SR

THE WORLD
Mind map
COMMUNICATES
 the world communicates

CHAPTER 1

The transfer of information using waves

The wave model can be used to explain how current
technologies transfer information

Introduction
Communication technology has come a long way in 100 years.
Communication is the transfer of information from one place to another. It
occurs in the animal and plant kingdom. Brightly coloured petals communicate
their existence to insects and birds. Animals communicate by smell, noise and body
language. The human race has hundreds of highly developed spoken languages that
have diminished our use of smell and body language.
Language involves a system of learned encoding of information using sounds.
The written word, a later development in human communication, is based on the
encoding of information into symbols and words with particular meanings. In our
technological world, encoding of information before transmission over long distances
is performed by telephones, computers and many other devices without us having to
think about the process. At the receiving end of the process, the decoding must be
performed electronically, or the language learned adequately, before sense can be
made of the communicated information.
Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894)
Figure 1.1  discovered radio waves in 1886.
Modern
communications Shortly after, in 1890, Guglielmo
rely on complex Marconi (1874–1937) began to make
technology—a use of these radio waves to transfer
mobile phone mast
information. Today, we take radio,
TV and mobile communications for
granted.
We communicate with each other
and we can receive information
such as news stories as they happen
thousands of kilometres away without
delay, using waves. The wave model
can be applied to sound as well as
electromagnetic radiation. It is a very
useful tool, helping us to understand
the behaviour of the radiation or
sound waves. Our society is now
deeply dependent on reliable and
fast communications in many forms;
understanding the technology behind
the scenes is crucial if we are to
continue to make advances in this
field.

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 chapter 1  the transfer of information using waves

Energy transformations are necessary for

communication to occur 1.1
n Describe the energy Figure 1.2 
A mobile telephone
transformations required in one and a fax machine
of the following: are examples of
communication
– mobile telephone devices that
– fax/modem require energy
– radio and television transformation
as part of their
Energy transformations—when energy is changed operation
from one form into another—happen all around us.
Electrical energy is transformed into other useful
forms by devices such as light globes, speakers,
motors and heaters. In modern communication
devices (see Fig. 1.2), a series of energy
transformations is required in order to transfer
information from one place to another. For example:
■■ Microphones transform sound energy into
electrical signals.
■■ The reverse happens in speakers, where
electrical signals cause a small diaphragm to vibrate, in turn causing vibrations in
the air particles, which then radiate out as sound energy.
■■ Wired telephone communication is carried by electrical signals through copper
wires from telephone to telephone.
■■ In radio, television and mobile telephones, electrical signals are used to modulate
radio waves so that information is sent from the aerial of the transmitting device
to the aerial of the receiving device. However, mobile telephones do not connect
with each other directly. Their signals go through the nearest base station and
the telephone company’s wire and fibre optic networks to the base station that is
closest to the other telephone.
Energy transformations that occur in mobile telephones, faxes or modems as well as
radio and television are shown in Figures 1.3 (a), (b) and (c).
Figure 1.3 (a) 
3 electromagnetic radiation (EMR) electrical
Pathway of energy
4 electrical EMR transformations
for a one-way
mobile telephone
communication

2 electrical EMR EMR electrical 5

1 sound electrical electrical sound 6

Telephone exchanges

Person A Person B

3
 the world communicates
A1.05

Figure 1.3 (b)  light electricity electricity mechanical

Pathway of energy + heat (to
transformations produce fax)
when information
is sent by fax or
modem

wire

digitally encoded information

fax machine fax machine

(sending) (receiving)

