 249-
264 (1952).
284. O. R. Lummer. 1Aber die Theorie des Knalls. Jahresbericht Schles. Gesellsch. vaterl. Cultur 83
[II]:2-11 (1905).
285. W. Nernst. Physikalisch-chemische Betrachtungen uber den Verbrennungsproze~ in den
Gasmotoren. Z. VDI 49:1426-1431 (1905).
286. E. Jouguet. Sur la propagation des reactions chimiques dans les gaz: (I) Hypotheses et
r fondamentales. (II) Les ondes ordinaires. J. Math. Pures & Appl. 1 [VI]:347-425
(1905).
287. P. Maxim. "Knalldampfer." Germ. Patent No. 220,470 (June 1910). See also: K. R. Pawlas.
Entwicklung und Konstruktion der Schalldampfer, Teil III. In Waffengeschichte. Chronica-
Reihe W123. Publizistisches Archiv, Numberg (1893).
288. B. Hopkinson. The effects of momentary stresses in metals. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A74: 498-
506 (1905).
289. G. I. Taylor. "The plastic wave in a wire extended by an impact load." Brit. Ministry of Home
Security Civil Defense, Res. Committee, Rpt. R.C. 329 (1942).
290. T. von Karman. "On the propagation of plastic deformation in solids." Rpt. OSRD-365 (1942).
291. K. A. Rakhmatulin. Propagation of a wave of unloading. Prikl. Mat. Mekh. (SSSR) 9:91-100
(1945).
292. G. Zempl~n. Sur l'impossibilitr d'ondes de choc negatives dans les gaz. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris
141:710-712 (1905), 142:142-143 (1906).
293. L. Prandtl. Zur Theorie des Verdichtungssto~es. Z. ges. Turbinenwesens 3:241-245 (1906).
294. P. M. M. Duhem. Sur les quasi-ondes de choc. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 142: 324-327, 377-380,
491-493, 612-616, 750-752 (1906).
295. H. Dautriche. Sur les vitesses de detonation. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 143:641-644 (1906), 144:
1030-1032 (1907).
296. J. Crussard. Ondes de choc et onde explosive. Bull. Soc. Industrie Min~rale 6 [IV]:257-364
(1907).
297. L. Prandtl: Neue Untersuchungen tiber die stromende Bewegung der Gase und Dampfe.
Physik. Z. 8:23- 3 0 (1907).
298. T. Meyer. "Uber zweidimensionale Bewegungsvorgange in einem Gas, das mit Uberschall-
geschwindigkeit str6mt." Dissertation, Universitat Gottingen (1908).
299. E. L. Krinov: Giant meteorites. Pergamon Press, New York (1966).
300. E J. W. Whipple: The great Siberian meteor and the waves, seismic and aerial, which it
produced. Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 56:287-304 (1930).
301. F. Auerbach. Allgemeine Physik (vol. I), Akustik (vol. II). In Handbuch der Physik, A.
Winkelmann, ed. Barth, Leipzig (1908-1909).
History of Shock Waves 13 5

302. L. Prandtl. Gasbewegung. In Handworterbuch der Naturwissenschaften 4, E. Korschelt, ed.

Fischer, Jena (1913), pp. 544-560.
303. L. Prandtl. Str6mende Bewegung der Gase und Dampfe. EnzyklopO.die der math. Wiss. V
(1):287-319 ed. W. von Dyck, (abgeschlossen 1905). Teubner, Leipzig (1903-1921).
304. J. Ackeret. Gasdynamik. In Handbuch der Physik VIII, H. Geiger and K. Scheel, eds. Springer,
Berlin (1927), pp. 289-342.
305. A. Busemann. Gasdynamik. In Handbuch der Experimentalphysik IV(l), L. Schiller, ed. Akad.
Verlag, Leipzig (1931), pp. 343-460.
306. K. Oswatitsch. Was ist Gasdynamik? Phys. Blatter 14:108-116 (1958).
307. R. Lorin. "Syst~me de propulsion." French Patent No. 390,256 (May 1908).
308. R. Lorin. La propulsion a grande vitesse des v~hicules a~riens: Etude d'un propulseur
r~action directe. I/.Agrophile 17:463-465 (1909).
309. W. H. Avery: Twenty-five years of ramjet development. Jet Propulsion 25:604-614 (1955).
310. C. Ramsauer. Experimentelle und theoretische Grundlagen des elastischen und mechan-
ischen Stotges. Ann. Phys. 30 [IV]:417-495 (1909).
311. K. Kobes. Die Durchschlagsgeschwindigkeit bei den Luftsauge- und Druckluftbremsen. Z.
~ste~ Ing.- & Architekten-Vereins 62:553-579 (1910).
