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Sachin Ketkar

IS THERE AN `INDIAN SCHOOL' OF TRANSLATION STUDIES?

Rebirth of a text in another language is the birth in a different yoni- in a different vagina, a different species.

The translated text is a different animal altogether. But the way of looking at this different animal in relation

to earlier one in addition to its place and function in the territory it inhabits in the present birth depends

greatly on frames through it is perceived. This framework is usually specific to culture, metaphysics, history,

politics, and social institutions of the linguistic community that produces or receives translation. One

wonders then, whether there are certain themes and concerns which recur in writings on translation in India,

or more fashionably, whether there is some sort of `Indian School' of Translation Studies. As there seems to

be a sudden upsurge of interest in translation in English Studies in India, I have attempted in this paper a

brief critical survey of major theoretical positions of Indian scholars regarding translation and tried to

understand them in the context of Indian cultural history. I have sought to discover shared areas of emphasis

and differences in order to find out whether any such school exists. I have also compared major theorists

writing in English and those writing in the modern Indian languages in order to highlight the difference

rather than similarity between them.

The increased interest seems to be symptomatic of a certain dramatic shift in academic values, concerns, and

mindset associated with English Studies in India. This shift has been from uncritical acceptance of literatures

in dominant Western languages, their canons, as well as their critical vocabulary, to historical and political

contexts in which they are produced, circulated and consumed. There is a distinct attempt to de-colonize its

outlook. The emphasis on translation, I feel is one of the cultural strategies for the agenda of

decolonialization.

Closely allied with English Studies establishment in India are the Indian writers writing in English, many of

them have traditionally been accomplished translators. English Studies has been one of the chief patrons of
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this species of writing in India. In the case of the earlier generation of writers like Sri Aurobindo or P.Lal, the

source language was chiefly Sanskrit and later on, in the case of modernist bilingual poets like Dilip Chitre,

A.K.Ramanujan, R. Parthashastry, and Arun Kolatkar, the source language is primarily their first language.

The focus of these translators has been largely on medieval bhakti literature. Rabindranath Tagore's

translation of Kabir and Sri Aurobindo's translation of Vidyapati are the antecedents of these type of

translations. The bilingual poet translators deploy translation as a strategy to de-colonize their souls by

translating what is considered as `truly Indian'. A noted poet and translator P. Lal has made a very

significant comment about this strategic function of translation:

`I soon realized that an excessive absorption in the milieu and tradition of English was divorcing me from the
values that I found all round me as an experiencing Indian, so I undertook the translation of Indian-in practice,
mostly Hindu-sacred texts, in the hope that the intimacy that only translation can give would enable me to know
better what the Indian "myth" was, how it invigorated Indian literature, and what values one would pick up from it
that would be of use to me as an " Indian" human being and as an Indian using a so called foreign language,
English, for the purposes of writing poetry. (Cited by St.Pierre, 1997:143-144)'.

In this light one can understand Dilip Chitre's remark, ` Why I felt compelled to translate his (Tukaram’s)

poetry: as a bilingual poet, I had little choice, if any. There were two parts of me, like two linguistic and

cultural hemispheres, and, as per theory, they were not destined to cohere..(2003:307)’ and ` I have been

working in a haunted workshop rattled and shaken by the spirits of other literatures unknown to my

ancestors….I have to build a bridge within myself between India or Europe or else I become a fragmented

person (2003:311-312).’

Many of these writer and translators grapple with the issue of identity and Indianness in their works and

these themes very naturally emerge in their translation theory and practice. AK Ramanujan, who holds a

unique place as a poet, translator, and a theorist, had announced the great ambition to translate non-native

reader into a native one as one of the main motivation behind translation. Yet he too acknowledged that `

Every one's own tradition is not one' birthright; it has to be earned, repossessed. The old bards earned it by

apprenticing themselves to the masters. One chooses and translates a part of one's past to make it present to
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oneself and may be to others.'(Cited by Dharwadkar, 1999:122-123) Translation becomes a strategy to give

oneself one's roots. St. Pierre aptly observes that such an attitude ` arises out of a desire to ground oneself

more fully into the Indian source culture.' (1997:143-144) Comparable to what is happening in English

Studies, its alienated by products also have desire to de-colonize themselves. However, a significant point is

that of shifting notion of what is meant by `truly Indian'. In case of the older generations, Indianness meant

pan-Indian Sanskritic heritage and in case of modernists, Indianness means pre-colonial heritage in modern

Indian languages. Translation becomes one of the inevitable and creative contrivances of giving oneself the

sense of belonging and a nationality.

