Teaching Wonder (From 3rd Century BCE

to 21st Century CE)

N. Ambrosetti(&)

University of Milan, Milan, Italy

nadia.ambrosetti@unimi.it

Abstract. In this paper, we investigate the pedagogical style of renown

Alexandrian engineers, such as Heron and Philon, as it appears in their hand-
books about pneumatics, the precursor of robotics, to identify the main features
of Alexandrian didactics about the topic, and to compare them with modern
STEM education with robotics, in order to check their degree of modernity.

Keywords: Education
Pneumatics
Heron
Philon
Skills

STEM
Engineering
Robotics
Teaching

1 Introduction

Since the Renaissance, historians, scholars and technologists have been studying the
handbooks of pneumatics, and automatics by Heron, dating back to the late Alexan-
drian era. When those works became available for the modern audience, they repre-
sented an actual source of inspiration for the revival of ancient science and technology:
the scientists could describe themselves as standing “on the shoulders of the giants”, as
they could rely on the knowledge contained in those treatises and even improve it with
recent findings.
Critical editions and translations of Heron’s works have been published in the 19th
century by Woodcroft [1] in English and by Schmidt [2] in German, based upon Greek
manuscripts and Latin translations. All designs are illustrated with modern schematics,
partly based upon the originals.
Unfortunately, no other Greek sources by different authors about ancient pneu-
matics have survived in original language: Ctesibius’ work and activity, dating back to
the 3rd century BCE, and therefore older than Heron’s, can be only roughly outlined
thanks to a brief narrative passage in Vitruvius’ masterpiece De architectura, while the
treatise by Philon, possibly a contemporary of Ctesibius, was handled down in Arabic
translation and published at the beginning of the 20th century [3].
Though in different ages, both during the Hellenistic and the Roman periods, the
three Greek authors worked and lived in Alexandria, at the court of the Ptolemean
dynasty, whose interest in science and culture, represented by the Museum and the
Library, was a prominent part of the political program [4–6].

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

B. Zhang and M. Ceccarelli (Eds.): Explorations in the History and Heritage
of Machines and Mechanisms, HMMS 37, pp. 324–337, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03538-9_26
 Teaching Wonder (From 3rd Century BCE to 21st Century CE) 325

2 Training in Alexandria

Ultimate successor of the Greek cultural tradition, the Museum of Alexandria was the
ideal place to perform studies and experiments, to collect and share traditions, to set or
improve the state of art in a discipline. The works written by those scholars, such as
Euclid, just to quote the most famous one, in some cases became a milestone for
centuries, and were used to train multitudes of students.
We will here consider the written production of the abovementioned authors about
pneumatics, in order to spot possible pedagogical styles.
As we have already said, even though Ctesibius enjoyed a prominent position in the
ancient world, nothing has survived of his written works. Due to this lack, we have no
clues about his pedagogical style, if any.
According to Vitruvius (IX, viii, 4–5)1, Ctesibius allegedly discovered how to
produce sound by the compression and concussion of the air, and applied his finding to
hydraulic machines, in order to automate some actions, such as levering and turning
[7].
The goal of his inventions appears to be entertainment (deliciae): in particular,
Vitruvius quotes the design of water dials, with a complex apparatus made up by
anthropomorphic figures, acting some scenes, accompanied by astonishing effects such
as the ejection of stones or oviform bodies, or the sound of trumpets. This brief
description allows to glimpse some designs that will be developed by his followers:
Philon, a contemporary of his, and Heron, living some three centuries later.

2.1 Philon
Even though nearly nothing is known about this author [6], the analysis of his pneu-
matics allows to understand his educational project.
The work is part of a major work, dedicated to Mechanics; it begins with an
introduction, in which the author refers to the dedicatee of the book, a certain Ariston,
who would like to learn more about the “elegant devices”, which can be used as an
example for every research in the field of mechanics. Therefore, in the book, the author
will describe 65 pneumatic devices (according to Carra de Vaux edition), and all the
constructions known to previous scholars. As a premise, Philon introduces the idea of

