IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATECIRCUITS, VOL. SC-18, NO.

1, FEBRUARY 1983 139

Correspondence

Modeling the Early Effect in Bipolar Transistors

BRYAN L. HART

Abstract-For convenience in dc and small-signal low-frequency cal-

culations, the effect of base width modulation (Early effect) on a bi-
polar transistor- operating under low-level injection conditions in the
forward-active mode–cars be taken into account by the use of a multi- & —
plying factor that is exponentially dependent on collector-base voltage.
Fig. 1. Graphical interpretation of Early parameter p Q (VA/VT).

lNTRODUCTION
value VQ, of VCB, have a common point of intersection VI =
In the design of precision bipolar analog circuits, particularly
monolithic types, it is necessary to take into account the (-VA + VQ) on the JtCB axis. obviously, VI = - h if, aS is
often the case, VQ << VA. V’ is dependent on VCB because
effects of base width modulation. A current popular approach
is to allow for this by regarding the base majority carrier QB and C’jc both vary with VCB. The form of the dependency
of VA on VCB is a function of the base and collector region
charge as linearly dependent on collector-base voltage: the
doping profiles.
constant of proportionality is the inverse of the parameter
known as the “Early voltage.” However, circuit analysis with With modern low-power transistors used in analog applica-
this method sometimes gives rise to tedious algebra. This tions, the percentage variation of VA with VCB is typically less
correspondence examines the justification for, and points out than 10 percent per volt for VA - 100 V and VCB = 5 V [2].
the practical advantage of, regarding the base majority carrier Furthermore, it should be borne in mind that VA is rarely
charge as exponentially dependent on collector-base voltage. known to be better than some 10 percent and enters de cal-
culations only as a correction term. It is reasonable therefore
THEORY to assume a constant averaged value of VA appropriate to the
operating range A VCB centered on Vc—and extending down
Consider an n-p-n transistor (for illustration) in which the to VCB = O–provided A VCB << VA.
base doping distribution N(x) is arbitrary, but continuous, and Imposing the constraint of a constant VA we have
recombination in the quasi-neutral base region is negligible,
i.e., the common-emitter direct current gain is effectively - (1/QB)(dQ~/dv&) = (1/vA ) = COnSt811t (6)
limited by emitter injection efficiency. The transistor is
assumed to operate under low-level injection conditions in the or
forward-active mode. With the usual assumption of one-
dimensional current flow it follows from [ 1] that
QB = Q. w (- vcB/vA ) (7)
where
Ic = {(qniAJ)2~n/QB} exp ( VBE/ VT) (1)
Q. & QB for V_cB= O.
where AJ = emitter-base junction area and QB = qAJ ~IV(x)
dx = magnitude of base majority carrier charge. The other Equation (7) forms the basis of subsequent deductions.
symbols have their usual meanings. Substituting for QB in (1) gives
Differentiating (1),
Ic =1s exp {( V’E/VT) + (VCB/!!,f)} (8a)
(l/lcro) = -(l/Q~)(dQ~/dVc~) (2)
or
in which at constant VBE. But, - (dQB/
r. & (d VCB/dIc)
d V@) = junction capacitance = <jc( VCB)–the negative sign ~c = r. ‘eXp [ {v’~ + ( v&/p)}/vT] (8b)
arises because QB decreases as VCB increases. Hence,
in which Is ~ {(arsiAJ)2~n/Qo} and u ~ (VA/VT). From (8)
(1 /~.~o) = cjc/QB (3) it is obvious that
or, (9)

1. r. = VA (4) p may be identified as the open circuit voltage gain of the

where
VA ~ (QB/Cjc) = “Early voltage.”
VA is sensibly independent of Ic because (for low-level injec-
tion) the base width is dependent only on VCB. A geometrical
interpretation of (5) is as follows. The tangents to the Ic, VCB
characteristics (at constant ?JDE) 2* II particular Op==t%%
Manuscript received February 1, 1982; revised June 30, 1982.
The author is with the Faculty of Engineering, North East London,
Polytechnic, Dagenham, Essex RM8 2AS, England.
transistor. It represents the maximum theoretical incremental
voltage gain for a device connected in the common-emitter
(5) configuration and is approached in practice only with an active
collector load. A graphical interpretation of (9) is given in
Fig. 1; clearly, a collector-base voltage differential between
two matched devices can be allowed for by an equivalent base-
emitter offset voltage,
Now, as lB is assumed to arise only through the injection of
holes from base to emitter–a mechanism controlled by the
base-emitter voltage–it follows, for constant VBE that IB #
f (vc~).
From the above discussion, this is only the case if the

