Physical Therapy in Sport 12 (2011) 100e106

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Physical Therapy in Sport

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/ptsp

Literature Review

Does Taekwondo training improve physical fitness?

Shirley S.M. Fong, Gabriel Y.F. Ng*
Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong (SAR), China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Background: Taekwondo (TKD) is a popular sport practiced by people of all ages in more than 180
Received 9 April 2010 countries and it is generally considered as being beneficial to health even though the scientific evidence
Received in revised form for this is not conclusive. Despite its popularity, there are very few studies on the health benefits of TKD,
17 June 2010
therefore this article attempts to pull together the existing strands of relevant research.
Accepted 8 July 2010
Aim: This paper aimed to review the effects of TKD training on physical fitness.
Methods: A search of literature on both electronic and printed media was performed and 23 papers with
Keywords:
relevance to the topic were included and critically reviewed. The main outcomes examined were
Taekwondo
Martial art
anaerobic and aerobic fitness, body composition, muscle strength, endurance, power and flexibility.
Physical fitness Results: There is no conclusive evidence in the literature that TKD practice can improve anaerobic fitness
Health or muscle strength. However, TKD training may have some benefits in aerobic capacity, body composi-
tion (fat loss) and flexibility.
Conclusion: Physiotherapists or fitness instructors may consider recommending TKD to their clients as
a beneficial form of exercise to promote aerobic fitness and flexibility.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Taekwondo (TKD) is a martial art originated from Korea to train
the combat fighting skills of armies and individual warriors. After
the Korean War, this martial art was brought from Korea to other
countries. Since the late 1950s, TKD has been transformed from
a traditional combating skill to a modern sport all over the world. It
became an Olympic sport in 1994 (Pieter & Heijmans, 2000) and is
now one of the world’s most popular martial sports in terms of
number of practitioners (Park, Park, & Gerrard, 1989). According to
the 2009 figures of World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) and
International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF), which are the world’s
two largest TKD organizations, there are over 80 million people
worldwide practicing TKD in over 180 countries (ITF, 2000; WTF,
2009). At present, TKD is practiced in two forms. The more tradi-
tional form, under the aegis of the ITF, emphasizes on combat
fighting and various crushing and defensive techniques, whereas
a more modern form, under the WTF, has placed emphasis on sport
performance and competition (Heller, Peric, Dlouha, Kohlikova,
Melichna, & Novakova, 1998).
The training regime in TKD is systematic, long-term, and
progressive (Pieter & Heijmans, 2003), and generally involves the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 852 27666721; fax: þ86 852 23308656.
E-mail address: rsgng@inet.polyu.edu.hk (G.Y.F. Ng).
basic skills, forms, sparring and breaking techniques. Basic tech-
niques such as punching, kicking, and blocking are performed
individually in stationary positions or with body movements in
formal stances (Toskovic, Blessing, & Williford, 2004). The practice
of TKD is relatively safe because protective gear is mandatory and
practitioners must follow strict competition rules, thus most
injuries in competitions are not severe (Kordi, Maffulli, Wroble, &
Wallace, 2009; Pieter & Heijmans, 2000).
In light of the popularity of TKD and the common belief that
martial exercise is beneficial for health (Cox, 1993; Tsang et al.,
2008; Woodward, 2009), there is a need to identify the health-
related benefits of TKD training. Increased physical fitness means
fewer health problems, less absenteeism and fewer premature
deaths (Haskell, Lee, Pate, Powell, Blair, & Franklin, 2007). This
paper therefore focuses on the health-related benefits of TKD
training and the potential to promote it as a fitness exercise in the
community.
2. Methods
A comprehensive search of literature was conducted and the
following databases were reviewed: AMED, CINAHL, MEDLINE,
PreMedline, PubMed, SPORTDiscus and SCI. Search terms included
‘Taekwondo’ and ‘martial arts’. These two keywords were searched
for individually in all databases. The electronic search was sup-
plemented by a manual search of reference lists of collected articles