The main theorists from the English Studies establishment are the reputed scholars like Harish Trivedi,

G.N.Devy, Dilip Chitre, Tejaswini Niranjana, and Sujit Mukherjee. They are concerned with colonial history

and its impact on practice and reflection on translation in India. They are chiefly concerned about what is

called Indian Literature in English Translation, or Indo-English Literature. The English Studies connection of

these scholars is reflected in the theorizing and the sorts of concerns typical to this church emerge

everywhere in their thinking.

Harish Trivedi (1996) has provided a fourfold division of Indian literature translated into English: i) Indic

and Indological works, mainly translations of the ancient and medieval Sanskrit or Pali texts into English, ii)

the translations of late ancient and medieval works, largely to do with bhakti, for instance, A K Ramanujan's

translations or Rabindranath Tagore's translation of Kabir. Trivedi calls these two trends as neo-Orientalist or

post Orientalist trends, iii) fictional works depicting various aspects of modern India realistically like the

work of Tagore or Premchand. Trivedi remarks that this category broadly conforms to Fredric Jameson's

inadequate description of the Third World national allegory and iv) Modernist or High modernist writers

translated into English, a category which Trivedi believes is contrary to Jameson's thesis as it shows that

internationalism/universalism cosmopolitanism can flourish in the Third World as well (52)

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In Trivedi’s first category can be put works of brilliant Indologists and Sanskrit scholars like Wendy

Donniger O Flatthery, Barbara Stoller-Miller, or Lee Siegel who have produced excellent translations of

Sanskrit classical texts with erudite and insightful commentaries, forewords, and appendices. Indian scholars

like Sri Aurobindo, CC Mehta, and P Lal who have translated from Sanskrit classics into English also can be

put under this heading. The list is quite long, but shadow of Orientalism looms large over these translations

and so does desire to indulge in the `glories of past'.

AK Ramanujan's translations from South Indian saint-singers and of ancient Sangam classics, and many

other works more or less well received belong to the second category described by Trivedi. It is unfair to

label these translations as neo- or post- Orientalist as these are by the translators who belong to the colonized

cultures and they translate into language of colonizers rather than the colonial translator translating into their

first language. Besides, Orientalism worked in tandem with the colonizing project. Nevertheless, the

colonial history does play a crucial role in production and reception of these types of translations as

mentioned earlier. The desire to relate the East and the West in `positive' manner springs from English

educated Indian's conscious or unconscious fear of alienation and of not belonging to the very country he or

she is born in. This crisis may be due to historical, or (to use a more fashionable word) `post-colonial'

condition, but then this should definitely separate it from translations of orientalists.

The third category as pointed out by Trivedi, and is very well documented by Sujit Mukherjee (1994) who

gives an excellent list of various Indo-English realistic fictional works translated into English in his appendix

which depict various aspects of modern Indian life. Mukherjee makes a strong case for inclusion of these

works in academic study of what is called `Eng.Lit.' The fourth category, that of the Modernist and high

modernist poets and writers translated into English features in Mukherjee’s list too. He also provides a list of

Indian dramas translated into English. Mukherjee's list is not complete, but it reveals what a great help this

kind of effort provides to scholars. Trivedi's schema is useful but the last two categories of his four-fold

framework seem to have only polemical relevance in the context of his argument against Jameson's view.
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The division between the works that deal realistically with India and the more modernist and experimental

fiction is controversial. He seems to imply that the latter type of fiction is more `international' and having

`universal/global' appeal while the former has only local, regional or national appeal.