Figure 1.3 (c) 

transmission electrical electromagnetic
Energy tower radiation (EMR)
transformations (radio waves)
when information
is sent to a
television set (radio
communications EMR electrical
occur in a similar
manner without
light energy)
TV aerial

modulator

light sound electrical light + sound

+ light electrical

TV camera

1.2 Mechanical waves require a medium

n Identify that mechanical waves require a medium for
propagation while electromagnetic waves do not
All waves ‘carry’ energy as vibrations. In mechanical waves, particles (matter)
vibrate about a rest position. Electromagnetic waves are produced by an
accelerating electric charge that produces a ‘vibrating’ electric and magnetic field.
Wave energy does not move matter from one place to another. As the wave
passes, the material that makes up the medium that the wave is travelling in may
be disturbed, but will settle back to its original position once the wave has passed.
When a spring is stretched, each coil assumes an
The wave will convey energy fromor one
equilibrium place to another. Waves in the ocean convey
rest position.
the energy from the wind to the shore, perhaps thousands of kilometres away.
Earthquake waves convey energy from the epicentre of the earthquake to the surface:
When the first coil of the spring is repeatedly vibrated
back and forth, a disturbance is created that travels
4 the length of the spring.
 chapter 1  the transfer of information using waves

this energy is often clearly evident in the damage and destruction that such events
can cause.
Radio waves convey energy from transmission towers to radio receivers. This is
detected and then decoded. Radio waves can be sent to and from satellites in space
as they have no need for a medium. All forms of electromagnetic radiation convey
energy from the Sun to the Earth through the vacuum of space.
The medium through which a wave travels can confine the wave to travel in
a certain way: in one, two or three dimensions. Waves that do require a medium
are known as ‘mechanical’ waves. This is because they cause a disturbance in
the material through which they are passing, be it water, rocks, air or a spring.
Electromagnetic waves are oscillating (changing back and forth) magnetic and electric
fields at right angles to each other that ‘self-propagate’, that is, continue on, even
through a vacuum.
In 1864, James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) first proposed the existence of waves
that could travel through empty space as oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
Maxwell believed that a medium, or substance, called the luminiferous aether was
needed for such waves to move through. These waves were believed to have similar
characteristics to light. These electromagnetic waves were later shown to be capable
of moving through empty space, a proposition put forward in 1905 by Albert Einstein
(1879–1955) in his special theory of relativity. One reason for the belief by scientists
such as Maxwell in an all-pervading medium was that all other forms of waves—
sound, water waves, earthquake waves and others—need a medium. Such waves
are known as mechanical waves—the medium is disturbed as the wave passes but
returns to its natural state afterwards. You can see an example of how the medium is
disturbed when swimming or surfing in the ocean: as an unbroken wave passes, the
swimmer or surfer moves up and down with the disturbed water.

USEFUL WEBSITE: >WWW

A wine glass can be shattered by the energy conveyed by sound waves:
http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/wine1video.htm

Waves can occur in one, two or three dimensions

n Describe waves as a transfer of energy disturbance that
1.3
may occur in one, two or three dimensions, depending on
the nature of the wave and the medium
A one-dimensional wave, such as the wave in a string or spring shown in Figure
1.4 (a) is confined to that medium and can travel in one direction only. A two-
dimensional wave, such as a wave travelling on the surface of a pond or on the
ocean—see Figure 1.4 (b)—spreads out, dispersing the energy over a larger area as
it travels.

USEFUL WEBSITES: >WWW

Slow motion video of a one-dimensional longitudinal wave in a slinky spring:
http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/slinkyvideo.htm
An interactive shockwave animator of a one-dimensional wave in a spring:
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/string-wave/string-wave.swf

5
 the world communicates

Figure 1.4 (a) 

A one-dimensional
wave in a spring When a spring is stretched, each coil assumes an
equilibrium or rest position.

When the first coil of the spring is repeatedly vibrated

back and forth, a disturbance is created that travels
the length of the spring.
Figure 1.4 (b) 
Two-dimensional ripples
on the surface of a pond

Starlight is an example of wave energy spreading out in three dimensions—shown

in Figure 1.4 (c)—through the vacuum of space, without a medium. All forms of
electromagnetic radiation are able to propagate without the need for a medium,
unlike mechanical waves. This ability to travel through a vacuum sets electromagnetic
waves apart from mechanical waves.