312. W. Bleakney, D. K. Weimer, and C. H. Fletcher. The shock tube: a facility for investigations in
fluid dynamics. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 20:807-815 (1949).
313. W. Bensberg and C. Cranz. Uber eine photographische Methode zur Messung von Gesch-
windigkeiten und Geschwindigkeitsverlusten bei Infanteriegeschossen. Artill. Monatshefte 41:
333-346 (1910).
314. V. Cornish. Waves of the sea and other water waves. T. Fisher Unwin, London, (1910). See also
frontispiece and p. 173.
315. J. W. Strutt (Lord Rayleigh). Aerial plane waves of finite amplitude. Proc. Roy. Soc. London
A84:247-284 (1910).
316. G. I. Taylor. The conditions necessary for discontinuous motion in gases. Proc. Roy. Soc.
London A84:371-377 (1910).
317. P. W. Bridgman. The measurement of hydrostatic pressures up to 20,000 kilograms per square
centimeter. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 47:321-343 (1911).
318. P. W. Bridgman. Bakerian Lecture: Physics above 20,000 kg/cm 2. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A203:
1-17 (1950).
319. B. Hopkinson. The pressure of a blow (Evening discussion on Jan. 26, 1912). See his Collected
Works. In The scientific papers of Bertram Hopkinson. Collected and arranged by Sir J. A. Ewing
and J I/amour. (J. A. Ewing, J. Lamor, eds.) Univ. Press, Cambridge (1921), pp. 423-437.
320. C. E. Munroe. Distribution des ondes de l'explosion de 1 "Alum Chine." Mcm. Artill. Franc. 4:
545-552 (1925).
321. C. E. Munroe. Zones of silence in sound areas from explosion. Prof. Mem. Corps Eng. (U.S.)
10:253-260 (1918).
322. M. Bodenstein. Photochemische Kinetik des Chlorknallgases. Z. Phys. Chem. 85:297-328
(1913); Eine Theorie der photochemischen Reaktionsgeschwindigkeiten. Z. Phys. Chem. 85:
329-397 (1913).
323. O. A. Neumuller. ROmpps Chemie-Lexikon, vol. 1. Franckh'sche Verlagshandlung, Stuttgart
(1979), p. 722.
324. L. Prandtl: Gasbewegung. In Handwi~rterbuch der Naturwissenschaften 4: 544-560. (E.
Korschelt, ed.) Fischer, Jena (1913).
325. B. Hopkinson. A method of measuring the pressure produced in the detonation of high
explosives, or by the impact of bullets. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A89:411-413 (1914).
326. B. Hopkinson. British Ordnance Board Minutes No. 13,565 (1915).
136 P. Krehl

327. J. W Strutt (Lord Rayleigh). On the pressure developed in a liquid during the collapse of a
spherical cavity. Phil. Mag. 34 [VI]:94-98 (1917).
328. A. Philipp and W. Lauterborn: Cavitation erosion by single laser-produced bubbles. J. Fluid
Mech. 361:75-116 (1998).
329. E. Jouguet. M~.canique des explosifs, ~.tude de dynamique chimique. O. Doin & Fils, Paris (1917).
330. F. W Caldwell and E. N. Fales. Wind tunnel studies. In "Aerodynamic phenomena at high
speeds." NACA Tech. Rpt. 83 III (1920).
331. E. Huguenard. Les souffleries aerodynamiques a tr~s grande vitesse. La Technique A~ronau-
tique 15: 346-355, 378-392 (1924).
332. H. Dryden. Supersonic travel within the last two hundred years. Scient. Month. 78:289-295
(May 1954).
333. T. E. Stanton. The development of a high-speed wind tunnel for research in external ballistics.
Proc. Roy. Soc. London A131:122-132 (1931).
334. H. Glauert. The elements of aerofoil and airscrew theory. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge
(1926).
335. k. Prandtl. Ober Schallausbreitung bei rasch bewegten K6rpern. Schrift. dtsch. Akad.
Luflfahrtforsch. (MCmchen) No. 7, 1-14 (1939).
336. W. E Hilton. The photography of air screw sound waves. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A169: 174-
190 (1938).
337. E I. Frankl. Theory of propellers with a finite number of blades at high progressive and
circular speeds. Trudy CAHI [Central Aerohydrodynamics Institute, Moscow] 540 (1942).
338. T. E. Stanton. The development of a high-speed wind tunnel for research in external ballistics.
Proc. Roy. Soc. London A131:122-132 (1931).
339. T. E. Stanton. A high-speed wind channel for tests on aerofoils. Brit. Aeronaut. Res. Comm.
Reports & Memoranda, 1130 (1928).