Like Trivedi, Devy (1993) is interested in the historical context of translation activity in India. He divides the

history of translating Indian literature into English into four phases, namely: the colonial phase (1776-1910),

the revivalist phase (1876-1950), the nationalist phase (1902-1929), and the formalist phase (1912- ) (120).

Commenting on contribution of emergence and growth of Indian-English literature in growth of Indian

literature in English Translation, he remarks that the creative writers writing in English have created `a ready

language for the translators' as they have invented modes of ` representing Indian turns of speech, shades of

sentiments, ways of feeling and social manners.' Besides, many Indian creative writers in English, who are

bilinguals, are translators. This fact also contributes to development of this category (124). However, one

wonders whether growth and development of something like German Writing in English (if there is any such

thing) is necessary and important for development of German literature in English Translation!

Tejaswini Niranjana's excellent book, apart from a rather unjust attack on Ramanujan, Siting Translation,

History, Post-Structuralism, and the Colonial Context (1995) is concerned with complex interrelationship

between colonialism, post-structuralist philosophy, and translation. This concern for colonial past and

Western theories also characterize most of the contemporary theoretical writing on translation in English in

India. One wonders why only the scholars associated with English Studies are so seriously concerned with

colonial history and Western critical theory.

" In a post-colonial context the problematic of translation becomes a significant site for raising questions of

representation, power, and historicity," she maintains," the context is one of contesting and contested stories

attempting to account for, to recount, the asymmetry and inequality of relations between peoples, races,

languages". In translation, the relationship between the two languages is hardly on equal terms. Niranjana
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draws attention to a rather overlooked fact that translation is between languages that are hierarchically

related, and that it is a mode of representation in another culture. When the relationship between the cultures

and languages is that of colonizer and colonized, "translation...produces strategies of containment. By

employing certain modes of representing the other-which it thereby also brings into being--translation

reinforces hegemonic versions of the colonized, helping them acquire the status of what Edward Said calls

representations or objects without history '(p.3). She points out in the introduction that her concern is to

probe `the absence, lack, or repression of an awareness of asymmetry and historicity in several kinds of

writing on translation' (p.9). Her theoretical position seems to be more relevant to translations into English

and orientalist translations, but the point she has raised about asymmetry and hierarchy very well applies to

translations between Indian languages. The lack of systematic theorization about the problems raised by

translation between bhashas or modern Indian languages will be dealt later in the paper.

Harish Trivedi (1997) demonstrates how translation of Anatole France's Thais by Premchand was distinctly

a political act in the sense that the very selection of a text was that of a one which was not part of literature of

colonial power and that it attempted a sort of liberation of Indian literature from the tutelage of the

imperially-inducted master literature, English (407).

The postcolonial theory has, indeed, provided a powerful analytical framework for translation studies.

Bassnett and Trivedi (1999) believe that the hierarchic opposition between the original work and translation

reflects the hierarchic opposition between the European colonizer culture and the colonized culture. This

hierarchy, they observe, is Eurocentric, and its spread is associated with the history of colonialization,

imperialism, and proselytization (1-4). Because of these historical reasons, many radical theories of

translation have come up in the former colonies.

G.N.Devy has formulated a credible Indian perspective to translation theory by contrasting the ways in

which translation is perceived in India and in the West. Devy rightly notes that the metaphysical status of
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translation determines how it is perceived in a culture. Contrasting Western metaphysics with that of East,

Devy states, ` in Western metaphysics, translation is an exile and an exile is a metaphorical translation- a

post-Babel crisis. The multilingual, eclectic Hindu spirit, ensconced in the belief in the soul's perpetual

transition from form to form, may find it difficult to subscribe to the Western metaphysics of translation

(135). He points out that Western linguistics is essentially monolingual and rules out the very possibility of

interlingual synonymy. It also overlooks that fact that languages are `open' to one another's influence in

linguistic, social and historical sense. Devy is of opinion that Indian consciousness is `translating

consciousness' and it exploits the `potential openness of language systems'. He believes ` if we take lead

from Phenomenology and conceptualize a whole community of `translating consciousness', it should be

possible to develop a theory of inter-lingual synonymy '(139-141). Devy is optimistic that an acceptable

theoretical perspective on translation can emerge from India because it has ` a culture that accepts

metamorphosis as the basic principle of existence' and its metaphysics is not haunted by the fear of exile. He

notes that the whole bhakti movement of poetry in India had the `desire of translating the language of

spirituality from Sanskrit to the languages of people.'