WWW< USEFUL WEBSITE:

Java applet animations of waves
in two and three dimensions:
h
 ttp://www.falstad.com/
wavebox/

Figure 1.4 (c)  Starlight spreads

out through space in three
dimensions

Observing waves
first-hand n Perform a first-hand investigation to observe and gather
investigation
information about the transmission of waves in:
PFA – slinky springs
P4 – water surfaces
physics skills – ropes
or use appropriate computer simulations
11.1 B, E
11.2 D, E USEFUL WEBSITES:
11.3 A, B, C Animations of different types of mechanical waves:
12.1 A, D WWW< http://dev.physicslab.org/Document.aspx?doctype=3&filename=WavesSound_
12.2 A, B IntroductionWaves.xml
12.3 D
Interactive animation of a transverse wave in a string:
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/string-wave/string-wave.swf

6
 chapter 1  the transfer of information using waves

These websites provide computer simulations of the transmission of waves in ropes and
springs.
It is also important to make first-hand observations of the behaviour of waves in ropes,
springs and water.
1. Lay out a slinky spring on smooth ground (lino or tiles), taking care not to stretch it TR
beyond its elastic limit.
2. With one end held still, send a pulse down the spring by:
(a) flicking the other end of the spring to one side and back (a transverse wave pulse);
and Risk assessment
(b) flicking the other end of the spring back and forth to send a compression wave down matrix
the spring.
3. Observe how the coils of the spring move as the wave pulse passes. Tying a small ribbon
around the coil can help with this.
4. Observe the effect of the amplitude (i.e. the size) of the wave pulse on the speed of the
wave in the spring.
5. Observe the effect of stretching the spring on the speed of the wave.
6. Observe how the wave pulse is reflected at the fixed end of the spring.
7. Compare these waves to ripples on the surface of a pond or in a ripple tank. Which is the
one-dimensional and which the two-dimensional wave?
8. Compare waves in a rope to those in the spring. Can a compression wave be sent down
the rope? Why or why not?
9. By moving the end of the slinky spring sideways with a regular, continuous motion, try to
set up ‘standing waves’ in the spring, that is, waves that appear to be standing still in the
spring as it moves from side to side.

The characteristics of waves

n Define and apply the following terms to the wave model:
1.4
medium, displacement, amplitude, period, compression,
rarefaction, crest, trough, transverse waves, longitudinal
waves, frequency, wavelength, velocity
Definitions
The definitions of terms that have special meanings in the wave model are given
here.
The medium is the material through which a wave is moving. Common examples
of media include air (sound waves), rock (earthquake waves) and water.
Displacement is the perpendicular distance of a point in the medium from its
rest position as a wave passes, shown as ‘x’ in Figure 1.5.
Amplitude is the maximum distance away from its rest position that a point in
the medium moves to as a wave passes, shown as ‘a’ in Figure 1.5.
Period is the time taken for one whole wave to pass a point in the medium, ‘T ’.
Compression refers to the regions in the medium that, as a wave passes,
become squashed or compressed. This occurs when compression or longitudinal
waves pass. See Figure 1.6.

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 the world communicates

Rarefaction is the term for the regions in the medium that are stretched out or
elongated as a longitudinal wave passes. See Figure 1.6.
The crest is the ‘top’ of the wave, applicable only to transverse waves such as
water waves. The bottom of the wave is the trough.
Transverse waves are so-called due to the direction the medium moves in
relation to the direction of propagation, or travelling, of the wave. As the wave
passes through the medium, the medium oscillates in a direction perpendicular
to the direction of the propagation of the wave itself. Figure 1.5 represents a
transverse wave.
Longitudinal waves cause the medium to move back and forth parallel to the
direction of the wave’s propagation. See Figure 1.6.
Frequency is usedλ to mean the number of complete oscillations, or whole waves,
that pass a point in onecrest
second. Themotion
unit of frequency is the hertz, Hz, after
Heinrich Hertz. As it is the number ofofmedium
waves per second, its SI unit is s–1 and its
a
x
position is inverse: f = –
rest period 1direction
symbol is f. The relationship between frequency and .
T
of propagation
Wavelength is the distance from a point on a wave to the corresponding point
on the next wave, for example, from one crest to the next. The symbol for
trough
wavelength is the Greek letter for l: λ, ‘lambda’.
Velocity is the speed of a wave, v, measured in m s–1.

