Joan Marques, Satinder Dhiman, Jerry Biberman - Managing The Twenty-First Century - Transforming Toward Mutual Growth PDF

Managing in the Twenty-first Century
Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06
10.1057/9780230116719 - Managing in the Twenty-first Century, Edited by Joan Marques, Satinder Dhiman and Jerry Biberman
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Managing in the Twenty-first
Century

Transforming Toward Mutual Growth
Edited by
Joan Marques, Satinder Dhiman,
and
Jerry Biberman
MANAGING IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Copyright © Joan Marques, Satinder Dhiman, and Jerry Biberman, 2011.
All rights reserved.
First published in 2011 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN®
in the United States—a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.
Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world,
this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills,
Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS.

Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies
and has companies and representatives throughout the world.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries.
ISBN: 978–0–230–11057–1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Managing in the twenty-first century : transforming toward mutual
growth / by Joan Marques, Satinder Dhiman, Jerry Biberman, editors.
p. cm.
ISBN 978–0–230–11057–1
1. Organizational behavior. 2. Organizational change. 3. Leadership.
I. Marques, Joan. II. Dhiman, Satinder. III. Biberman, Jerry, 1949–
HD58.7.M3625 2011
658.4906—dc22 2010025711
A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library.
Design by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India.
First edition: January 2011
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America.
CON T E N T S

Foreword vii
To the Reader: The How and Why of This Book xi
1 Authentic Leadership 1
Brief History and Definitions 1
Authentic Leadership in Practice 3
Advantages of Being an Authentic Leader 6
Becoming an Authentic Leader 6
The Self-Ref lection Exercise: Finding Meaning 7
Death Awareness Exercise 12
Whole-Body Learning: A Path to Authenticity and Integrity 18
Using Creative Drawings to Visualize Leadership 25
Survey of Managerial Style 29
Leadership and Changing Work Environments: Using
Role-Play Exercises 44
Understanding Stress and Developing Resiliency to Stress 49
2 Workplace Spirituality 79
Introduction 79
Contemplating Meaningful Work 86
Making Meaningfulness Visible to Oneself 87
Collective Conversations About Meaningful Work 90
Organizational Values Integration Ref lection 95
Meditation on Work as a Calling 101
Spiritual Lifeline: An Integrative Exercise 105
Role Plays of Conf licts Commonly Faced by
Undergraduate Students 110
3 Appreciative Inquiry 119
Introduction 119
Behaviors Leading to Self-Actualization 122
Motivations Behind Appreciative Inquiry 123
Main Principles of Appreciative Inquiry 125
Problem-Based Approach Vs. Strength-Based Approach 126
The 4-D Model 126
vi Contents
Conversations of Mutual Understanding:
Deconstructing Silos 128
Dialogue Circle: An Exercise in Gendered
Introspection and Ref lection 135
Dialogue Circle: An Exercise in Embracing
Racial/Ethnic Diversity 146
Traffic Light Exercise 154
“The Preferred Classroom” Exercise 157
Stepping Outside the Comfort Zone 168
4 Ethical Leadership and Emotional Intelligence 177

Introduction 177
Ethics: Definitions 177
Emotional Intelligence: Definitions 180
The Connection: Ethics and EI 182
Personal Values Ref lection 183
Perspective is Everything! 188
Guided Visualizations 191
What Motivates Me? 195
Life Game 200
Contributors 211
Index 221
F OR E WOR D

It is a pleasure to have the opportunity to write a brief introduction to
this valuable and virtually unique book. I agree with the editors that such
a book has been needed in courses and programs dealing with human
behavior in organizations for many years. Just why there has been a dearth
of such books I do not know. In any event, the editors and contributors
have done an enormous service by bringing this book into being.
There is a secret about management and leadership development that is
kept from virtually all students who are studying these subjects in higher
education. It is also kept from most of those who are studying management
and leadership in training programs in the so-called world of work.
\In the end, students and other program participants end up learning
that they must learn to practice the styles that “work,” and avoid the styles
that don’t. Notice the way that last sentence is constructed: they don’t learn
the styles directly, they learn that they must learn the styles. If they were to
attempt to learn the styles directly, they would discover that they need this
present book to tell them whether there is a high, medium, or low likeli-
hood that they “fit the template” of an effective leader-manager. What
they don’t learn from this whole external approach is how the particular
mix of values, attitudes, and abilities that they do have, their internal resources,
can be employed in today’s management and leadership situations.
There is no question that all of this external knowledge is valuable and
the programs in leadership and management should deal with it.
But here is the secret: knowledge about work systems of all kinds,
including knowledge about the impact of various leadership and man-
agement styles, does not lead to effective leadership and management of
such systems. The editors of this book allude to this secret in their “To
the Reader” in terms of the lack of emphasis on oneself as a developing
leader and manager. I want to heartily endorse their observation. I am
only adding that this lack of emphasis on internal knowledge of oneself
really constitutes a secret that is kept from students and program partici-
pants. They are allowed to believe that reading and thinking about work
systems will by itself lead to their own effectiveness as leaders and manag-
ers. It will not.
The reason it will not is that one’s own effectiveness is a matter of cor-
relating and integrating one’s internal resources with whatever particular
viii Foreword
system one is trying to inf luence. To do that one needs in-depth under-
standing both of the system and of oneself. This puts the secret in the
positive instead of the negative: Effective leadership and management of human
beings at work is a matter of understanding oneself in relation to such human sys-
tems. The only way to achieve this is to focus some of a student’s time and attention
on him or herself, on characteristic strengths and weaknesses, preferred style
of leading and managing, and on all the other attributes of an effective
leader or manager. That is what this book does, and as such it is a unique
and indispensable resource to the field of leadership and management
development. Without the learnings from the exercises in this book one