340. E. Jouguet. Quelques probl~mes d'hydrodynamique general. J. Math. Pures & Appl. 3 [VIII]:1-
63 (1920).
341. D. Riabouchinsky. Sur l'analogie hydraulique des mouvements d'un fluide compressible. C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris 195:998-999 (1932); Quelques nouvelles remorques sur l'analogie hydrau-
lique des mouvements d'un fluide compressible. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 199:632-634 (1934);
Aerodynamique, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 202:1725-1728 (1936).
342. A. Fauchon-Villeplee. "Elektrische Kanone." German Patent D.R.P No. 376,391 (July 10, 1920).
343. J. A. Anderson. Spectra of explosions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (U.S.) 6:42-43 (1920); The
spectrum of electrically exploded wires. Astrophys. J. 51:37-43 (1920).
344. W. M~iller. Der Ablauf einer elektrischen Drahtexplosion, mit Hilfe der Kerr-Zellen-Kamera
untersucht. Z. Phys. 149:397-411 (1957).
345. R. Becker. Stofi;welle und Detonation. Z. Phys. 8:321-362 (1922).
346. L. J. Briggs, G. E Hall, and H. L. Dryden. "Aerodynamic characteristics of airfoils at high
speeds." NACA Tech. Rpt. 207 (1925).
347. C. Ramsauer: Die Massenbewegung des Wassers bei Unterwasserexplosionen. Ann. Phys. 72
[IV] :265-284 (1923).
348. E Berger. Das Gesetz des Kraftverlaufes beim Stof~. Untersuchungen fiber die gesetzmi~igen
Beziehungen beim Stoj~ elastischer KOrper. Vieweg, Braunschweig (1924).
349. P W. Bridgman. The effect of tensions on the transverse and longitudinal resistance of metals.
Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. 60:423-449 (1925).
350. J. Ackeret. Luftkr/~fte auf Fltigel, die mit gr6t~erer als Schallgeschwindigkeit bewegt werden.
Z. Flugtech. & Motor-Luftschiffahrt 16:72-74 (1925).
351. E. Gruneisen. Zustand des festen K6rpers. In Handbuch der Physik X, H. Geiger and K. Scheel,
eds. Springer, Berlin (1926), pp. 1-59. See pp. 22-23.
History of Shock Waves 13 7

352. G. Mie. Zur kinetischen Theorie der einatomigen Korper. Ann. Phys. 11[IV]:657-697
(1903).
353. E. Gruneisen. Theorie des festen Zustandes einatomiger Elemente. Ann. Phys. 39[IV]:257-
306 (1912).
354. J. M. Walsh, M. H. Rice, R. G. McQueen, and E L. Yarger. Shock-wave compressions of
twenty-seven metals. Equations of state of metals. Phys. Rev. 108:196-216 (1957).
355. Z. Carri~re. Le claquement du fouet. J. de Physique & le Radium 8 [VI]:365-384 (1927).
356. B. Bernstein, D. A. Hall, and H. M. Trent. On the dynamics of a bull whip. JASA 30: 1112-
1115 (1958).
357. P. Krehl, S. Engemann, and D. Schwenkel. The puzzle of whip crackingmuncovered by a
correlation of whip-tip kinematics with shock wave emission. Shock Waves 8 : 1 - 9 (1998).
358. E Hildebrand. "Uber unstationare Luftbewegungen in langen Rohrleitungen und ihre
Beziehungen zu den Steuervorgangen der indirekten Luftbremsen." Dissertation, Technische
Hochschule Berlin-Charlottenburg (1927); VDI-Verlag, Berlin (1927).
359. H. M. Mott-Smith. History of "plasmas." Nature 233:219 (Sept. 17, 1971).
360. I. Langmuir. The interaction of electron and positive ion space charge in cathode sheaths.
Phys. Rev. 33:954-989 (1929).
361. H. Glauert. The effect of compressibility on the lift of an airfoil. Proc. Roy. Soc. London Al18:
113-119 (1928).
362. S. S. Cook: Erosion by water-hammer. Proc. Soc. London Al19:481-488 (1928).
363. A. Fono: Luftstrahlmotor fur Hochflug. German Patent No. 554,906 (May 1928).
364. L. Prandtl and A. Busemann. Naherungsverfahren zur zeichnerischen Ermittlung von ebenen
Stromungen mit Oberschallgeschwindigkeit. Festschrift zum 70. Geburstag yon Prof. A.
Stodola. Fli~li, Zlirich (1929), pp. 499-509.
