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Experimental Investigation On NOx and PM
Experimental Investigation On NOx and PM
Gasoline and isopropanol are mixed with diesel to form stable, transparent and homogeneous blend fuels, to
augment the air inhalation with high volatility and to increase the fuel oxygen. Nitrogen oxide (NOx) and
particulate matter (PM) pollutions of diesel, gasoline and isopropanol blends were experimentally studied on
a 4-cylinder common-rail diesel engine. The test fuels were marked as D100 (diesel), D70G20P10 (20%
gasoline, 10% isopropanol and 70% diesel, by vol) and D70G10P20 (10% gasoline, 20% isopropanol and 70%
diesel, by vol). Blend fuels have longer ignition delays (IDs), less combustion durations and hotter peak
combustion temperatures (PCTs) than diesel, which are very important reasons for the reduction of PM and
increment of NOx. The test results of PM number and volume concentrations and NOx pollutions have
Received 2nd April 2019
Accepted 9th June 2019
supported it. Moreover, an interesting result is found: isopropanol has a better effect than gasoline in
reducing PM pollutions and increasing NOx pollutions. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) has been applied to
DOI: 10.1039/c9se00209j
decrease the NOx pollutions. NOx and UFP emissions are simultaneously reduced by isopropanol at
rsc.li/sustainable-energy a suitable EGR ratio, and D70G10P20 is a potential applicable fuel for low-pollution diesel engines with EGR.
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Table 1 Test engine specifications a better soot-reduction effect than long alcohols. However, they
have lower energy densities, leading to lower power perfor-
Items Specications
mance and running mileage. Further, the boiling temperature
Fuel injection system Common rail of ethanol or methanol is much lesser than that of long alco-
Bore stroke (mm) 105 130 hols, which may cause vapour bubbles in the fuel line. Finally,
Displacement (L) 4.5 both methanol and ethanol have a higher polarity than long
Compression ratio 18 carbon alcohols and cannot be directly dissolved into diesel.
Rated power (kW@rpm) 113@2300
Rated torque (N m@rpm) 500@1600–1800
Isopropanol is soluble in diesel and has the highest oxygen
content among the C3 and longer alcohols. With the increase in
the isopropanol proportion, the viscosity decreases under all
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combine the two methods to reduce soot emission by blending exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is used to compensate the
both isopropanol and gasoline in diesel. potential increase in the NOx emission for diesel/gasoline/
NOx is mainly composed of NO and a small quantity of NO2, isopropanol blend fuels.27
and in most cases, N2O, N2O5 and NO3 are negligible.22 In NOx In this study, isopropanol and gasoline were used in a diesel
pollutions of engines, NO2 is generated from NO, which is engine in the blend mode due to their better properties. EGR
mainly controlled by the thermal mechanism depicted by the was also introduced in the test engine for NOx emission
Zeldovich mechanism, in which it is affected and controlled by reduction. It is an operational and worthwhile study for the
the local temperature in the ame front region, oxygen development and application of sustainable energy or fuels.
concentration in the boundary of air and ame front and the
duration of high temperatures in ame front.23,24 Engine loads,
engine speeds, injection parameters, such as injection timing
2. Experimental system and method
and pressure, and fuel properties, including CN, oxygen The NOx and PM pollutions of the diesel/gasoline/isopropanol
content, viscosity and distillation temperature, are the interac- blend fuels were experimentally studied on a 4-cylinder
tive inuencing factors of diffusion combustion temperature common-rail in-line diesel engine with an additional turbo-
and thereby the NOx emission.25 In general, pursuing high charger and intercooler. The specications of the test engine are
thermal efficiency of the diesel engine will lead to the high shown in Table 1. Fig. 1 shows the diagrammatic sketch of the
combustion temperature and high NOx emission.26 Accordingly, engine bench and the experimental system. The eddy current
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dynamometer (FST3) is applied to control and adjust the engine pressure of the lubrication oil were stabilized. In the whole
torque and speed. The common-rail injection system is manu- experiment process, the coolant temperature remained almost
factured by BOSCH. The combustion analyzer (KIBOX, Kistler) unchanged from 73.8 C to 74.8 C. The pressure of the lubri-
provides in-cylinder pressure curves, where pressure data are cation oil varied from 6.6 bar to 7.2 bar. The peak torque occurred
provided from a charge amplier (5019B, Kistler) and a piezo- at 1600–1800 rpm and the rated power at 2200–2300 rpm.