1466-853X/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ptsp.2010.07.001
 S.S.M. Fong, G.Y.F. Ng / Physical Therapy in Sport 12 (2011) 100e106
and previous review articles to identify papers of potential interest.
Only those papers that reported musculoskeletal health outcomes
or physiological effects associated with TKD training were included.
Those without full text (e.g. conference proceedings), not published
in English and describing martial art styles other than TKD were
excluded.
3. Results
After manual screening, a total of 23 papers were deemed
relevant to the topic and met the inclusion criteria. The major
outcomes examined were anaerobic capacity, aerobic performance
(cardio-respiratory fitness), body composition (percentage of body
fat or lean body mass), muscle strength, endurance and power and
flexibility. All these are important physical fitness parameters
relevant to TKD practice.
4. Discussion
4.1. Anaerobic capacity and TKD training
According to the rules of the WTF (2009), a formal TKD
competition should consist of 3 rounds of 2 min fighting, with
1 min recovery or rest in between. Under the ITF competition rules
(2000), each match should comprise 2 rounds of 2 min duration,
with a 1 min break between the rounds. Most TKD matches consist
of bouts of intensive action of 3e5 s, alternating with low intensity
periods at an average ratio ranging from 1:3 to 1:4 (Heller et al.,
1998). Another match analysis performed by Matsushigue,
Hartmann, and Franchini (2009) revealed that the ‘Exercise: Rest
ratio’ was 1:1 and the ratio of ‘high-intensity movement to rest
period’ was 1:6. These findings imply that TKD competitions
consist of very short periods of intermittent, high-intensity move-
ments that are infrequent, thus athletes depend on anaerobic
energy pathways mainly (phosphogen and lactic acid systems) to
generate energy for defense and attack (Bouhlel, Jouini, Gmada,
Nefzi, Abdallah, & Tabka, 2006; Butios & Tasika, 2007; Heller
et al., 1998; Matsushigue et al., 2009; Melhim, 2001; Pieter &
Heijmans, 2003).
Anaerobic power refers to the ability to deliver energy for
physical activity at a high rate, without oxygen and for a short
period of time, resulting in blood lactate accumulation. Hence,
many investigators measured the excessive lactate in muscle and
blood following exercise to indicate the contribution of anaerobic
metabolism to the exercise energy requirement (Di Prampero &
Ferretti, 1999). Several investigators (Bouhlel et al., 2006; Butios
& Tasika, 2007; Heller et al., 1998; Markovic, Vucetic, & Cardinale,
2008; Matsushigue et al., 2009) have studied the anaerobic
training component in TKD by comparing the blood lactate
concentration before and after competition. Heller et al. (1998)
found that there was a significant rise of blood lactate concentra-
tion and heart rate during TKD competition in elite players. More
recently, Bouhlel et al. (2006) and Matsushigue et al. (2009) have
both found that blood lactate concentrations increased significantly
during and after TKD competition in national level athletes. Butios
and Tasika (2007) analyzed the rise in blood lactate during TKD
matches and found that most elite players recorded an increase in
blood lactate levels in the 1st and 2nd rounds and reached a peak at
the end of the 3rd round. The concentration of blood lactate
remained elevated even at 3 min after the conclusion of the bout
(Markovic et al., 2008). Additionally, Markovic, Misigoj-Durakovic,
and Trninic (2005) analyzed the anaerobic alactic power in elite
female TKD athletes with a 15 s vertical jump test and concluded
that the top-quality athletes had significantly higher anaerobic
alactic power than the less successful athletes. Even though this
101
conclusion might be too strong as the aerobic energy system would
also have contributed to the 15 s vertical jump due to inter-change
of energy system in the body (Gastin, 2001), most of the evidence
seems to indicate that anaerobic metabolism is the major source of
energy during TKD competition. The main energy source is phos-
phogen which is used for explosive attacks of short duration,
whereas oxidative energy transfer predominates during the inter-
vals between attacks (Matsushigue et al., 2009).
Heller et al. (1998) studied the physiological characteristics,
including the anaerobic capacity of TKD athletes, and found that
both male and female elite TKD practitioners had higher anaerobic
capability than the normal non-TKD population. However, these
elite athletes are not typical of the general population because of
their pre-selection and training effects.
There is only one study that investigated the anaerobic effect of
TKD training in non-elite athletes. In 2001, Melhim conducted
a short-term longitudinal study with 19 teenage subjects on the
effects of practicing TKD ‘poomsae’ (forms) and found that 3
sessions of TKD training per week for 8 weeks was able to increase
the anaerobic capacity with the Wingate Anaerobic Test in teenage
male TKD practitioners. Although the study involved a follow up
training protocol, the training content was focused on forms only
which might not reflect the true effect of complete TKD training.
Nevertheless, based on the existing information, it is possible that
TKD competition generally or poomsae training specifically could
promote anaerobic fitness.
4.2. Aerobic performance (cardio-respiratory fitness) and TKD
training
In theory, aerobic training could increase the anaerobic
threshold by improving clearance of lactic acid from the exercising
muscles (Purcell & Hergenroeder, 1994). Many researchers (Bouhlel
et al., 2006; Butios & Tasika, 2007; Heller et al., 1998; Markovic
et al., 2005; Melhim, 2001; Noorul, Pieter, & Erie, 2008;
Thompson & Vinueza, 1991; Toskovic et al., 2002, 2004) had
studied the physiological profile of elite TKD practitioners and their
findings are summarized in Table 1. Maximum oxygen uptake
(VO2max) was widely used by the authors to indicate the cardio-
vascular functional capacity. TKD training was considered to be
both aerobic and anaerobic in nature because during competitions,
short bouts of rapid and high-intensity movements were separated
by less intense movements (Bridge, Jones, Hitchen, & Sanchez,
2007; Butios & Tasika, 2007; Heller et al., 1998; Markovic et al.,
2008; Matsushigue et al., 2009; Pieter, Taaffe, & Heijmans, 1990;
Toskovic et al., 2002). Since all studies presented in Table 1 were
on highly selected, national or international level TKD athletes and
were cross-sectional in design, these findings might not reflect the
true effect of TKD training in the general population.
Apart from elite TKD athletes, data are also available in recrea-
tional TKD practitioners. Two studies done by Toskovic et al. in
2002 and 2004 which investigated the physiological profile of
recreational TKD practitioners revealed that those who attained
black belt qualifications (3 þ years of training) showed better
aerobic power than novice practitioners (8 weeks of training) of the
same sex.
Although most studies reported that both experienced and elite
TKD practitioners had better aerobic performance or VO2max than
novice or the non-practitioners (Table 1), some researchers found