365. A. Busemann. Ludwig Prandtl 1875-1953. Mem. Fell. Roy. Soc. 5:193-205 (1959).
366. J. Ackeret. Der Luftwiderstand bei sehr gro~en Geschwindigkeiten. Schweiz. Bauz. 94: 179-
183 (1929).
367. Sir Leonard Bairstow (1880-1963), British aerodynamicist. See also: G. Temple. Leonard
Bairstow. Biogr. Mem. Fell. Roy. Soc. 11:23-40 (1965).
368. Arthur Moisson [1842-Year of death unknown], captain of the French navy. See also: M. L.
Gabeaud. Le nombre de Moisson. MCm. de l'Artill. Franc, 21:857-868 (1947).
369. J. Black. Ernst Mach. Pioneer of supersonics. J. Roy. Aeronaut. Soc. 54:371-377 (1950).
370. G. I. Taylor. The air wave from the great explosion at Krakatao. Proc. 4th Pacific Science
Congress, vol. IIB, Java (1929), pp. 645-655.
371. C. Cranz and H. Schardin. Kinematographie auf ruhendem Film und mit extrem hoher
Bildfrequenz. Z. Phys. 56:147-183 (1929).
372. R.J. Emrich. Early development of the shock tube and its role in current research. Proc. 5th
Int. Shock Tube Symp., Z. I. Slawsky, J. E Moulton, Jr., and W. S. Filler, eds. White Oak, Silver
Spring, MA (April 1965), pp. 1-10.
373. E. P. Hubble. A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic nebulae.
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 15:168-173 (1929).
374. E. P. Hubble and M. L. Humason. The velocity-distance relation among extra-galactic nebulae.
Astrophys. J. 74:43-80 (1931).
375. P. Schmidt. "Verfahren zum Erzeugen yon Antriebskraften (Reaktionskraften) an Luftfahrzeu-
gen." German Patent D.R.P. No. 523,655 (April 24, 1931) and classified German Patent Sch.
98,044 1/46g (June 11, 1932); "Improved method of producing motive forces for the
propulsion of vehicles or aircraft." British Patent No. 368,564 (April 23, 1931).
376. L. H. Donnell. Longitudinal wave transmission and impact. Trans. Am. Soc. Metal Eng. 52:
153-167 (1930).
138 P Krehl

377. P. T. Farnsworth. "Electron multipler." U.S. Patent No. 1,969,399 (March 3, 1930).
378. S. Chapman and V. C. A. Ferraro. A new theory of magnetic storms. Terrestrial Magnetism &
Atmospheric Electricity 36: 77-97, 171-186 (1931).
379. T. Gold. Discussion on shock waves and rarefied gases. Proc. Syrup. on Gas Dynamics of
Cosmic Clouds, Cambridge, U.K. (July 1953). Ed. by the Int. Union of Appl. Mech., Freiburg
Br., IAU Symposium Series/Int. Astronautical Union, North Holland Publ. Co., Amsterdam
(1955), pp. 103-104.
380. W. I. Axford. The interaction between the solar wind and the Earth's magnetosphere. J.
Geophys. Res. 67:3791-3796 (1962).
381. P J. Kellog. Flow of plasma around the Earth. J. Geophys. Res. 67:3805-3811 (1962).
382. G. A. Crocco. Sui corpi aerotermodinamici Portanti. Rendiconti della Academia Nazionali die
Lincei 16 [VI]:161-166 (1931).
383. T. yon Karman. Aerodynamics. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY (1954).
384. H. Moon. Soviet SST. The technopolitics of the Tupolev-144. Orion Books, New York (1989), p.
121.
385. H. Joachim and H. Illgen. Gasdruckmessungen mit Piezoindikator. Z. ges. Schie~- &
Sprengstoffwesen 27: 76-79, 121-125 (1932).
386. H. Schardin. Bemerkungen zum Druckausgleichsvorgang in einer Rohrleitung. Physik. Z. 33:
60-64 (1932).
387. G. A. Crocco. Flying in the stratosphere. Aircraft Eng. 4: 171-175, 204-209 (1932).
388. H. Wagner. Ober Stog- und Gleitvorgange an der Oberfl/~che von Fl{issigkeiten. ZAMM 12:
193-215 (1932).
389. T. von Karman and E L. Wattendorf. "The impact on seaplane floats during landing." NACA
Tech. Note No. 321 (1929).
390. L. I. Sedov and A. N. Wladimirow. Das Gleiten einer flach-kielartigen Platte. Dokl. AN
(SSSR) 33 (No. 3):116-119 (1941); Water ricochets. Dokl. AN (SSSR) 37 (No. 9):254-257
(1942).
391. T. yon Karman and N. B. Moore. The resistance of slender bodies moving with supersonic
velocities with special reference to projectiles. Trans. ASME 54:303-310 (1932).