1
[4] Ctesibius having thus observed that by the compression and concussion of the air, sounds might
be produced, he made use of the discovery in his application of it to hydraulic machines, to those
automata which act by the power of enclosed water, to lever and turning engines, and to many other
entertaining devices, but principally to water dials. First, he made a perforation in a piece of gold or a
smooth gem, because these materials are not liable to be worn by the action of the water, nor to
collect filth, by which the passage of the water might be obstructed: [5] the water flowing through the
hole equably, raises an inverted bowl, called by the workmen phellos, or the tympanum, with which
are connected a rule and revolving drum wheels with perfectly equal teeth, which teeth, acting on one
another, produce revolutions and measured motion. There are other rules and other wheels, toothed
in a similar manner, which acted upon by the same force in their revolutions, produce different
species of motion, by which figures are made to move, cones are turned around, stones or oviform
bodies are ejected, trumpets sounded, and similar conceits effected. Translation by Valentin Rose
(1899).
326 N. Ambrosetti

air as a body: “Philosophers, who have speculated on physical things, have recognized
that a vase that seems empty to the vulgar, is not so, but that it is full of air. […] That
the air is an element, it is not only a theory, but a fact, made evident by observations
which fall under the senses. I will report what is needed and what has not been
addressed by others, and I will prove that the air is a body.”
He states to have no interest in theoretical quarrels and goes immediately on to
describe an easily replicable experiment: an upside-down amphora immersed in water
is full of air, unless you let the air out. The author also adds that, if you make a small
hole in the bottom of the vase and close it with wax (Fig. 1), nothing changes, but, if
you remove the wax cap and push the amphora underwater, your senses will perceive
the presence of air, which flows away in bubbles, forced by water pressure. This
demonstrates, for the author, that air is a body.
As for the nature of air, Philon refers the opinion of unspecified scholars, who
believe that it is made of imperceptible very light corpuscles and it can be perceived by
the senses only thanks to its force, that is under condition that its corpuscles are
compressed.
As for the void, Philon refers to another passage in his book, dedicated to organs, in
which the theme has already been discussed: other scholars say that the void is mixed
with air thanks to the lightness and smallness of the corpuscles that constitute it. The
reason why water, though being heavier than air, sometimes moves upwards, is that it
is in direct contact with the air, without anything (even the void) between the two. The
perfect example of the artificial elevation of a liquid is given by the pipette used to taste
wine: when we bring it to our mouth and gently suck, air and then liquid are drawn
upwards, as if they were glued.
In this very short introduction, Philon introduces very important topics (and
demonstrations) that will be fundamental in further designs. Then he begins his pre-
sentation of the different devices, all based upon the abovementioned principles, but
featured by incremental complications of the first examples.
The first application is given by the syphon. This time it is pushed underwater,
filled with water, by tilting it, and then lifted: if a hole is now made on the upper part of
the amphora, you can feel the air coming in and the water coming out.
In the second example, heat, deriving from sunlight or fire, makes its appearance in
the design of a thermoscope: basic principles are still the same, but temperature is one
additional variable to consider, as in the following example (the candle suction
experiment, shown in Fig. 2).
Then, some other kinds of syphon are presented: the curved one, the intermittently-
acting one, the controlled ones (among others, see Fig. 3), formed by communicating
vessels; again, in further examples, syphons are placed inside vases or horns, in order to
hide their presence to a possible audience.
After presenting this combination of vases and siphons, Philon goes on to study
more impressive applications, based upon the control of liquid flux, such as intermittent
fountains, designed to pour a predefined amount of liquid (in more than one version,
for experts and for beginners); constant level oil lamps, designed to pour automatically
additional oil in the lamp when the level decreases (Fig. 4). Philon invites Ariston to
modify the scheme at will, since other solutions are certainly at hand.
 Teaching Wonder (From 3rd Century BCE to 21st Century CE) 327

Fig. 1. The example of the upside-down amphora with wax cap

Fig. 2. The candle suction experiment

The following step is again based upon jars: the first kind is equipped with two to
four internal tanks (allowing to store some liquids separately and to choose which one
to pour at turn or to prevent liquid, mainly wine, from pouring over a predefined
amount, Fig. 5), then he designs a mixer with three corks, to pour two liquids sepa-
rately or mixed, and again other devices to pour predefined amounts of liquids.
Philon’s teaching appears to be featured by the deepening of contents already dealt
with, after introducing new techniques that can be usefully implemented, or suggesting
new impressive disguise, possibly anthropomorphic, to hide the underlying working
system.
The following series of devices is made up of apparently timed washbasins; these
systems are compared to dials due to timing, which is still obtained thanks to the
328 N. Ambrosetti

Fig. 3. The so-called riddle of Aristotle allows control of the liquid flow with a single finger, by
means of the obturation of a pipe