the opposite (Melhim, 2001; Noorul et al., 2008; Thompson &
Vinueza, 1991;). Thompson and Vinueza (1991) reported that the
mean VO2max in experienced male TKD practitioners was 44/ml/kg/
min, which was substantially lower than the novice TKD practi-
tioners as reported by Toskovic et al. (2004). The authors also
compared the cardio-respiratory profile of their TKD subjects with
102 S.S.M. Fong, G.Y.F. Ng / Physical Therapy in Sport 12 (2011) 100e106
Table 1
A comparison of cardiopulmonary fitness (VO2max values) in different types of TKD athletes and the norm.
Study Participants
Heller et al. (1998) Czech national team
Mean age 20.9 years
Butios and Tasika (2007) Elite TKD athletes in South Korea
Mean age 21.9 years
Bouhlel et al. (2006) National Tunisian TKD team
Mean age 20 years
Markovic et al. (2005) Elite Croatian TKD athletes
Mean age 21.5 years
Toskovic et al. (2002 and 2004) Recreational TKD athletes
Male black belt mean age: 24.9 years
Male novice mean age: 21 years
Female black belt mean age: 31 years
Female novice mean age: 20.9 years
Thompson and Vinueza (1991) Experienced TKD athletes
Mean age 27.4 years
Noorul et al. (2008) Recreational adolescent TKD athletes
Mean age 18.4 years
Melhim (2001) Recreational adolescent TKD athletes
Mean age 13.8 years
a
American College of Sports Medicine. (2006). ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
age-matched sedentary population and ultra-distance runners.
They reported that experienced TKD practitioners, in general, had
poorer cardio-respiratory fitness than the other two groups. They
concluded that TKD training placed little emphasis on the devel-
opment of cardiovascular fitness thus it would not benefit the
aerobic system.
In a recent study by Noorul et al. (2008), the VO2max values were
also found to be low in recreational adolescent TKD practitioners.
This is in line with Melhim (2001) who also reported a rather low
VO2max value of 38.2 ml/kg/min in male adolescent recreational
TKD practitioners. Findings of the above studies reveal a consis-
tently low VO2max, which is probably representative of recreational
TKD practitioners.
To summarize, previous findings about the aerobic fitness of
TKD practitioners are conflicting. Further researches are needed to
confirm the aerobic effects of TKD training, especially in the general
population.
Although there is no consensus on the aerobic fitness of TKD
players, the exercise intensity during TKD competition or training
does stimulate the cardiovascular system above the ‘aerobic
training threshold’ (Bridge et al., 2007; Butios & Tasika, 2007; Heller
et al., 1998; Markovic et al., 2008; Pieter et al., 1990; Toskovic et al.,
2002). Many studies were done to measure the cardiac responses
during training or competition in professional TKD athletes
(Bouhlel et al., 2006; Butios & Tasika, 2007; Heller et al., 1998;
Markovic et al., 2008). Heller et al. (1998) reported that the heart
rate (HR) of elite TKD athletes during combat would oscillate close
to 100% of their age-predicted maximal heart rate (HRmax) which
concurs with the findings of Bouhlel et al. (2006). Butios and Tasika
(2007) reported the mean HR of elite male TKD athletes during
matches was 158 beats/min (86% of HRmax) while that of elite
women TKD athletes was 187 beats/min (91.7% of HRmax) (Markovic
et al., 2008). All these studies suggest that high level TKD compe-
titions can stimulate the HR response in the elite athletes, thus the
possibility of improving aerobic fitness.
HR response was also above the aerobic training threshold in
recreational TKD practitioners. Bridge et al. (2007) reported that TKD
training in experienced TKD practitioners could range from 64.7% to
81.4% of HRmax, depending on the activities performed. Punches and
kicks with elastic stretch bands, technical combinations and step
sparring elicited moderate exercise intensity (64.7e69.4% of HRmax).
Practicing the basic techniques and forms, pad work, sparring drills
VO2max (ml/kg/min) Norm for VO2max (with reference
to age and sex) (ml/kg/min)a
Male: 54 Male: 44.2
Female: 42 Female: 37.8
Male: 53.92 Male: 44.2
Male: 56.22 Male: 44.2
Female: 48.3 Female: 37.8
Male black belt: 58.9 Male black belt: 44.2
Male novice: 54.3 Male novice: 44.2
Female black belt: 50.5 Female black belt: 34.6
Female novice: 44.7 Female novice: 37.8
Male black belt: 44 Male: 44.2
Male: 42.2
Female: 30.72
Male: 38.2
and free sparring would have higher exercise intensity (74.7e81.4%
of HRmax). Pieter et al. (1990) investigated the exercise and recovery
HR in male recreational TKD practitioners and found that kicking and
punching practice would lead to significantly higher exercise heart
rates (90e91% of HRmax) than practicing the basic forms repeatedly
(80% of HRmax). It seems that all kinds of TKD activities are suitable
for cardiovascular training because the exercise HR normally falls
between 60% and 90% of HRmax (American College of Sports
Medicine, 2006). However, there is a major limitation of the above
studies because none of them measured oxygen uptake concomi-
tantly. Although HR and VO2 are linearly related in submaximal
exercise intensities, HR elicited during TKD was found to be
disproportionately high for a given percentage of VO2max (Toskovic
et al., 2002). This might be due to the psychological stress during
competitions (Bridge et al., 2007). Therefore, using HR alone as
a predictor for exercise intensity of TKD training or competition
might result in overestimation of the cardiovascular training effect of
this sport (Toskovic et al., 2002).
To avoid overestimation of TKD exercise intensity, Toskovic et al.
(2002) used both VO2 and HR to address the acute cardiovascular
effects in novice and experienced men and women TKD practi-
tioners during a single 20 min bout of dynamic TKD exercise
including basic techniques. All subjects achieved the threshold
stimulus for effective initiation of cardiovascular adaptations and
conditioning. The observed exercise intensity ranged from 67.9% to
72.1% of VO2max while the mean exercise HR responses ranged from
88.3% to 92.2% of HRmax. These indicated that 20 min of TKD
exercise might enhance aerobic fitness in recreational players.
However, considering that Toskovic et al. (2002) study is a cross-
sectional study, the causal relationship between TKD training and
aerobic fitness cannot be confidently established. Another cross-
sectional study was done by Glass, Reeg, and Bierma (2002) that
examined the cardiovascular strain and caloric cost of TKD martial
arts training in novice participants by measuring exercise HR, % of
HRmax, minute ventilation, respiratory exchange ratio and mean
VO2. They revealed that there was substantial cardiopulmonary
strain during TKD exercise. The authors suggested that both fit and
unfit individuals could benefit from TKD exercise because the
training is of interval in nature, but self-regulation of intensity is
possible. Melhim (2001) conducted a longitudinal study of TKD
practice on the cardiovascular fitness in male adolescents who had
10.4 months of TKD experience before and after an 8-week of TKD
 S.S.M. Fong, G.Y.F. Ng / Physical Therapy in Sport 12 (2011) 100e106 103