1.5 Motion of the medium determines the type of wave

n Present diagrammatic information about transverse and
longitudinal waves, direction of particle movement and the
direction of propagation
Figure 1.5 
Representation
of a transverse
wave and its key λ
features crest motion
of medium
a
x
rest position direction
of propagation

trough

Figure 1.6 
λ motion
Representation
of medium
of a longitudinal
wave and its key rarefaction
features direction
of propagation
compression

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 chapter 1  the transfer of information using waves

Transverse motion and longitudinal motion

n Describe the relationship between particle motion and
1.6
the direction of energy propagation in transverse and
longitudinal waves
As can be seen in Figures 1.5 and 1.6, the directions of particle motion in transverse
waves and longitudinal waves differ (see also Fig. 1.7).
Figure 1.7 
Transverse motion
and longitudinal
motion

direction motion direction

of wave of the of wave
motion motion medium motion
of the
medium

Transverse wave motion Longitudinal wave motion

The particles within the medium move transversely, or at 90o to, the direction of
propagation of the wave itself in a transverse wave. As energy, not the medium, is
being transferred by the wave, the particles in the medium move transversely to the
direction of the energy propagation. The compression waves sent down the spring
in the ‘Observing waves’ investigation are longitudinal waves, where the movement
of the particles in the medium occurs parallel to that of the wave propagation. By
making the appropriate observations in the previous investigation, these differences
are clearly apparent.

The frequency and amplitude of waves

first-hand
n Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information investigation
about the frequency and amplitude of waves using an
PFA
oscilloscope or electronic data-logging equipment
P3
There are several methods that can be used to gather information about a wave’s frequency
and amplitude. One suggestion is outlined here. physics skills
1. Using a sound frequency generator and a loudspeaker, produce a sound with a known 12.1 A, D
frequency. 12.2 A, B
2. Connect a microphone to the input of a cathode ray oscilloscope, and adjust the sweep
time and vertical scale to obtain a signal displaying several wavelengths. Alternatively,
connect the microphone from data-logging apparatus to the input so that the signal is TR
displayed on the computer.
3. By measuring the horizontal distance between successive crests on the
1
displayed wave, find the period T of the wave. Use the relationship f = – to
T Risk assessment
calculate the wave’s frequency. Compare this result with the frequency being generated. matrix

9
 the world communicates

4. Adjust the volume of the sound generated or move the microphone closer to the
loudspeaker. Observe the effect this has on the amplitude of the wave signal on the
oscilloscope or computer. Next, compare the perceived volume of the sound once the
amplitude of the signal is halved.

A1.13

1.7 Displacement–time graphs of wave motion

■■ Displacement (m)
Present and analyse information from displacement–time
graphs for transverse wave motion Time

A displacement–time graph for a transverse wave is not a diagram of the wave itself.
The vertical axis demonstrates the amplitude of the wave. The horizontal axis can be
used to measure the wave’s period (the time difference between any two successive
points on the wave) and therefore the wave’s frequency. However, without additional
information, the wavelength of the wave cannot be determined. Figure 1.8 shows a
transverse wave with a period of 2.0 s (and therefore a frequency of 0.5 Hz).
The wave represented in
Figure 1.8 is also known as a sine
wave. The graph shows how the
Displacement (m)

displacement of the medium varies

Time (s) 4.0 with time as the wave passes.
0
2.0

Figure 1.8 
A displacement
time graph for a A1.14Example
typical transverse Consider the displacement-time graph shown in Figure 1.9.
wave
6
5
4
3
Displacement (m)