392. G. I. Taylor and J. W. Maccoll. The air pressure on a cone moving at high speed. Proc. Roy. Soc.
London A139:278-311 (1933).
393. G. I. Taylor. "Applications to aeronautics of Ackeret's theory of aerofoils moving at speeds
greater than that of sound." Brit. Aeronaut. Res. Comm., Reports and Memoranda No. 1467,
WA-4218-5a (1932).
394. J. D. Andersen, Jr. Modem compressible flow, with historical perspective. McGraw-Hill, New
York (1990), pp. 461-463.
395. J. Ackeret. Der Uberschallwindkanal des Instituts for Aerodynamik an der ETH. Aero-Revue
Suisse 10:112-114 (1935).
396. L. J. Spencer: Meteorite craters as topographical features on the earth's surface. Ann. Rpt.
Smithsonian Inst. (1933), pp. 307-325.
397. W. H. Bucher: Cryptovolcanic structures in the United States. In: Rept. 16th Int. Geol. Congr,
Washington, DC (1933). Banta Publishing Company, Menash, WI (1936), vol. 2, pp. 1055-
1084.
398. N. N. Semenov. Chemical kinetics and chain reactions. Goschimizdat, Leningrad (1934) and
Clarendon Press, Oxford (1935).
399. C. Wieselsberger. Die l)berschallanlage des Aerodynamischen Instituts der Technischen
Hochschule Aachen. Luftwissen (Berlin) 4:301-303 (1937).
400. W. Baade and E Zwicky. Supernovae and cosmic rays. Phys. Rev. 45:138 (1934).
401. D. Helfand. Bang: The supernova of 1987. Physics Today 40 (No. 8):25-32 (1987).
History of Shock Waves 139

402. P. A. Cerenkov. Visible faint luminosity of pure liquids under the action of 7-radiation. Dokl.
AN (SSSR) 2:451-454 (1934).
403. P.A. Cerenkov. Nobel Lecture: Strahlung von Teilchen, die sich mit Uberlichtgeschwindigkeit
bewegen und einige ihrer Anwendungsm6glichkeiten in der Experimentalphysik. Phys.
Bliitter 15:385-397 (1959).
404. A. Michel-LeW and H. Muraour. Sur la luminosite des ondes de choc. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris
198:1760-1762 (1934).
405. A. Busemann. Aerodynamischer Auftrieb bei Uberschallgeschwindigkeit. Proc. 5th Volta Conf.,
Rome (1935), Reale Accademia d'Italia, Rome (1936) pp. 328-360; Luftfahrtforsch. 12: 210-
220 (1935).
406. L. Prandtl: Allgemeine Uberlegungen {iber die Stromung zusammendruckbarer Fliissigkeiten.
Proc. 5th Volta Conf., Rome (Sept./Oct. 1935). Reale Accademia d'Italia, Roma (1936), pp.
168-197, 215-221; ZAMM 16:129-142 (1936).
407. P. P. Wegener. The Peenemunde wind tunnels. A memoir. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven (1996), p.
25.
408. K. Oswatitsch. Die Nebelbildung in Windkanalen und ihr Einflut~ auf Modellversuche. Jb.
dtsch. Akad. Luftfahrtforsch. (1941), Part I, pp. 692-703.
409. R. Hermann. Der Kondensationsstot~ in Oberschall-Windkanald{isen. Luftfahrtforsch. 19:
201-209 (1942).
410. J. Ackeret: Windkanale fiir Geschwindigkeiten. Proc. 5th Volta Conf., Rome (Sept./Oct. 1935).
Reale Accademia d'Italia, Roma (1936), pp. 487-536; Gallerie aerodinamiche per alte velocita.
12Aerotecnica 16:885-925 (1936).
411. T. von Karm~n. The problem of resistance in compressible fluids. Proc. 5th Volta Conf., Rome
(Sept./Oct. 1935). Reale Accademia d'Italia, Roma (1936), pp. 222-276.
412. E. Wigner and H. B. Huntington. On the possibility of a metallic modification of hydrogen. J.
Chem. Phys. 3:764-770 (1935).
413. S. T. Weir, A. C. Mitchell and W. J. Nellis: Metallization of fluid molecular hydrogen at
140GPa. Phys. Rev. Lett. 76:1860-1863 (1996).
414. L. Crocco. Gallerie aerodinamiche per alte velocita. EAerotecnica 15:237-275,735-778 (1935).
415. W. A. Bone, R. P. Fraser, and W. H. Wheeler. (II) A photographic investigation of flame
movements in gaseous explosions. Part VII: The phenomenon of spin detonation. Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc. London A235:29-67 (1936).