poomsae training programme. The author found no significant
difference in VO2max or resting HR before and after TKD practice.
These results indicated that 8 weeks of TKD forms training with
9 min of intensive poomsae training in each session might not be
able to condition the cardiovascular system or improve cardiovas-
cular fitness. Although that was a longitudinal study measuring
both VO2max and HR, there were several limitations with the study.
First, according to the ACSM guidelines (American College of Sports
Medicine, 2006), exercise performed for a total of 9 min would be
too short to improve cardiovascular fitness. Second, there was no
control group for the study. Third, the participants were adolescent
boys who had 10.4 months of TKD experience already, thus the
results of this study cannot be generalized to other populations.
To summarize the above studies, there is inconclusive evidence
demonstrating that TKD exercise might enhance aerobic fitness.
Further studies are needed to confirm the findings.
4.3. Body composition and TKD training
Although there is no strong evidence to show that TKD could
promote aerobic fitness, several authors did investigate the effects of
TKD training on weight and fat loss (Toskovic et al., 2002). Toskovic
et al. (2002) estimated the caloric expenditure of a 20 min bout of
TKD training required 316.5 kcal in male and 194.8 kcal in female
novices. The fact that men consumed significantly more energy than
women could be because men had more lean body mass. According to
the updated ACSM guidelines (American College of Sports Medicine,
2006; Haskell et al., 2007), exercise at an energy level of 300 kcal
for a minimum of 3 days per week could lead to fat loss. Therefore, the
authors concluded that around 30 min of TKD practice for 3 times per
week might be appropriate for enhancing weight control and fat loss.
Concurring with Toskovic et al. (2002)’s study, Glass et al. (2002) also
found that TKD training is of sufficient intensity for many individuals
to expend the 300 kcal per session, as recommended by the ACSM.
Therefore, it is an appropriate exercise to burn fat.
Several investigators (Aiwa & Pieter, 2007; Fritzsche & Raschka,
2008; Heller et al., 1998; Markovic et al., 2005; Noorul et al., 2008;
Thompson & Vinueza, 1991; Toskovic et al., 2002, 2004) had
examined the anthropometric profile of TKD practitioners and the
results are summarized in Table 2. Most studies have shown that
both amateur and elite TKD athletes had lower percentage of body
fat than the population norm of the same sex (Fritzsche & Raschka,
2008; Heller et al., 1998; Markovic et al., 2005; Toskovic et al., 2002,
2004). However, the nutritional profiles of these athletes were not
mentioned and it is possible that the TKD athletes had better die-
tary control thus resulting in less body fat (Pieter, 1991; Pieter &
Heijmans, 2000).
Long-term recreational TKD training has also been reported to
promote fat loss. In a study done by Toskovic et al. (2004), TKD
practitioners with black belt qualifications showed better aerobic
capacity and a lower percentage of body fat than their novice
counterparts despite the black belt practitioners being older. The
authors stated that the lower mean percentage of body fat in
recreational black belts practitioners was related to TKD training
rather than dietary intervention as seen in elite athletes.
There is, however, one paper that had opposite findings to the
above studies. Thompson and Vinueza (1991) reported that male
black belt practitioners had more body fat than sedentary subjects
or elite runners. However, the authors in this study only used
descriptive statistics and they did not provide any data on the
sedentary subjects or runners. Based on the existing evidence,
there is reason to believe that TKD could promote cardiovascular
endurance and weight loss. Further longitudinal studies are
required to confirm these effects.
4.4. Muscle strength and TKD training
TKD is characterized by fast and high kicks that require good
flexibility and power. Muscles of the lower limbs are crucial in
explosive kicking, jumping and maintaining stances (Noorul et al.,
2008). It is logical to hypothesize that TKD athletes could gain
muscle strength through this kind of body weight resistance
exercise. Several investigators (Cetin, Kececi, Erdogan, & Baydar,
2009; Markovic et al., 2005; Noorul et al., 2008; Thompson &
Vinueza, 1991; Toskovic et al., 2004) have analyzed the muscle
strength, power and endurance in TKD athletes by field tests and