Fig. 4. Constant level lamps

Fig. 5. The so-called wine-thief

 Teaching Wonder (From 3rd Century BCE to 21st Century CE) 329

previously seen techniques, that is based upon the use of a predefined amount of water.
In this group of devices, we have sinks that pour water enough to moisten the hands
and the face, then through a small door soap or similar is offered to the user, before
more water is poured to allow to rinse; or simply pouring water into a basin where
small statues of a horse or of a bull appear drinking water, to preserve the water level.
To complete the set, there is a pipe sprinkling water or a liquid in the required direction,
disguised under the form of a flying bird.
The next instrument introduced by Philon is then the float, used to let some parts of
the device become visible or invisible under some conditions (i.e. figures that appear or
disappear gradually): birds frightened by a snake, fish peeping out of the openings of a
vase, a vulture threatening some sparrows from the top of a mountain, as shown in
Fig. 6.
After another set of reviewed devices (mainly wine-thief cups), Philon introduces
corks as instruments to switch the liquid flux from more than one source; the liquid flux
is also used to move a small water wheel, which is the last tool introduced to increase
the degree of difficulty of the designed devices.
Before dealing with the water wheel, however, Philon presents some more devices
whose working depends on controlling flux: a torch that can be submerged in a wooden
room with four open doors; an inkwell, with square, pentagonal, hexagonal or octag-
onal section, with a hole on each side to dip the nib into the ink, without letting the
content drip from another hole; a bracer surrounded by singing birds activated by a
steam flux; a mythological scene with a young Pan and a drinking dragon.
Water wheel is, as we said, the last topic treated in Philon’s work. Its first
appearance shows the fundamentals of its working, while the following instances
combine this new tool with already studied examples: they range from simply orna-
mental ones, such as a decoration made of birds singing differently according to their
species (goal reached by means of a wheel pouring water into pipes equipped with
different whistles), to very useful and scalable ones, like a water lifter that can be used
in everyday life.
As we noticed, the educational path of Philon unfolds along a series of instruments
(the siphon, control systems, the float, the water wheel) or effects (production of
different sounds) that allow the author to immediately propose to the student simple but
interesting experiments, which get complicated gradually with the combination of the
various devices. There is no lack of entertainment, but it is evident above all in some
examples, while others are only simplified applications of physical principles or of
mechanical solutions, made to facilitate their understanding. There is also no lack of
encouragement to learn or try different paths, creatively.

2.2 Heron
The Pneumatics by Heron is preserved in Greek and shows substantially the same
structure and features as Philon’s, though it appears far more accurate and articulate in
designs.
Heron places his work in a tradition of technical literature that is characterized by a
polarization on two styles: a theoretical one and an experimental one. Therefore, he
feels the need to develop the inventions of his predecessors, as they have arrived at
330 N. Ambrosetti

Fig. 6. Applications of float

him, in a methodical order and to involve his own; the goal is to support future
mathematicians, his ideal audience, under a practical perspective. He also adds that, by
the combination of the four elements, connections of many kinds arise, some of which
help us with the necessities of life, while others only arouse astonished admiration,
meaning that his designs could be useful for everyday life or consist simply in an
intellectual exercise.
The introduction about the nature of air and void follows perfectly Philon’s one,
even quoting the same examples, but then Heron discusses of the action of the elements
on the matter and of the mutual interaction of the four elements: matter is consumed by
fire, and the difference passes away with the smoke into a substance of fire or air or
earth. Water also can be transformed into air by the action of fire, while wind is due to
disturbed and rarefied air, which sets in motion the nearby air.
After this long introduction, Heron considers the different kinds of syphon (bent,
concentric, enclosed) and the flux control allowed by their use, not only adding a
detailed explanation of the just described working, but also discussing and criticizing
the description given by other authors. Sometimes he introduces the new example by
highlighting a specific feature to be improved: for instance, the discharge variable
velocity, found in an example, can be controlled by an appropriate syphon, that will be
described in the following section.
Then the author follows Philon’s path, while improving in number, in complexity,
and in variety the examples of his predecessor. As a matter of fact, we have 78 designs,
that can be split in the same groups as Philon’s, as summarized in Table 1.
Heron’s resumes the riddle of Aristotle and provides two versions of increasing
complexity (# 7–8 according to Schmidt), as shown in Fig. 7: in the left schematic, we
have the same experiment as Philon’s, while in the right one we have a double tank, for
storing water at different temperatures.
The increase of complexity can be easily shown by comparing the introduction of
the theme of heat. While in Philon it is introduced thanks to the candle suction
experiment, Heron opts for far more complex, outstanding and scenographic solutions.
 Teaching Wonder (From 3rd Century BCE to 21st Century CE) 331