001 8-9200/83/0200-01 39$01.00 @ 1983 IEEE

140 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATECIRCUITS, VOL. SC-18, NO. 1, FEBRUARY 1983

common-emitter direct current

/3= /30 exp (VCB/VA)

where
gain ~ is given by

= /30exp (VCB/pVT) (lo)

y, Ic, R.

J
I

d
>C7
flo~flat VCB=O. [
Then, ,,
IE i
lB = (1./6.) exp ( VBE/ VT). (11)
Two other relationships which emerge directly from (10) are
d(l/p)/dv~~ = -1//3v~ (12)
VCE
(.o)

Fig. 2. Simple current sink used in exemplary analysis.

and
(da/dv~~) =d{l - (l/~)} /dv~B = l/pv~.
In (13), a is the common-base current gain and the approx-
imation sign holds for the usual case /3>> 1.
The compact expressions (8) and (10) through (13) are very
convenient in both the dc and small-signal low-frequency
analyses of such popular monolithic circuit configurations as
the current mirror, the PTAT (proportional to absolute tem-
perature) current generator, and the long-tailed pair.
DISCUSSION
In the current literature on device modeling [3], the Early
effect is usually taken into account by assuming a linear de-
pendence of QB on VCB. A justification for this is, briefly,
as follows. Taking a Taylor’s series expansion about the point
VCB= () gives, for constant t’_BE,
QB= Q. + (~QB/~~CB)]rBE~ VCB
+.. . higher order terms . . “ .
If we assume a constant value of VA, defined in this case as
Qolcj~o (where Cj=cr is the collector-base depletion capaci-
tance at VCB= O), then it follows for VCB << VA that
QB=QO[l - (VcB/VA)l.
Comparing (7) and (15), we note 1) both assume a constant
Early voltage [though that used in (7) is defined as an average
value for the operating range ] and 2) (7) obviously reduces to
(15) over the voltage range for which the use of both expressions
is permissible, viz. VCB<< VA . However, the introduction of
the exponential form is warranted by algebraic convenience.
Compact analytic dc relationships containing exponential
facilitate low-frequency small-signal analyses which involve
(13)
the derivatives of the exponentials. An elementary illustrative
example is the calculation of the incremental output resistance
R. of the current sink of Fig. 2, in which lE is constant.
R. ~ (d170/dIc) = (d VCB/dIc) (16)
or
(l/R.) = (1/zE)(a’a/dvcB). (17)
Using (13),
R. C=((3VA/IE). (18)
For practical purposes, this is the same result as is obtained by
analyzing the small-signal low-frequency equivalent circuit of
Fig. 2 and assuming /3 >> 1. However, the effort required in
achieving the result in (18) is considerably less.
A similar comment applies to the more complex circuit
schemes encountered in monolithic circuit design.
(14)
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks are due to Dr. R. W. J. Barker (Trent Polytechnic)
for his helpful comments.
REFERENCES
(15)
[1] J. L. Molland I. M. Ross, “The dependence of transistor parameters
on the distribution of base layer resistivity,” Proc. IRE, vol. 44,
pp. 71-78, Jan. 1956.
[2] B. L. Hart, “DC parameter characterization of the Early effect in
bipolar junction transistors’ Radio Electron. Eng., vol. 50, no.
1/2, pp. 79-89, Jan.-Feb. 1980.
[3] R. W. Dutton and D. A. Divekar, “Bipolar models for statistical
integrated circuit design, “ in Process and Device Modeling for In-
tegrated Circuit Design, F. v. de Wiele et al., Eds. Noodhoff, The
Netherlands: Leyden, 1977, pp. 461-517.