Table 2
A comparison of body composition in different types of TKD athletes and the norm.

Study Participants Body fat (%) Norm for body fat % (with Lean body mass
reference to age and sex)a (kg)/Body mass (kg)
Fritzsche and Raschka (2008) Elite TKD M: 20.7 year old Elite M: 8.7 M: 15.9
Elite TKD F: 19.1 year old Elite F: 15.8 F: 22.1
Recreational TKD M: 21.8 year old Recreational M: 13.3
Recreational TKD F: 23.3 year old Recreational F: 17.6
Fitness group M: 26.3 year old Fitness group M: 10.4
Fitness group F: 26.8 year old Fitness group F: 15.7
Markovic et al. (2005) Croatian elite F TKD athletes Elite F: 16.5 F: 22.1 F: 49.9/60.1
21.5 year old
Heller et al. (1998) Czech national team TKD athletes Elite M: 8.2 M: 15.9 M: 64.2/69.9
20.9 year old Elite F: 15.4 F: 22.1 F: 52.4/62.3
Thompson and Vinueza (1991) Black belt M M: 18.9 ([) M: 15.9
27.4 year old
Toskovic et al. (2002 and 2004) Novice M: 21 year old Novice M: 16 M: 15.9 Novice M: 67.7/81.2
Experienced M: 24.9 year old Experienced M: 12.7 Novice F group: 22.1 Experienced M: 59.8/68.6
Novice F: 20.9 year old Novice F: 20.3 Experienced F group: 23.1 Novice F: 50.5/63.5
Experienced F: 31 year old Experienced F: 16.1 Experienced F: 49.7/59.4
Noorul et al. (2008) Adolescent recreational TKD athletes M: 21.4 M: 52.57/68.29
M: 18.63 year old F: 32.46 F: 40/59.72
F: 18.1 year old
Aiwa and Pieter (2007) Adolescent recreational M: 19.21 M: 47.39/58.93
TKD and karate practitioners F: 31.17 F: 38.67/56.24
M: 17.4 year old
F: 18.9 year old