416. M.J. Neufeld. The rocket and the Reich. Peenemunde and the coming of the ballistic missile era.
The Free Press, New York (1995), chp. 3.
417. R. Hermann. The supersonic wind tunnel installations at Peenemunde and Kochel, and their
contributions to the aerodynamics of rocket-powered vehicles. In Space: mankind's fourth
environment (Selected papers from the 32nd Int. Astronaut. Congr.), L. G. Napolitano, ed.
Pergamon Press, Oxford (1982), pp. 435-446.
418. W. Payman and W. C. E Shepherd. (IV) Quasi-detonation in mixtures of methane and air.
Proc. Roy. Soc. London A158:348-367 (1937).
419. L. Crocco. Eine neue Stromfunktion f{ir die Erforschung der Bewegung der Gase mit
Rotation. ZAMM 17:1-7 (1937).
420. A. Vazsonyi. On rotational gas flows. Quart. Appl. Math. 3:29-37 (1945).
421. L. Tonks. Theory and phenomena of high current densities in low pressure arcs. Trans.
Etectrochem. Soc. 72:167-182 (1937).
422. S. J. Bless. Production of high pressures by a capacitor discharge-powered linear magnetic
pinch. J. Appl. Phys. 43:1580-1585 (1972).
423. O. von Schmidt. Ober Knallwellenausbreitung in Flussigkeiten und festen Korpern. Z. Techn.
Phys. 19:554-561 (1938).
140 P. Krehl

424. O. von Schmidt. Zur Theorie der Erdbebenwellen. Die "wachsende" Reflexion der Seismik als
Analogon zur "Kopfwelle" der Ballistik. Z. Geophysik 12:199-205 (1936).
425. J.D. Boon, C.C. Albritton, Jr.: Established and supposed examples of meteoritic craters and
structures. Field & Laboratory (Dallas) 6:44-56 (1938); The impact of large meteorites. Ibid.
6, 57-64 (1938).
426. R. S. Dietz: Meteorite impact suggested by the orientation of shatter-cones at the Kentland,
Indiana, disturbance. Science 105:42-43 (1947); Meteorite impact suggested by shatter cones
in rock. 131:1781-1784 (1960).
427. A. E Belajev. The production of detonation in explosives under the action of a thermal pulse.
Dokl. AN (SSSR) 18(No. 4-5):267-269 (1938).
428. H. Johnston. "Electric initiator with exploding bridge wire." U.S. Patent No. 3,040,660 (filed
Nov. 8, 1944, applied June 26, 1962).
429. M. Steenbeck. Uber ein Verfahren zur Erzeugung intensiver ROntgenblitze. Wiss. VeriJff.
Siemens 17:363-380 (1938).
430. K. H. Kingdon and H. E. Tanis. Experiments with a condenser discharge. Phys. Rev. 53: 128-
134 (1938).
431. H. Schardin. Uber die Entwicklung der Hohlladung. Wehrtech. Hefte 51 (No. 4):97-120 (1954).
432. A set of some of the first flash radiographs of the shaped charge were donated to Dr. C.
Fauguignon, Adjoint Scientific Director of ISL, upon Dr. G. Thomer's retirement from ISL. See
also: D. R. Kennedy. History of the shaped charge effect. The first 100 years. Company brochure
prepared by D. R. Kennedy & Associates, Inc., Mountain View, CA (1983).
433. H. Mohaupt. Shaped charges and warheads. In Aero-space Ordnance Handbook, E B. Pollad and
J. A. Arnold, eds. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1966), chp. 11.
434. E. Preiswerk. Anwendungen gasdynamischer Methoden auf Wasserstri~mungen mit freier Ober-
fliiche. Mitteilungen aus dem Institut ftir Aerodynamik, ETH Zurich (1938).
435. O. Hahn and E Strassmann. Uber den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung
des Urans mittels Neutronen entdtehenden Erdalkalimetalle. Die Naturwissenschaften 27: 11-
15 (1939); Uber die Bruchstiicke beim Zerplatzen des Urans. Ibid., pp. 89-95; Nachweis der
Entstehung aktiver Bariumisotope aus Uran und Thorium durch Neutronenbestrahlung.
Nachweis weiterer aktiver Bruchstucke bei der Uranspahung. Ibid. 163-164.
436. S. Flugge. Kann der Energieinhalt der Atomkerne technisch nutzbar gemacht werden? Die
Naturwissenschaften 27:402-410 (1939).
437. S. Flligge. Die Ausnutzung der Atomenergie. Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung 78 (No. 387) (Aug.
15, 1939).