Devy's call for indigenous and native theory of translation based on local context and local social, literary

and cultural traditions is also found in Ayyapaa K Paniker's `The Anxiety of Authenticity: Reflection on

Literary Translation' (1996:36-45). He points out that the fear of being unfaithful and the anxiety of being

true to the original in letter in spirit did not haunt the medieval Indian translators. He notes, ` All through the

Middle Ages, throughout the length and breadth of India, Sanskrit classics like the epics and puranas

continued to be retold, adapted, subverted and `translated' without worrying about the exactness and accuracy

of formal equivalence.'(37). He speculates that it was with beginning of attempts to translate the Bible into

Indian languages that this question of authenticity became a bugbear. He points out that the politics of

medieval Indian translations could perhaps be understood and interpreted in terms of the visible absence of

the anxiety of authenticity on the part of these `translators'. He also notes that the absence of an exact

equivalent for the modern sense of` translation ' in medieval Indian languages probably suggests that the
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Indian practice tolerated a great deal of creative deviance in retelling or adaptation of a literary text and that

the prestige of the source text did not haunt or frighten the reader (1998). Paniker is no doubt right in

pointing out this fact but it should also be kept in mind that translation is an inseparable part of any

proselytizing movement. Spread of Buddhism in the first millenium across Asia also utilized practice of

systematic and very accurate translations which have contributed not only to spread of variety of secular and

religious Indian texts but also development of Asian languages. Sunitikumar Pathak (1978) furnishes an

interesting account of spread of Buddhist religion in Tibet, Mangolia, and Siberia. He notes that thousands

of highly accurate renderings of Buddhist and Brahminical texts were produced under royal patronage in

Tibet and that in the ninth century AD there was a conference to standardize techniques of translation in

accordance with Tibetan language and prosody. Several secular texts like the plays of Kalidasa or famous

Amarkosha were translated. The stress was on high fidelity to source texts and translations had to get

approval from council of editors. They were so accurate, says Pathak, that scholars could reconstruct many

Mahayana Buddhist texts missing in their original languages by translating the Tibetan translation back into

Sanskrit and Prakrit. These translated texts also later served the role of source texts for many other

languages of Asia. Fidelity, it seems, is not an invention of Bible translators, but seems to be associated with

the project of proselytization.

What is interesting to note is that search for `authentic' or truly native India seems to take modern Indian

English translators as well as theorists to pre-colonial, medieval India. Colonial history is something of a

nightmare that one should try to forget. One notes that like the Indian writers writing in English, the

increasing interest in translation reflects the increased awareness in English Literary Studies in India about

its own alienation from the Indian social context. This sense of alienation will play a decisive role in the new

directions in English studies in India will take.

While all this theorization is no doubt very important, the obsession with colonial history, western theories,

and the problematic of the place of English in India is typical of the scholars associated with English Studies.
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This obsession with post-colonial theorization is often taken to dogmatic extremities in India these days.

These concerns reflect certain self-awareness, which, one wonders, may be a form of repressed guilt among

the erudite scholars in English Studies regarding its political underpinnings and history of its role in colonial

times. This has led to the neglect of problems of translating from one Indian language to another as

mentioned earlier and theoretical writings in Indian languages.