M ¼ male; F ¼ female.
a
American College of Sports Medicine. (2006). ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
104 S.S.M. Fong, G.Y.F. Ng / Physical Therapy in Sport 12 (2011) 100e106

M ¼ male; F ¼ female; MN ¼ male novice TKD practitioners; ME ¼ male experienced TKD practitioners; FN ¼ female novice TKD practitioners; FE ¼ female experienced TKD practitioners; Reps ¼ repetitions; BW ¼ body weight.
the results are summarized in Table 3. However, the training

strength (kg)
regimes, subjects’ levels of achievement, age and assessment

Back: 95.79
Leg & back

Leg: 91.79
M: 151.3
techniques were different among the studies, thus rendering direct

Isometric strength
comparisons among the studies to be difficult.

(Dynamometer)
A few studies have reported that TKD training could improve

Hand-grip
muscle strength (Brudnak, Dundero, Van, & Hecke, 2002; Heller

M: 51.8
et al., 1998; Toskovic et al., 2004;). Heller et al. (1998) found the

34.25
(kg)
amount of lean body mass in elite TKD athletes to be higher than
the norm. In addition, the isometric muscle strength of arm flexion,

(Kg/BW)
1RM leg

MN: 2.4
ME: 3.2
FN: 2.3
knee extension, hand grip and explosive leg power were all above

FE: 2.6
press
the ‘norm’ in both genders. For recreational TKD athletes, Toskovic
et al. (2004) compared the muscle strength between black belt

1RM back
practitioners and beginners and found that the black belt practi-

(Kg/BW)
F: 1.3
squat
tioners possessed greater strength in the lower body than the
beginners, regardless of gender. This finding is expected given the

Maximal strength
focus on kicking techniques in TKD training. Furthermore, there is

press (Kg/BW)
1RM bench
a longitudinal study reporting the benefits of TKD training on

MN: 1.06
ME: 1.23
FN: 0.57
FE: 0.62
improving upper limb muscle strength and endurance. Brudnak

F: 0.9
et al. (2002) reported that the average number of pushups in 30 s
was increased by 1.8 repetitions after 17 weeks of TKD training in

60 s (reps)
senior citizens. However, the major drawback of this study was the

MN: 48.1
ME: 53.4
Sit-up in

FN: 40.9

M: 53.7
Muscular endurance
lack of a control group due to the total dropout rate in that group.

F: 55.2

F: 39.5

FE: 45
M: 39
Amongst the studies of TKD training on muscle strength, the

(Upper limbs
study by Thompson and Vinueza (1991) did not reveal any strength

Push-up in
and trunk)

60 s (reps)
improvement with TKD training. However, the authors only

F: 24.4

F: 31.5
compared their data with another two studies on sedentary pop-

M: 25
ulation and runners, which might not be valid because the studies
measured different muscle groups, contraction type and used
Elastic reactive

different field tests. Therefore, the findings need to be considered

with caution.
strength

F: 30.3
jumps
Several studies (Cetin et al., 2009; O’Donovan, Cheung, Catley,
5 rep.

(cm)
McGregor, & Strutton, 2006; Pieter, 1989; Pieter, Taaffe, Troxel, &
Heijmans, 1989) in TKD have used isokinetic testing to estimate the
Counter-movement
vertical jump with

relative strength of knee flexors and extensors with the ‘hamstrings to

arm swing (cm)

quadriceps ratio’ (H/Q). The clinically accepted peak torque H/Q ratio
Muscle strength/power/endurance (by field tests)

is around 60% and a higher ratio would reduce the vulnerability of

athletes to developing hamstring strain (Pieter, 1989). It was reported
F: 34.9

that for those involved in TKD training, their H/Q ratios were generally
higher than 60% (Table 4). It seems that TKD could be used to promote
Counter-movement
vertical jump (cm)

the H/Q ratio and prevent knee injuries.

An overview of muscle strength, power and endurance in TKD athletes (by field tests).