438. Y. Khariton, Y. Smimov: The Khariton version. Bull. Atomic Scientists 49(No. 5):20-31 (1993).
439. A. Betz. "Flugzeug mit Geschwindigkeiten in der N/~he der Schallgeschwindigkeit." Top secret
German Patent D.R.P. No. 732/42 (1939).
440. R. Smelt. A critical review of German research on high-speed airflow. J. Roy. Aeronaut. Soc. 50:
899-934 (1946).
441. E H. Shehon. Reflections of a nuclear weaponeer. Shelton Enterprise Inc., Colorado Springs
(1988), chp. 1: The Manhattan Project.
442. The life and time of the Manhattan Project.
See http://www.gis.net/carter/manhattan/project.html.
443. T. von Karman and k. Edson. The wind and beyond. Theodore yon Karman pioneer in aviation
and pathfinder in space. Little, Brown and Co., Boston and Toronto (1967), p. 233.
444. W. Payman and W. C. E Shepherd. (VI) The disturbance produced by bursting diaphragms
with compressed air. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A186:293-321 (1946).
445. Y. B. Zeldovich. On the theory of the propagation of detonation in gaseous systems. ZETP
(SSSR) 10:542-568 (1940).
History of Shock Waves 141

446. J. von Neumann. "Theory of stationary detonation waves." Rpt. OSRD-549 (1942).
447. W. D0ring. Ober den Detonationsvorgang in Gasen. Ann. Phys. 43 [V]:421-436 (1943).
448. T. von Karman and L. Edson. The wind and beyond. Theodore von Kdrman, pioneer and
pathfinder in space. Little, Brown and Co., Boston and Toronto (1967), p. 224.
449. A. Michel-L~vy, H. Muraour, and E. Vassy. Repartition spectrale ~nerg~tique dans la lumiere
Cmise lors de la rencontre d'ondes de choc. Rev. Opt. Th~or. Instrum. 20:149-160 (1941).
450. H. Schardin. Experimentelle Arbeiten zum Problem der Detonation. Jb. dtsch. Akad. Luftfahrt-
forsch. (1940-1941), pp. 314-334.
451. G. I. Taylor. "The formation of a blast wave by a very intense explosion." Ministry of Home
Security, R.C. 210, II-5-153 (1941) and Proc. Roy. Soc. London A201:159-186 (1950).
452. L. I. Sedov. Propagation of strong explosive waves. Prikl. Mat. Mekh. (SSSR) 10 (No. 2):241-
250 (1946).
453. S. C. Lin. Cylindrical shock waves produced by instantaneous energy release. J. Appl. Phys.
25:54-57 (1954).
454. "A photographic study of small-scale underwater explosions". David W. Taylor Model Basin,
Confidential Test Report R-39 (Aug. 1941).
455. Weinert: "Unterwasserzeitlupenaufnahmen von Gasblasenschwingungen". Berichte der
chemisch-physikalischen Versuchsanstalt6 der Kriegsmarine (Kiel) 245, Heft VI (1941). 9
This report which was cited by W. DOting and H. Schardin in a post-war review paper on
detonations [In: Naturforschung und Medizin in Deutschland 1939-1946, (A. Betz, ed.) Verlag
Chemie, Weinheim/Bergstr. (1953). Bd. 11: Hydro- und Aerodynamik pp. 97-125], could not
be located in German archives.
456. H. A. Berthe and J. G. Kirkwood: "The pressure wave produced by an underwater explosion."
NDRC Div. B, Progr. Rpt. OSRD-588 (1942).
457. D.C. Campbell. "Motions of a pulsating gas globe under waterma photographic study". David
W. Taylor Model Basin Rpt. 512 (1943).
458. W. Dornberger. V2mDer Schuj~ ins Weltall. Bechtle, Esslingen (1952).
459. Los Alamos 1943-45; The beginning of an era. Brochure LASL-79-79, Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratories, NM.
460. G. Guderley. Starke kugelige und zylindrische Verdichtungsstot~e in der Nahe des Kugelmit-
telpunktes bzw. der Zylinderachse. Luftfahrtforsch. 19:302-312 (1942).
461. R.J. Seeger. On Mach's curiosity about shock waves. In Ernst Mach, physicist and philosopher,
R. S. Cohen and R. J. Seeger, eds. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 6:42-67 (1970).
462. H. A. Bethe. "On the theory of shock waves for an arbitrary equation of state." NDRC Div. B,
Rpt. OSRD-545 (1942).
463. J. von Neumann. "Oblique reflection of shocks." Navy Dept., Bureau of Ordnance, Explosives
Res. Rpt. No. 12, Washington, DC (1943).