electric type pressure sensor (6052A, Kistler) mounted on the Accordingly, 1800 rpm and 2200 rpm were chosen and the tor-
head of the rst cylinder, and the crank angle data are recorded ques changed from 150 N m to 350 N m. Aer the test fuel was
by a magnetoelectric crank angle adapter (2619, Kistler) with changed, the engine worked for about 10 min to consume the
a resolution of 0.1 CA. An exhaust gas analyzer (MAHA MET6.X) former blend in the fuel line and the rail pipe. In each condition,
and an aerodynamic particle sizer spectrometer (TSI SMPS-3936) the engine was operated for 3 min in steady motion. The in-
are used to obtain NOx and PM emissions data, respectively. cylinder pressure curve data were average data over 100 contin-
The engine was started with diesel and then warmed up for uous cycles. NOx emissions were measured by MAHA MET6.X
half an hour, until the temperature of the coolant and the with volume concentrations and PM emissions by SMPS-3936
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with number concentrations. SMPS-3936 displays the graphical 2.1. Data processing
results of particle number concentrations (NCs) and gives the
For diesel engines, a simplied model was adopted to calcu-
digital results of NCs and particle volume concentrations (VCs).
late the heat release rate (HRR) and the combustion
The range and accuracy are shown in Table 2.
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temperature.28,29 The formulas for the calculations are given by p, and the intake air mass and the constant volume specic heat
eqn (1) and (2), where the specic heat ratio is denoted as k and are separately identied as m and cv, respectively. The heat
set as invariable value of 1.35, the instantaneous cylinder transfer, which is the energy loss of temperature transfer, is
volume is indicated as V, the in-cylinder pressure is specied as neglected in this model.
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Fig. 5 Instantaneous heat release rate of test fuels at different operation conditions.
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The major fuel properties are listed in Table 3. The lower of D100. At 0.98 MPa BMEP, the main injection duration of
heating value (LHV) of isopropanol is only 30.4 MJ kg1, D70G10P20 increases 0.7 CA compared to D100, this obvious
showing the lowest energy density. The addition of gasoline can increment is owing to the lower heat value (LHV). According to
compensate the LHV loss of blend fuels. Viscosities of the output data of the ECU (electronic control unit), the original
D70G20P10 and D70G10P20 at 20 C are 2.17 mm2 s1 and 2.58 injection strategy of the experimental engine does not change
mm2 s1, respectively, which are much less than that of diesel. when EGR is introduced. Fig. 2 gives the designations for SOI,
Isopropanol and gasoline are helpful for improving the spray SOC and EOC. The IDs and the combustion durations of the test
atomization. The boiling temperature of isopropanol is 82 C fuels can be calculated, and are shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 4(a)–(h),
and 95% distillation temperature of gasoline is 166 C, indi- 5(a)–(h) and 6(a)–(h) exhibit the in-cylinder pressure, HRR and
cating that both the fuels have higher volatility than diesel. in-cylinder temperature of the test fuels at different engine
Accordingly, the mixing quality and uniformity of the mixture working conditions, respectively.
will be improved in blend fuels. CNs of D70G20P10 and At 0.42 MPa BMEP and 1800 rpm, the IDs of D70G20P10 and
D70G10P20 are apparently lower compared to that of diesel, D70G10P20 are 9.4 CA and 10.2 CA, respectively, which are
exhibiting poor ignitability. prolonged by 1.1 CA and 1.9 CA, respectively, compared to
that of diesel. ID in compression ignition engine is affected by
2.3. Operation conditions a number of factors, such as CN, fuel physical characteristics
Table 4 presents the engine operation conditions and the and mixing time of mixture.30 The CNs of isopropanol and
original injection strategy when fueled with D100. The intake gasoline are 12 and 15, respectively, which are much less than
pressure, intake temperature and injection pressure increase that of diesel. Therefore, the IDs of blends obviously lengthen
with engine speed controlled at 1800 rpm and 2200 rpm. with the increase in the isopropanol proportion. Similar
observations were also reported by Zhang et al.31 for 2,5-dime-
thylfuran (DMF). At 0.84 MPa BMEP, the IDs of D70G20P10 and
3. Experimental results and D70G10P20 are 8.1 CA and 8.4 CA, respectively, which are
discussion prolonged by 1.2 CA and 1.5 CA, respectively, compared to
3.1. Combustion characteristics for NOx and PM emissions that of diesel. At 0.98 MPa BMEP, the IDs are 7.5 CA and 7.6
CA, respectively, which are separately prolonged by 1.1 CA and
The injection timing is indicated by the start of injection (SOI) 1.2 CA compared to those of diesel. Therefore as the engine
of direct injector, which is discerned by the timing corre- load increases, the IDs of the test fuels decrease because the in-
sponding to where the peak drive current locates. Start of cylinder pressure and temperature improve and the effect of CN
combustion (SOC) is specied by the timing corresponding to on both ID and SOC wears off. It was also observed by Killol
the demarcation point of the negative and the positive in HRR et al.32 in biodiesel n-butanol blends.