Pieter et al. (1989) were the first to use an isokinetic machine to

test male TKD athletes for knee extension and flexion and compared
M: 52.07

them with a group of beginner tennis players. They found that TKD
F: 34.04
F: 30.6

47.18

athletes scored higher peak torque values during knee flexion at all
Explosive leg power

speeds than the tennis players. It was suggested that the hamstrings
Squat vertical

contract concentrically and eccentrically in an alternate manner

jump (cm)

during kicking, which could lead to the development of stronger

MN: 43.7
ME: 51.5
FN: 32.1
FE: 31.3
F: 28.6

hamstrings. Several years later, O’Donovan et al. (2006) compared

43.18

the isometric and isokinetic leg and trunk strength in experienced

hard-style martial arts practitioners (8 Taekwondo and 5 Chinese
M: 18.63, F: 18.1 year old

FN: 20.9, FE: 31 year old

Kung Fu) and control. They found that the martial arts group had
novice and experienced
Recreational adolescent

Recreational M and F,

a greater body weight adjusted peak torque with both legs at all
Elite F TKD athletes

MN: 21, ME: 24.9,

Elite TKD athletes

testing speeds of knee extension and flexion, and in isometric knee

TKD practitioner

extension testing. For trunk flexion and extension, martial artists

21.5 year old

27.4 year old

TKD athletes

Black belt M

17 year old
Participant

tended to have higher isokinetic peak torque than the control

subjects, but the differences were not statistically significant. The H/Q
torque ratios were also not significantly different between the
martial artists and the control subjects at any of the isokinetic speeds.
Markovic et al. (2005)

Toskovic et al. (2004)

In contrast to the work of Pieter et al. (1989) and O’Donovan

Noorul et al. (2008)

Cetin et al. (2009)

Vinueza (1991)

et al. (2006), Teng et al. (2008) compared the isokinetic lower

Thompson and

limb strength at 60 /s in adolescent male TKD athletes with and

without resistance training. They found that 12 weeks of resistance
training had significantly increased the hip adduction power in TKD
Study
Table 3

athletes. The control group, which did not have additional strength
training recorded significant decreases in isokinetic hip flexion
 S.S.M. Fong, G.Y.F. Ng / Physical Therapy in Sport 12 (2011) 100e106 105

Table 4
Isokinetic muscle performance of TKD athletes in different studies.

Study Participants Knee flexion peak Knee extension peak H/Q ratio for peak
torque (Nm) torque (Nm) torque (%)
Cetin et al. (2009) Elite TKD athletes Dominant leg: Dominant leg: Dominant leg:
17 year old 146.43 (60 /s & 240 /s) 209 (60 /s & 240 /s) 72.43%
O’Donovan et al. (2006) Hard-style martial arts Both legs:
practitioners 72.67%
23.7 year old
Pieter et al. (1989) M (recreational) TKD 120 /s: 120 /s:
practitioners Rt 66.20, Lt 64.35 Rt 81.63, Lt 85.16
21.8 year old 180 /s: 180 /s:
Rt 60.06, Lt 56.61 Rt 65.13, Lt 63.86
250 /s: 250 /s:
Rt 51.91, Lt 51.66 Rt 52.06, Lt 50.99
Pieter (1989) M intermediate level TKD 80 /s: 80 /s: 80 /s:
practitioners Rt 61.64, Lt 62.31 Rt 100.38, Lt 99.41 Rt 61.41%, Lt 62.68%
20.6 year old 400 /s: 400 /s: 400 /s:
Rt 16.09, Lt 13.57 Rt 20.24, Lt 19.63 Rt 79.5%, Lt 69.13%

Rt ¼ right; Lt ¼ left.

(22%) and abduction power (34%). The authors explained that the
decline in isokinetic strength might reflect a lack of functional
adaptation and lesser degree of general muscular conditioning.
These inconsistent findings in isokinetic strength could be
explained by the different training designs, subject selection,
measuring parameters and methods in different studies (Table 4).
First, the ‘hard-style martial artists’ were not pure TKD athletes in
O’Donovan et al.’s study (2006) while Teng et al. (2008) only
recruited adolescent TKD athletes. Second, these studies measured
different muscle groups at different speeds. Third, Pieter et al.
(1989) and O’Donovan et al. (2006), measured ‘peak torque’
which reflects the subjects’ maximum strength level, while Teng
et al. (2008) measured ‘power’, which reflects the subjects’ ability
in developing explosive strength (Brown & Weir, 2001). Therefore,
it would be difficult to conclude that TKD could be used for muscle
strengthening or injury prevention. Further studies with stan-
dardized testing procedures are required to confirm the effect of
TKD training on muscle strength.
4.5. Flexibility and TKD training
Flexibility is extremely important in TKD athletes in order to
execute high kicks and perform full range movements at high
speed. Table 5 summarizes the findings of previous studies
(Cromwell, Meyers, Meyers, & Newton, 2007; Heller et al., 1998;
Markovic et al., 2005; Noorul et al., 2008; Thompson & Vinueza,
1991; Toskovic et al., 2004) on flexibility of TKD training. Heller
et al. (1998) found that both male and female elite TKD athletes
have above average flexibility. This concurs with Thompson and
Vinueza (1991) and Markovic and colleagues’ findings (2005). All
of these studies used the ‘sit-and-reach’ test to measure trunk
flexibility. Contrary to the above findings, Toskovic et al. (2004)
found no significant difference between male novice, male- expe-
rienced, female novice and female-experienced TKD practitioners
in the sit-and-reach test, but they found that male-experienced
TKD practitioners had scored highest with lateral split leg test
instead. The authors explained that lateral split leg test was more