2
1
0
-1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Time (s)
-2
-3
Figure 1.9  -4
Displacement -5
time graph with -6
increments

From the graph, find the wave’s:

(a) amplitude
(b) displacement when t = 9.0 s
(c) period, T

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 chapter 1  the transfer of information using waves

Given that the wave is travelling at 24.0 m s–1, calculate:

1
(d) the wavelength of the wave (use v = f λ, and f = – ). (See page 12.)
T
(e) sketch the wave itself showing its amplitude and wavelength.
(f) for different points labelled ‘X’, ‘Y’ and ‘Z’ on the sketched wave, show the
directions in which these points are moving or are about to move.
Solutions
(a) 4 m (the maximum displacement)
(b) 2.5 m (from the graph)
(c) 8.0 s (the time taken for the wave to complete one whole oscillation)
1
(d) As T = 8.0 s, f = — = 0.125 Hz
8.0
v
then: v = f λ, so λ =
f
24.0 m s–1
=
0.125 Hz
= 192 m
(e) and (f) = 192 m
v Figure 1.10 
Solution to (e)
and (f)
(a) = 4.0 m Z

Y
Shown in Figure 1.10, the chosen point ‘X’ is moving up as the next crest
approaches from the left. Point Y is about to move up, while point Z is moving
down. (Note that the wave is moving to the right, but the medium itself would be
moving up and down.)

 The relationship between frequency and

wavelength for a wave
n Plan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand first-hand
investigation to gather information to identify the investigation
relationship between the frequency and wavelength of a PFA
sound wave travelling at a constant velocity P2
A suggested method is outlined here. However, the student is ultimately responsible for the physics skills
planning of the investigation and for choosing the appropriate equipment.
To measure the wavelength of a sound wave, you can use the characteristics of standing 11.1 A–E
11.2 B–E
waves in a hollow glass tube, closed at one end. Figure 1.11 shows the apparatus required.
11.3 A–C
1. At certain frequencies, found by adjusting the signal generator, the loudspeaker
12.1 A, B, D
will generate resonance in the hollow glass tube. The fine sand or talc will begin to 12.2 A, B
accumulate at the ‘nodes’ of the standing wave. The distance between the nodes is half 12.4 A, B, C
the wavelength of the standing wave.
2. Repeat this procedure for several frequencies. For each frequency, the wavelength
produced multiplied by the frequency gives the speed of the sound.

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 A1.16
the world communicates
A1.16

Figure 1.11  hollow

hollowglass
glasstube
tube
closed
closedatatone
oneend
end
Apparatus used
to measure the
wavelength of a
sound wave

TR accumulating
accumulatingmounds
moundsofoffine
fine loudspeaker
loudspeaker
sand
sandorortalc
talcatat½½wavelength
wavelength linked
linkedto
to
intervals along the tube
intervals along the tube signal
signalgenerator
generator

3. Compare the results for the speed of sound. Plot the results on a wavelength versus
Risk assessment
frequency graph to find a relationship between frequency and wavelength.
matrix
An alternative procedure to the one above is to attach a long string to the cone of a speaker
or to a mechanical oscillator driven by an audio oscillator (see Fig. 1.12). (A cathode ray
oscilloscope connected to the audio oscillator will verify the frequency from the audio
oscillator.) Standing waves will form in the string at specific frequencies. The wavelength is
twice the distance between any two nodes (non-moving points) in the string. The speed of the
wave in the string remains constant.
A1.17
A1.17
Figure 1.12 
An alternative
procedure, using pulley
pulley string
string CRO
CRO
a long string as
described audio
audio
speaker oscillator
oscillator
speaker
cone
cone