and the end of combustion (EOC) is specied by the timing
Engine speeds and BMEP D100 D70G20P10 D70G10P20 D100 D70G20P10 D70G10P20
1800 rpm and 0.42 MPa 63.6 65.4 64.8 1690 1706 1717
1800 rpm and 0.56 MPa 73.5 78.6 78.7 1822 1871 1873
1800 rpm and 0.70 MPa 86.5 86.3 87.3 1963 1975 1987
1800 rpm and 0.84 MPa 92.0 93.4 91.3 2141 2148 2158
1800 rpm and 0.98 MPa 95.8 95.5 94.4 2241 2252 2259
2200 rpm and 0.42 MPa 62.4 63.5 64.5 1390 1396 1402
2200 rpm and 0.56 MPa 75.0 77.1 77.1 1504 1527 1536
2200 rpm and 0.70 MPa 83.9 83.1 84.5 1612 1619 1626
2200 rpm and 0.84 MPa 87.9 88.3 87.5 1693 1699 1702
2200 rpm and 0.98 MPa 90.3 89.9 89.2 1779 1785 1792
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BMEP (MPa) EGR (%) D100 D70G20P10 D70G10P20 D100 D70G20P10 D70G10P20
As reported by Killol et al.,32 for n-butanol the number of OH volatility than diesel. Their high volatility enhances the air
radicals increases with the consumption of n-butanol by the chain entrainment in the fuel spray jet, and they produce a more
branching reaction, which in turn accelerates the combustion homogeneous air fuel mixture than does diesel. As a result, with
process in the diesel engine.33 The hydroxyl group in isopropanol the addition of gasoline and isopropanol, the combustion dura-
supplies more oxidative free radicals-OH radicals than do diesel tions shorten obviously and the durations of the blend fuels
and gasoline, contributing to the high combustion rate and decrease with isopropanol. A similar trend was seen in an
combustion efficiency. Further, the distillation capacity of gaso- experimental study of diesel DMF blends.31
line and the boiling capacity of isopropanol are superior to that of The peak HRR (PHRR, corresponding to the main
diesel, indicating that D70G20P10 and D70G10P20 have better injection) and peak combustion temperature (PCT) of the
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blends at different loads are listed in Table 6. The injection Huang et al.38 noted that the oxygen in the oxygenated blend
system of the test engine employs the double injection was benecial to improve the combustion completion.
strategy with pilot plus main injection. Corresponding to the The PHRR and PCT of the blends at various EGR ratios are
pilot injection, the rst peak HRRs of the blends are lower listed in Table 7. PHRR and PCT reduce with increase in EGR
relative to that of diesel and decrease with isopropanol rate for the different blends. At the same EGR rate, PHRR and
content. PCT increase with the increase in isopropanol content. As re-
At this stage, the pilot injection produces the premixed ported, the higher the specic heat capacities of the recirculated
charge combustion. As reported by Hwang,34 the PHRRs and the CO2 and H2O, the reduction of the oxygen concentration, the
in-cylinder pressure reduced with increase in isopropanol for endothermic dissociation of H2O and CO2, the effect of recir-
the lower energy content. According to Buyukkaya,35 the longer culated soot and the extended ID all make the PHRR and PCT
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ID was helpful to improve the cylinder pressure, while the PHRR lower.39–42 It is also why ID prolongs with increase in iso-
increased. Due to the prolonged ID, blend fuels have larger propanol. Also, EGR can't change the inuence of blend fuels
amounts of premixed gases. At low and medium engine loads, on PHRR and PCT. It was also illustrated by Zhang et al.31 for
PHRRs of D70G20P10 and D70G10P20 are higher than that of diesel DMF blends.