Table 1. Comparison between Philon’s and Heron’s contents

Philon
Introduction
Theory and examples of siphons
Siphons hidden in vases
Flux control (corks)
(Apparently) time-based devices
Float
– Steam applications
Water wheel [organs in another
section]
Heron
Introduction
Examples of siphons
Siphons hidden in vessels
or in more complex structures
Flux control (valve)
(Apparently) time-based devices
Float
Organs blown by human labor or by the agency of a
wind-mill

Fig. 7. The riddle of Aristotle

In Fig. 8, we show the two most impressive of them: the group of figures offering
libations on an altar (in the left schematic) and the mechanism for opening and closing
the doors of a temple, enriched by the use of counterweights to bring the system back to
its initial state (in the right schematic).
The other ones are variations on the theme, such as libations poured on an altar, and
a serpent made to hiss, by the action of fire, and other intermediate means of opening
temple doors by fire on an altar. The presence of multiple similar designs demonstrates
the search for variety and alternative solutions performed by Heron, as proved, for
instance, by the large number of vessels.
As already implicit, Heron’s work is featured by an inexhaustible search for
wonder: the component of spectacularism is evident, as if the author wanted to show
his skills in teaching scholars about the technology underlying his creations, while
hiding it to a possible audience. The perfect example to demonstrate such goal is the
mythological scene of Hercules who is killing the dragon-like guardian Ladon, while
stealing the golden apple in the garden of the Hesperides (Fig. 9): here the spectator
can take part into the plot by acting like a trigger, as the system is activated by lifting
the apple.
332 N. Ambrosetti

Fig. 8. Heat applications in Heron’s

Fig. 9. Hercules and Ladon

3 Teaching Style in Alexandria

Even if some centuries (presumably three) pass between the writing of the two works
and, in the case of Philon, the only version available is not the original, but one
translated into Arabic, some cautious remarks are possible, according to our opinion.
Philon’s treatise appears mainly featured by a hands-on approach: a very brief
introduction about the core knowledge necessary to understand the following designs,
actual examples for every investigation about mechanic.
His work is addressed to a dedicatee (Ariston), who is still unknown (perhaps a
patron or a student) and who, for this very reason, could also be fictitious. In any case,
Ariston seems animated by a sincere desire to learn the mechanics and Philon offers
him this opportunity, describing these “elegant” devices, which can perfectly convey
the charm of such studies.
Philon’s teaching appears to be featured by a spiral approach, which is based on the
review and the deepening of contents already dealt with, after introducing new
 Teaching Wonder (From 3rd Century BCE to 21st Century CE) 333

techniques that can be usefully implemented, or suggesting new impressive disguise,

possibly anthropomorphic, to hide the underlying working system, such as the renown
intermittent fountain of the maid (a possibly life-size statue filling cups with a pitcher),
shown in Fig. 10.

Fig. 10. Intermittent fountain of the maid

In his study about Heron’s Mechanics, Schiefsky [8], based upon a work by
Damerow and Lefèvre [9], highlights the presence, in Greco-Roman antiquity, of two
key categories of mechanical knowledge: a theoretical one, “a set of relations between
abstract concepts such as force and weight, sometimes couched in deductive form, and
transmitted largely in written texts”; and a practitioners’ knowledge, “arising in con-
nection with the productive use of technology and acquired by practitioners in the
course of their professional activity”. He quotes as a source the introduction to Pappus
Mathematicae collections, book 8, where the approach by Heron and his followers is
described as distinguishing between the ‘rational’ (based upon knowledge of geometry,
arithmetic, astronomy, and physics) and the ‘manual’ part of mechanics (involving
mastery of bronze-working, building, carpentry, and painting).
The author emphasizes the evidence of a two-way interaction between theory and
practice in Antiquity: while mechanical technology could depend on the application of
theoretical knowledge, as shown also by Russo [10], new technologies in other cases
“preceded any theory that could explain them”. In this sense, Schiefsky states that,
“while the methods and devices that Heron describes are to some extent idealized, it
334 N. Ambrosetti

would be rash to deny that his text can yield substantial information about the
knowledge of ancient practitioners”. Among his sources, reasonably, there was Philon.
Heron’s teaching style is declared immediately after the introduction: “These things
having been clearly explained, let us treat of the theorems resulting from the combi-
nation of these principles; for, by means of them, many curious and astonishing kinds
of motion may be discovered.” His ideal student is represented by scholars, in need of
specific education about those topics, or, better, in search for a practical application of
theory. Therefore, Heron choses to summarize the underlying principles in a longer
introduction than Philon’s, to offer a complete landscape of the theory, before
describing the designs. Pneumatics has become a far more mature discipline.