mass
mass

1.8 The wave equation

n Quantify the relationship between velocity, frequency and
wavelength for a wave:
v = fλ
■■ Solve problems and analyse information by applying the
mathematical model of v = f λ to a range of situations
SR The distance a wave travels in one second can be found by multiplying the number of
whole waves that pass a point in one second by the length of each of the waves. Stated
mathematically, this is v = f λ. This equation is also known as ‘the wave equation’. It
applies to all waves, whether they are mechanical or electromagnetic, transverse or
longitudinal. For example, if five waves pass a point in the ocean each second, and
Worked examples they each have a wavelength of 20 m, then the waves must be travelling at 100 m s–1.
1, 2
v = velocity, measured in m s–1
v=fλ f = frequency, measured in Hz
λ = wavelength, measured in m

NOTE: Waves in the ocean can travel at very different speeds. Tsunami waves may have
wavelengths of hundreds of kilometres and move across the ocean at up to 800 km h–1. A
normal swell moves across the ocean at 30–40 km h–1, slowing down in shallower water closer
to the shore, causing it to ‘bunch up’ and eventually spill. Once the wave is ‘broken’, it is no
longer considered to be a wave, but a mass of water (the medium) moving towards the shore.

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 chapter 1  the transfer of information using waves

When applying v = f λ to any form of electromagnetic radiation, the speed, v, of the

wave is taken as the speed of light, c, which is 3.00 3 108 m s–1.

Example 1
A popular FM radio station transmits on a frequency of 104.9 MHz. What is the
wavelength of these radio waves?
Solution

f = 104.9 MHz
= 104.9 3 106 Hz
v = f λ
v
λ=
f
3.00 × 10 8 m s -1
=
104.9 × 10 6 Hz
= 2.86 m
(Interestingly, you will notice the effect of this wavelength when you are driving
among tall buildings in the city while tuned in to an FM radio station. When you are
stopped at traffic lights, the station may ‘fade’ due to reflections from the buildings.
Moving the car forwards or backwards as little as a metre may cancel this effect,
bringing the car’s antenna back to a place where reception is full strength.)

Example 2
Compare the wavelength of an AM radio station with a frequency of 702 kHz to
that of the FM radio station in the previous question.
Solution
again, v = f λ
v
λ=
f
3.00 × 10 8 m s -1
=
702 × 10 3 Hz
= 427 m

Example 3
What is the frequency of red light with a wavelength of 620 nm?
Solution
using v = f λ
v
f =
λ
3.00 × 10 8 m s -1
=
620 × 10 -9 m
= 4.84 × 1014 Hz

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Example 4
A tsunami wave is detected by an early warning buoy in the Pacific Ocean. It
has a period of 50.0 s. Satellite tracking shows that the wavelength of the waves
is 10.0 km. From this information, the speed of the tsunami in the ocean can be
found. What is its speed?
Solution
1
First: f = –
T
1
=
50.0 s
= 0.02 Hz
next, v = f λ
= 0.02 Hz × 10.0 × 10 3 m
= 2.00 × 10 2 m s–1

chapter revision questions

1. Outline the differences in the way in which the particles in the medium move as (a)
transverse and (b) longitudinal waves move through it.

2. Explain the statement ‘waves convey energy, not matter’.

3. List one example each for one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional

waves.

4. On a sketch of a transverse wave, label one wavelength, the amplitude, and the
displacement of a point on the wave marked ‘X’.

5. Explain the similarities between crests and troughs in transverse waves and
compressions and rarefactions in longitudinal waves.

6. Describe the relationship between the frequency, f, and the wavelength, λ, for
electromagnetic waves.

7. What is the most significant difference between electromagnetic waves and other types
of wave motion?

8. Compare the wavelengths of a radio wave with a frequency of 954 kHz and an X-ray
with a frequency of 5.0 3 1017 Hz.

9. Describe what happens to the wavelength of a wave that slows down while retaining its
original frequency.

10. A wave in a slinky spring is being generated by a student. As the student begins to
produce more waves each second, what is the effect on the wavelength?

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