Table 5
A comparison of flexibility in different types of TKD athletes and the norm.

Study Participants Sit-and-reach test (cm) Norm for sit-and-reach (cm) Leg-splits test
(with reference to age and sex)a
Markovic et al. (2005) Elite F TKD athletes F: 55.8 F: 48.26
Mean age 21.5 years
Heller et al. (1998) Elite TKD athletes M: 36.9 (158% norm)
M mean age: 20.9 years F: 37.9 (142% norm)
F mean age: 18.5 years
Thompson and Vinueza (1991) M TKD black belts M: 53.2 M: 38.1
Mean age 27.4 years
Toskovic et al. (2004) Recreational TKD practitioners MN: 31.7 (Y) MN: 43.18 MN: 115.3
MN: 21 years ME: 39.1 (Y) ME: 43.18 ME: 152.3
ME: 24.9 years FN: 37 (Y) FN: 48.26 FN: 134.6
FN: 20.9 years FE: 35.9 (Y) FE: 43.18 FE: 130.6
FE: 31 years
Noorul et al. (2008) Recreational adolescent TKD athletes Modified sit-and-reach test
M mean age: 18.63 years M: Rt 34.43, Lt 1.99
F mean age: 18.1 years F: Rt 36.79, Lt 35.75
Cromwell et al. (2007) Older adults TKD group:
TKD group mean age: 72.7 years Pre-test 8.9 /
Control mean age: 73.8 years Post-test 21 (p < 0.05)
Control group:
Pre-test 0.9 /
Post-test 19.8

M ¼ male; F ¼ female; MN ¼ male novice TKD practitioners; ME ¼ male experienced TKD practitioners; FN ¼ female novice TKD practitioners; FE ¼ female experienced TKD
practitioners; Rt ¼ right; Lt ¼ left.
a
American College of Sports Medicine. (2006). ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
106 S.S.M. Fong, G.Y.F. Ng / Physical Therapy in Sport 12 (2011) 100e106
specific to TKD, thus their finding might better reflect the training
effect of TKD.
TKD training has also been reported to benefit the flexibility of
older subjects. Brudnak et al. (2002) demonstrated that a 17-week
TKD training programme had improved trunk flexibility in healthy
elderly subjects with a mean age of 71 years. However, the draw-
back of that study was the lack of a control group because all
control subjects had dropped out during the study. Several years
later, Cromwell et al. (2007) conducted a longitudinal study on
elderly practitioners of TKD and reported an increase of 2.1 cm in
sit-and-reach in the TKD participants compared to the sedentary
control subjects. This finding reflects the potential of TKD training
in slowing down the biological deterioration in body flexibility.
Therefore, all existing literature suggests that TKD training can
improve trunk and lower limb flexibility in young or elderly
subjects. However, the training frequency, intensity and types of
TKD activity varied among the studies. Furthermore, as flexibility is
joint specific (McArdle, Katch, & Katch, 2001) and the previous
studies emphasized only on the hamstrings and the lower back
flexibility, it would be valuable to investigate the effect of TKD
training on the flexibility of other body parts.
5. Conclusions
TKD training might be associated with improvements in
anaerobic fitness, fat reduction and flexibility. However, there is no
conclusive evidence to prove that TKD training can improve aerobic
fitness or muscle strength. Studies of TKD and physical fitness are
still limited. Better controlled studies or randomized controlled
trials are needed to establish the values of TKD training in
improving physical fitness.
Ethical statement
The authors declare that they have observed and adhered to the
ethical principles normally practiced in the field of medical science
in the acquisition, interpretation and condensation of the infor-
mation for writing this literature review.
Conflict of interest statement
No funding was provided for the preparation of paper and the
authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the
content of this review.
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