D100, whereas a little lower at high loads. Similar results are
reported by Qi et al.36 Additionally, the in-cylinder pressure and
PHRR also increased due to the low viscosity and high volatility 3.2. NOx and PM emissions with or without EGR
of isopropanol.37 The higher the PHRR the higher the PCT, and 3.2.1. NOx emissions. Fig. 7(a) and (b) presents the NOx
PCT ties with HRR. At 0.42 MPa BMEP and 1800 rpm, the PCTs emissions of the test fuels at 1800 rpm and 2200 rpm. Fig. 8(a)
of D70G20P10 and D70G10P20 are 16 K and 27 K higher relative and (b) exhibits the effect of EGR ratios on NOx emissions of
to the PCT of diesel, respectively. At 0.96 MPa BMEP and blend fuels at 0.56 MPa and 0.98 MPa BMEP and 1800 rpm. As
1800 rpm, they are 7 K and 18 K higher than that of D100, we know, the oxygen concentration, the temperature and the
respectively. It is because the difference in the IDs between the residence time of high temperature are major determinants of
test fuels narrowed down with rise in engine load. In addition, NOx emission, which was also mentioned by Varatharajan
Fig. 9 PM number concentrations of test fuels at 1800 rpm and Fig. 10 PM volume concentrations of test fuels at 1800 rpm and
2200 rpm. 2200 rpm.
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et al.43 Diesel NOx emission mainly refers to NO, with a little NO2 are produced. With the increase in EGR, the oxygen concen-
and others.44 The Zeldovich mechanism indicates that tration becomes lower and less NOx emissions are produced.
combustion temperature over 1500 C promotes thermal NOx These can also be used to interpret the results in Fig. 7 and 8.
formation by the reaction N2 + O 4 NO + N. It is the decisive 3.2.2. PM emissions. Fig. 9(a) and (b) and 10(a) and (b) give
factor for NOx emission and is encouraged by high tempera- the PM number concentrations (NCs) and volume concentra-
ture.45 Compared with that of D100, the NOx emission concen- tions (VCs) of the test fuels at 1800 rpm and 2200 rpm. Fig. 11(a)
trations of D70G20P10 and D70G10P20 increase a little. and (b) and 12(a) and (b) show the effect of EGR ratios on the
Previous combustion studies have conrmed that the diffusion PM number and volume concentrations of the test fuels at
combustion temperatures, especially the peak combustion 0.56 MPa and 0.98 MPa BMEP and 1800 rpm. It can be
temperatures, of D70G20P10 and D70G10P20 are higher than concluded that both the NCs and VCs of the PM and UFPs are
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those of D100, contributing to the higher NOx emissions. By the obviously reduced with the addition of gasoline and iso-
same reason, the NOx emissions increase with increase in load. propanol at each engine load and EGR ratio. The lower CN and
By comparing the NOx emissions at two engine speeds it is clear favorable volatility of gasoline and isopropanol can result in the
that the NOx emission decreases with increase in engine speeds reduction of PM emission in good nebulization.47 Due to the
for lower PTC. It was also found by Buyukkaya.35 At 0.56 MPa lower carbon and higher oxygen of isopropanol, the basic
and 0.98 MPa BMEP, NOx emissions of all the test fuels decrease carbon structures for PM formation were reduced,48 soot
obviously with EGR ratio, because the exhaust emission recir- precursors formation was inhibited,49 the diffusive combustion
culation reduces the combustion temperature. Further, the NOx was more complete,50 and soot was oxidized to CO2.45 Further,
emissions of D70G20P10 and D70G10P20 with 20% or higher the PM and UFP NCs and VCs of the D70G10P20 are lower than
EGR ratios are lower than those of D100 without EGR. Similar those of D70G20P10, indicating that isopropanol has a better
results are reported by Huang et al.46 In addition, the oxygen in effect in reducing PM and UFPs than gasoline. It is due to the
the air has an important and positive impact on NOx emissions. fact that isopropanol produces more active hydroxyl radicals,
With the increase in the isopropanol fraction in the blends, the the aromatic growth process and soot formation and nucleation
oxygen concentration becomes higher and more NOx emissions are limited.17–19 Similar results were reported by Tsai et al.51
Fig. 11 Effects of EGR on PM number concentrations at 0.56 MPa and Fig. 12Effects of EGR on PM volume concentrations at 0.56 MPa and