4 Learning Robotics in the 21st Century

More than 20 centuries have passed since the Alexandrian age. As an obvious matter of
fact, robotics of the third millennium is completely different and is based on principles
and technologies not even imaginable in ancient Greece.
Even education has drastically changed, since it is no longer focused on the mere
transmission of content by the teacher, but rather on the acquisition of hard and soft
skills by the learner, who is required to solve authentic problems. A worldwide
attention is paid to the STEM disciplines (Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics) training [11], directly involved in our theme, because such education is
not only necessary for innovation and prosperity, but it also allows to tackle the
impending problem of a lack of qualified applicants for high-tech jobs, in particular
women.

4.1 Improving STEM Skills with Robotics in the 21st Century

Many projects and numerous initiatives closely related to robotics have been imple-
mented around the world to support STEM education, like events (such as robotics
competitions: RoboCup, FIRST® Lego League and Robotics Competition, just to give
some examples), institutions (such as robotics schools and communities: Scuola di
Robotica, CM Robotics Academy, FIRST® programs for teachers, etc.) and method-
ologies to innovate pedagogy [12], introduce specific contents [13], redesign teachers’
education [14], study interaction between children and parents [15], and many more.
The effects of some of those efforts have been studied and deserve to be quoted.
As a matter of fact, the introduction of robotics in learning has produced clearly
positive effects on skills acquisition.
In a study dating 2013, Grubbs [16] identifies robotics as a fertile breeding ground
for STEMs, since by its very nature it “brings together more than one subject area, such
as math and science, through a technological design project.” It has proved to help
increasing students’ self-efficacy and engagement, activating their previous knowledge
and becoming lifelong learners, while they were taking ownership in the project. They
were intrigued to think also of alternate solutions or even problems. Bianco in 2014
[17] emphasizes the importance of the engagement in solving robotic challenges that
allows students to acquire engineering skills. Eguchi [18] in 2016 studies the
 Teaching Wonder (From 3rd Century BCE to 21st Century CE) 335

encouraging effects of RobocopJunior competition on teamwork, self-confidence,

creative thinking, and understanding of the role of science and technology in solving
real-world problems. In the same year, also Leonard [19] and Kandlhofer [20] stress the
importance of robotics as a means to improve both soft (social) and hard (technical)
skills, self-efficacy and computational thinking.
In 2018 Barak et al. [21] briefly summarize the goals of using robotics in education:
• “To teach science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM).
• To develop broad learning skills such as scientific inquiry, engineering design,
problem solving, creative thinking and teamwork.
• To foster students’ motivation to engage in science and technology, and to reduce
psychological or cultural barriers in dealing with these subjects, for example, among
girls or students coming from underprivileged communities.”

4.2 Improving ProtoSTEM Skills in the 1st Century

Far from being aware of the idea of STEMs and of predefined skill sets, the Alexan-
drian engineers Philon and Heron explained the principle and the means seen to work
in a discipline concerned, by its nature, with actual building techniques. As stated by
Berryman [22], mechanical designs of the ancient world “may even extend the tech-
nology available, amalgamating various tested techniques into an untested contrap-
tion”: in modern words, creative thinking united with engineering design.
As we have seen, both Philon and Heron use explicitly pneumatics to engage their
students in the creative application of mechanical laws, and in the design of wonderful
devices. This wonder is both in the eyes of a possible spectator, but especially in those
of the learner, who is intrigued, puzzled and therefore stimulated to learn, as stated also
by Aristotle2 [23]. As Ziaeefard [24] states still in 2018, in his study about co-robotics
hands-on activities: “the challenge is to break the barriers and define tasks as fun
activities with a learn and play approach that can be rewarding”. Nowadays, like in the
3rd century BCE.

5 Conclusions

As seen in the long chronological path from the 3rd century BCE to the 21st century CE,
wonder appears as the guiding thread, a universal element for activating skills, attention
and reflections in the learning path towards scientific knowledge and for triggering a
true engineering “state of mind”.

2
“We wonder at, firstly, those things that occur according to nature, of which the cause is unknown,
and secondly at those things which are produced unnaturally by art for the benefit of mankind”.
336 N. Ambrosetti

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