In contrast to the perspectives mentioned, some of the well-known critics of the earlier generation like RB

Patankar (1969:61-72) had some profound things to say about translation. He speculates on the possibility of

translation from an aesthetic and philosophical point of view. He says that translations of literary works are

said to be logically impossible but not empirically so. He points out the contradiction in the arguments of the

critics who deny the possibility of translation. He says that the most fundamental assumption, which

underlies in the activity of translation, is that meaning can be separated from its verbal expression and the

critics who deny the possibility of translation are those who believe that in a literary work the verbal

expression and the meanings are unique and cannot be separated from one another. However, Patankar says

that this later thesis will also have to deny the existence of literary criticism and aesthetics since these

disciplines are based on the assumption that meaning of work of art can be abstracted in order to be

understood and analyzed. Therefore, if criticism is possible, translation too, to an extent must be possible.

He maintains, `there is no reason why the translator should feel uneasy about this procedure (of abstraction).

He is in good company; for the process of abstraction which underlies his activity also underlies the activity

of all practical criticism which is engaged in classifying, grading and rationally judging works of art' (71).

This refreshing perspective anticipates Andre Lefevere' s position by at least a decade or two by affiliating

translation to all other forms of `rewriting' and `refraction' like criticism.

One more domain of study that is rather neglected by the scholars in English Studies is the theoretical

writings on translation in Indian languages. One of the oldest examples of such writing is by a noted essayist,

scholar, and translator Vishnushashtri Chiploonkar (1850-1882) in Marathi. His essay` Bhashantar' appeared
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in Nibandhmala, book 1, and twelfth issue in December 1874. His essay would be of great interest to the

scholars of English Studies as he too is writing about translation from the point of view of colonialism and

place of English.

In present times, writers such as Umashankar Joshi, Harivallabh Bhayani in Gujarati, Bhalchandra Nemade

in Marathi and Bholanath Tiwari in Hindi have produced many scholarly writings, which can be of great use

to anyone studying translation theory in the Indian context. Translation theory is being gradually recognized

as a significant area of study in regional languages and greater numbers of writings on translation are

appearing in these languages.

The noted Gujarati poet and critic Umashankar Joshi has perceptively commented on use of terms like

bhashantar and anuvad for translation. Contrasting the use of bhashantar with anuvad, he says that

bhashantar implies change of language and hence is only change of formal properties of expression, while

anuvad implies an attempt to recapture the content and the voice once again. He has also discussed problems

of samshloki or verse translations in identical stanza form.

In a very dense and comprehensive essay, the noted Marathi novelist and critic Bhalchandra Nemade (1987)

has lamented the lack of significant development in translation studies. (78-85). He laments the fact that even

if original work is bad, it gets more importance than an excellent translation. He also indicates that while in

the West, the great writers-translators like Ezra Pound, and Dryden have theoretically discussed various

aspects of translation, great Marathi translators have stayed away from theorizing. He comments on

interdisciplinary nature of translation studies. His view on the notion of `equivalence' is rather interesting.

He believes that that it is easier to find approximate equivalence in genealogically and geographically closer

languages like Marathi and Gujarati or Marathi and Kannada. This is a commonly held view by the

translators working between Indian languages. Being a trained linguist, Nemade goes on to discuss what is

termed as ` problems of translation' from linguistics approach. Elaborating on often repeated statement that
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the foundation of the modern age was laid by translators, he stresses the need for analysis of linguistic impact

of English on Marathi syntax, lexis, and phonology along with stylistic aspects of literary Marathi using

methodology of comparative linguistics. He has extensively discussed cultural and sub-cultural aspects of

translation and problems of evaluation of translation. Essays like these are of great value to the student of

translation studies in India. In comparison to the scholars writing in English, these scholars seem to be less

concerned about post-colonial perspective on translation or producing an `Indian theory' of translation and

tend to focus more on pragmatic aspects of translation. These essays usually tend to summarize theoretical

position of well-known Western translation theorists, as if to introduce them to the reader of regional

languages, while their counterparts writing in English many times seems to take such things for granted.

None of these theoretical writings, whether in English or in regional Indian languages can be called

representative of a truly `Indian' school of translation studies as both these type of theorizing mainly reflect

their own specific problems and concerns. If a truly `Indian' school of translation studies is to emerge, it

should not limit itself to translations into English or be merely introductory or language specific like those in

regional Indian languages. It should explore the relationships between the multiplicities of Indian languages.