0.98 MPa BMEP. 0.98 MPa BMEP.
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Moreover, the oxygen in the air has an important and positive higher and the oxidation of PM is enhanced. The NCs and VCs
impact on PM emissions. With the increase in the isopropanol of diesel PM and UFPs increase with EGR ratio. At 0.56 MPa
fraction in the blends, the oxygen concentration becomes BMEP of medium loads the NCs of D70G20P10 and D70G10P20
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PM and UFPs decrease with 10% EGR and then increase with combustion studies have conrmed that the combustion
EGR. At 0.98 MPa BMEP of high loads the NCs of D70G20P10 process at 0.56 MPa has the premixed combustion phase, but
and D70G10P20 PM and UFPs increase with EGR. Previous the combustion process at 0.92 MPa only has the diffusion
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combustion phase. The air engulfment in the fuel-enriched area are also affected by engine speed. The NOx emissions of all the
is high due to the favorable volatility of gasoline and iso- blends decrease obviously with EGR ratio, because the exhaust
propanol at lower EGR ratio,46 and more soot is oxidized. For emission recirculation reduces the combustion temperature.
20% or higher EGR ratios and EGR at 0.92 MPa, lower Further, the NOx emissions of D70G20P10 and D70G10P20 with
temperature promotes soot formation and inhibits soot oxida- 20% or higher EGR ratios are lower than those of D100 without
tion.49 The VCs of diesel and blend fuel PM emissions increase EGR.
with the rise in EGR ratio and those of UFPs only slightly 3. Diesel/gasoline/isopropanol blends lower the UFP pollu-
increase. Besides, with the increase in EGR, the oxygen tions at each engine load and EGR ratio. With the maximum
concentration becomes lower and the oxidation of PM is isopropanol proportion, D70G10P20 has the minimum UFP
weakened. pollutions. Both NCs and VCs of blends decline with engine
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Fig. 13(a)–(h) and 14(a)–(h) exhibit the number and volume load and engine speed, mainly because the thermal efficiency of
concentration distributions of blends at different operation the engine increases with engine loads, and the engine speed
conditions. At 0.42 MPa BMEP, the peak NC of D70G20P10 is has a negative effect on the NCs and VCs of gasoline and
the highest among the test fuels, but VC is barely higher in the isopropanol.
range of 20–60 nm UFPs. In explanation, Huang et al. note that 4. Compared to 0% EGR, increase in the EGR ratio results in
since the in-cylinder temperatures during the combustion of an obvious decrease in NOx and a slight increase in NCs and
gasoline or n-butanol blends are higher than that for D100, the VCs for all the fuels. As the load increases, the effect of NOx
number concentrations of nucleation (particle size < 50 nm) decreases as EGR is enhanced, and the effect of NCs and VCs
have higher peak values.46 In addition, although the higher increase is diminished. NOx and UFP emissions can be reduced
volatility of gasoline contributes to reduce the particulate at the same time by isopropanol and EGR. Compared to D100
pollution by improving the atomization and mixing of fuel, the and D70G20P10, D70G10P20 is a potential fuel for diesel engine
lower combustion efficiency and uncompleted combustion of at proper EGR ratio.
D70G20P10 brings about high NMPs in the exhaust gas at low
loads.52 Both NCs and VCs of blends signicantly reduce with
increase in isopropanol concentration, due to the inuence of Conflicts of interest
molecular oxygen. As shown, both NCs and VCs of blends There are no conicts to declare.
decline with load, mainly because the thermal efficiency of the
engine increases with engine loads. It can be also found that
both NCs and VCs of blends decline with engine speed, mainly Acknowledgements
because the mixing efficiency of air and fuel increases with
engine speeds. This work is supported by the Key Research and Development
Program of Shaanxi Province (2019ZDLGY15-07), the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (51806020), the Youth
4. Conclusions Innovation Team of Shaanxi Universities (Energy Saving and
Isopropanol is a potential fuel for diesel engine by virtue of its New Energy Vehicles), and the Opening Foundation of State Key
intersolubility with diesel and high oxygen content among the Laboratory of Engines, Tianjin University (K2018-06).
C3 and longer alcohols. High volatility fuel in diesel may
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