464. J. von Neumann: The Mach effect and height of burst. In: (A.H. Taub, ed.): J. von Neumann
collected works. Pergamon Press, Oxford etc. (1963), vol. VI, pp. 309-347.
465. R. W. Wood. "On the interaction of shock waves." Rpt. OSRD-1996 (1943).
466. R. J. Seeger. On Mach's curiosity about shock waves. In Ernst Mach, physicist and
philosopher, R. S. Cohen and R. J. Seeger, eds. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science
6:42-67 (1970).
467. (A.H. Taub, ed.): J yon Neumann collected works. Pergamon Press, Oxford etc. (1963), vol. VI,
pp. 309-347.
468. E Schuhz-Grunow. Nichtstatiomire, kugelsymmetrische Gasbewegung und nichtstatiomire
Gasstromung in Dusen und Diffusoren. Ingenieur-Archiv 14:21-29 (1943).
469. O. Igra, L. Wang, and J. Falcovitz. Nonstationary compressible flow in ducts with varying
cross-section. J. Aerospace Eng. 212 [Part G]:225-243 (1998).
142 P. Krehl

470. R. H. Cole. Underwater explosions. Dover Publ., New York (1948), pp. 257-258.
471. E H. Reynolds. "A preliminary study of plane shock waves formed by bursting diaphragms in
a tube." Rpt. OSRD-1519 (1943).
472. R. G. Sachs."The dependence of blast on ambient pressure and temperature." BRL Rpt. 466,
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD (1944); Some properties of very intense shock waves. Phys.
Rev. 69:514-515 (1946).
473. P. P Wegener. The Peenemunde wind tunnels. A memoir Yale Univ. Press, New Haven (1996),
pp. 69-70.
474. K. Oswatitsch. "Flow research to improve the efficiency of muzzle brakes." Heereswaffenamt.
Berlin Rpt. R1001 (1944).
475. L. H. Thomas. Note on Becker' theory of the shock front. J. Chem. Phys. 12:449-453 (1944).
476. J. von Neumann. "Proposal and analysis of a new numerical method for the treatment of
hydrodynamical shock problems." Applied Mathematics Group, Institute for Advanced Study,
Princeton Rpts. OSRD-3617 and NDRC-108 (1944).
477. L. G. Smith. "Photographic investigation of the reflection of plane shocks in air." Palmer
Physical Laboratory, Princeton University Rpt. OSRD-6271 (1945); Phys. Rev. 69:678 (1946).
478. P. Colella and L. E Henderson. The von Neumann paradox for the diffraction of weak shock
waves. In Proc. 9th Int. Mach Reflection Symp., H. Reichenbach, ed. Ernst Mach-Institut,
Freiburg (June 1990).
479. J. von Neumann: Refraction, intersection and reflection of shock waves. In: John von
Neumann. Collected Works. (A.H. Taub, ed.) Pergamon Press, Oxford etc. (1963), vol. VI,
pp. 300-308.
480. E. B. Christoffel. lJber die Fortpflanzung yon St6gen durch elastische feste KOrper. Ann. di
Mat. 8 [II]:193-243 (1877).
481. P. H. Hugoniot. M~moire sur la propagation du mouvement dans les corps et plus
sp~cialement dans les gaz parfaits. 1e Partie. J. Ecole Polytech. (Paris) 5 7 : 3 - 9 7 (1887).
482. P. M. M. Duhem. Sur les thgor~mes d'Hugoniot, les lemmes de M. HADAMARD et la propagation
des ondes dans les fluides visqueux. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 132:1163-1167 (1901); Sur les ondes
longitudinales et transversales dans les fluides parfaits. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 132:1303-1306
(1901).
483. J. S. Hadamard. Lemon sur la propagation des ondes et les gquations de l'hydrodynamique. A.
Hermann, Paris (1903).
484. J. C. E. Jouguet. Sur les ondes de choc dans les corps solides. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 171: 461-
464 (1920); Sur la cr162 des ondes dans les solides ~lastiques. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 171:
512-515 (1920); Sur la variation d'entropie dans les ondes de choc des solides r C.
R. Acad. Sci. Paris 171:789-791 (1920).
485. C. E. Morris. Shock-wave equation-of-state studies at Los Alamos. Shock Waves 1:213-222
(1991).
486. E H. Shehon. Reflections of a nuclear weaponeer. Shelton Enterprise Inc., Colorado Springs
(1988), p. 2:15.
487. From: Administrative History, History of 509th Composite Group, 313th Bombardment Wing,
20th U.S. Air Force, Activation to 15 August 1945. This information was kindly provided by the
Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum, Washington, DC.
488. J. Malik. "The yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear explosions." Los Alamos National
Laboratory, Rpt. LA-8819 (1985).