Such relationships are historical, political, social and literary. It should also focus on the issues like the

challenges of translating from regional language to another. Paul St. Pierre makes the best advancement in

the direction of a really Indian school of translation studies.

The essay, `Translation in a Plurilingual Post-colonial context: India' by Paul St.Pierre (1997) is an

illuminating analysis into the problems of translating from one Indian language to another and which offers

some interesting insights into the complexities of this area. He discusses various projects like Aadan Pradan

(lit. interexchange) run by National Book Trust, and Sahitya Akademi projects for translating a major literary

work from one language into another. He points out that these projects aim at `forging national integration

through the exchange of creative literature'. However, he is more interested in the disparity and

asymmetrical relation between various languages due to political and social reasons. He indicates that more
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translations are published in the northern and central Indian languages than in the south Indian languages,

when one considers the ratio of the population of speakers and the number of books published by the NBT.

These, he believes,

` Do not simply represent what one might suspect to be an underlying north south bias....' but this requires
interpretation, if one takes into account local contexts- availability of translators, for example, and cultural
traditions-as well as historical relations between languages and communities in India. Such relations and contexts
continue to exist in Modern India and they influence cultural productions, such as translations. They are as much
a result of colonial policy-the formation of a unitary states out of a plurality of princedoms, feudatory states, etc., -
as of decisions to maintain the divisions in modern India along linguistic lines. Thus India is not only a state in
which linguistic divisions are maintained, but it is also a nation in which such divisions can lead to new rivalries
or continue the old ones.'(142).

As an illustration, he examines the case of Bengali texts translated into Orissa and evinces how far greater

number of Bengali texts in Oriya translations reflects near hegemonic status of Bengali in Orissa. Indeed,

the unequal relations among Indian languages deeply affect traffic of translated texts between the languages.

One has only to consider number of Gujarati books translated into Marathi or Bengali and vice versa to

realize that translation hardly takes between languages having equal footing and there is a distinct imbalance

between them. An interesting picture emerges when we consider the number of books from Indian languages

translated into other Indian languages. Bengali and Marathi have the least amount of translations from

Indian languages (Anuvadaat Tarzanchi Bhartiya Bhashat Hanuman Udi, Maharastra Times 5 April 1996).

Does this number reflect some sort of regionalist arrogance these languages have vis-a-vis other literatures in

Indian languages? There is indeed such a thing as hierarchy among the literary languages of India. Apart

from this, one also needs to ask that though there are better days coming for translations from Indian

languages into English, are there better days in store for translations from one Indian language into another

Indian language? Questions like these need to be examined more thoroughly.

St. Pierre ends his essay by underscoring the need to contextualize practice of translation in India and says

that, ` Translation... underscores the connection of translation to power: relations between languages and

between communities are actualized and transformed through translation; translation strategies reproduce
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more than mere meaning. The close examination of such relations and strategies makes it possible to

elucidate the locations of powers within and between cultures in a concrete fashion, and this should, it seems

to be one the goals of translation studies. ' (145). It seems that a sound theoretical framework for studying a

crucial, yet neglected area of translation studies in India has come from someone who is not an Indian. It is

interesting to consider the fact that while Western orientalist and Indian scholars following their example the

nineteenth century were giving most of their attention to pan-Indian and privileged languages like Sanskrit,

Christian missionaries were doing a great service to the bhashas. So today, while most of the critics are

focussing mainly on translation into or from English, people like St-Pierre has produced a major statement

on problems of translation between Indian languages. An extensive and intensive study on basis of such a

theoretical framework can yield excellent results.

The study of translation practice and theory in the context of globalization is crucial significance for a

multilingual, post-colonial nation like India. Paul St.-Pierre (2002) and Lawrence Venuti (1998) have made

some insightful reflections on the relationship between translation practices and the processes of

globalization. St.-Pierre points out the problems of making generalized observations regarding the

relationship between globalization and translation. As against Venuti’s generalized observation that

globalization results in more capital being spent on translation into the regional languages, Paul St.-Pierre

calls attention to the fact of increasing emphasis on translations from Indian languages like Oriya into

English. This is says is due to the place of English in a multilingual, post-colonial society like India. He notes

the important contradiction in the situation like this where the processes of globalization are threatening the

local languages and cultures on the one hand and at the same time it also valorizes the regional and the local

by considering it worthy of translation and publication by important publishers.

One can sum up the characteristic concerns of existing `Indian School ' of translation studies: colonial

history, the ambivalent place of English in multilingual Indian society, translation as quest for identity and a

quest for `true' `authentic' India, Indian literature in English translation, search for indigenous or native
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theory of translation, contrast between Western culture and metaphysics and Indian culture and metaphysics,

all these seem to be recurring concerns of the theorists associated with English studies. These concerns as

well as the growing attention to translation are an attempt to decolonize itself. Their neglect of theoretical

writings in regional languages is typical of certain vanity and snobbishness associated with departments of

English. In general, historical study of translation as a process, product and as a notion in India is hardly

undertaken. Dr. Bholanath Tiwari (1972) has discussed the notion and practice of translation in ancient India

in some detail. I have in my own humble way, attempted to piece together several writings that analyze

diachronically the notion and practice of translation and have tried to narrate briefly the story of translation

in India. (Sachin Ketkar, 2002). The translators who are practicing writers in English also translate in order to

overcome their own feeling of alienation. The question of identity and `roots' lie at the base of intention

behind translations, especially English. Though what is meant by `truly' Indian has changed over a period for

these translators, the purpose behind the translation activity remains the same. The writings in English as

well as those in regional languages have a limited relevance, if some sort of strong Indian school of

translation studies is to emerge. They are usually narcissistic and self-obsessed as they deal only with the

problems and issues specific to their domains. It can emerge only after intensive and extensive study of

historical, political, social cultural and literary relationships between the plurality of Indian languages. The

essay of St. Pierre can be considered as a step in right direction.

WORKS CITED

AK Singh ed. Translation: Its theory and Practice, New Delhi: Creative Books 1996

Anuvadaat Tarzanchi Bhartiya Bhashat Hanumanudi! Maharastra Times, 5 April 1996.

Ayyapaa K Paniker, `The Anxiety of Authenticity: Reflections on Literary translations ' in A.K.Singh (ed.) Translation
Its Theory and Practice, 1996,

Ayyappa Paniker, Towards an Indian Theory of Literary Translation, in Tutun Mukherjee ed. Translation: From
Periphery to Centrestage, 1998

Bassnett and Trivedi eds. Post Colonial Translation: Theory and Practice. Post-Colonial, London and NY: Routledge
1999
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Bhalchandra Nemade, Sahityachi Bhasha, Aurangabad: Saket Prakashan, 1987 78-85

Bholanath Tiwari, Anuwad Vigyan, Delhi: Shabdakar, 1972

Dilip Chitre, `Life on the Bridge’ Text of the Third Ajneya Memorial Lecture delivered by Dilip Chitre under the
auspicies of the South Asia Institute at the University of Heidelberg, Germany, in 1988, in `Says Tuka-1’
Selected poems of Tukaram, Translated from the Marathi with an Introduction by Dilip Chitre, the Sontheimer
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GN Devy, In Another Tongue: Essays on Indian English Literature, Madras: Macmillan India, 1993

Harish Trivedi ` India, England, France, A (Post-) Colonial Translational Triangle' in S.Ramakrishna ed., Delhi: Pencraft
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R.B. Patankar, Aesthetics and Literary Criticism, Bombay: Nachiketa Publications, 1969

S.Ramakrishna ed. Translation and Multilingualism. PostColonial Contexts, Delhi: Pencraft International 1997

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thesis submitted to the South Gujarat University, Surat 2002

S.K.Chatterjee ed. The Cultural Heritage of India. vol.v. Calcutta: The Ramkrishna Mission, 1978.

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Multilingualism. PostColonial Contexts, Delhi: Pencraft International 1997.

______________ `Translation in an Era of Globalization’ in Journal of Contemporary Thought, Summer 2002,

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