has only half a loaf on the road to leadership and management effective-
ness. One is unlikely to reach the goal without extensive self-knowledge.
There are several reasons for this truth. For one thing, in all cases a
leader or manager is part of the system he or she is trying to lead and man-
age. One is not a completely independent element, free to act anyway one
wants. As a member of the system, a manager is affected by events within
it just as is everyone else. But if you are going to manage and lead, you
need to understand how these events affect you so you are not just react-
ing but are instead formulating ways to intervene, to assert control, and
initiate and manage change.
The fact that leaders and managers are continually involved with change
is a second reason for the importance of self-knowledge. It is not often
noted that “to lead” involves proposing a change of some sort. “Leading
change” is a redundant expression: that’s what leaders do—they propose
change.
Managers in the modern world of work are almost constantly involved
in making change happen in the systems and structures that they manage.
Each function needs the other—leadership to initiate new approaches and
management to make them happen. Often the two functions are in the same
person, a person for whom I like to use the phrase “managerial leader.”
It is essential that a managerial leader knows him or herself well enough
to formulate needed change with considerable sensitivity to the nature of
the system and the people in it. Self-knowledge is then needed to carry
out the change and deal with the inevitable inertia and “pushback” that
attempts to change a system always generates from within it and from within
oneself as the change efforts proceed.
A third and extremely important reason for knowing oneself as an
agent of change is that inevitably systems themselves and the managerial
leader him or herself are not static elements. You, the managerial leader,
are a dynamic process changing and evolving through time. This is what
it means to be a life-long learner. You don’t just learn some new facts about
a system and/or some new fact about yourself and then blithely proceed
to apply this knowledge as a more or less frictionless process. The facts
you learn, whether of systems or yourself, are in fact the dynamics of
self-in-relation-to-system; and dynamics means continual change, forces
continually pushing one way and another. These forces are in systems and
Foreword ix
they are in you. The challenge is to correlate and integrate your evolving
knowledge and skill with the needs and opportunities of the systems you
are leading and managing.
There is one more thing (at least!) about this learning process of self-
in-relation-to-system, and that is immersion. By immersion I mean con-
tinually trying out these learnings—applying and testing them, tweaking
them where appropriate. There is no need to wait until one gets to the
so-called “world of work,” or to ignore its many opportunities if one
is already in it. We are all in families, in various social networks, vol-
untary organizations, and community groups. Opportunities to practice

these learnings are everywhere. Some of the exercises in this book in fact
include immersion in some live situation of which you are a member.
Many of these learnings that go with self-and-system are somewhat
ethereal and f leeting. If they are not tried out in live situations they may
disappear or become vague and insignificant. I strongly encourage you
therefore to take the insights you gain from these exercises and begin
applying them immediately.
Finally, here is one last thought that is rarely mentioned yet is very
important in management and leadership development. Try thinking of
yourself as having a practice as a developing leader-manager—something
that you carry with you throughout your career, something that will grow
and change and deepen as you move from situation to situation.
We’re quite comfortable in thinking of doctors and lawyers as having
practices, yet we tend to assume managerial leaders will be employees and
that what they do will be at the behest of an employer. Of course that is true
to a considerable extent, but it is also true that you carry with you a set of
philosophies, values, attributes, and abilities that is larger and more personal
and more stable than what an employer will be aware of and able to utilize
at any given time. This set of philosophies, values, attribute, and abilities is
your practice. It too is growing and changing as you have more and more
experience, even if you are already a relatively seasoned individual.
The exercises in this book are an unparalleled set of new experiences
for you and as such can profoundly enrich your evolving practice. In
particular I call your attention to the exercises that give you experience
in formulating purpose and those that give you a sense of what authen-
ticity means for you. My own studies of managerial leaders consistently
show these two qualities as of central importance in both effectiveness
and in generating a sense of enjoyment and satisfaction in your work.
“Enjoyment” and “satisfaction,” after all, are not unreasonable criteria to
apply to one’s career. Yes, managerial leaders are continually immersed in
problem situations, many of which carry little joy or intrinsic interest. But
over the longer run, there have to be positive qualities, too. This book
will introduce the user to what those qualities are.
Peter Vaill
Antioch University, 2010
TO T H E R E A D E R: T H E HOW
A N D W H Y OF T H IS B O OK

The recession that we currently face is clear proof that people are in dire
need of self-awareness, transformation, and growth. Record numbers
of layoffs are presented to us throughout the job market. In this crisis,
people seek training and education to expand their current skills set.
They participate more often in corporate training sessions and return
to school. They are seeking lasting solutions. They don’t need a tool to
help them out today, but one that will enable them to shift their para-
digms toward greater awareness and improved focus for decades! They
are seeking attitudinal changes. They need instruments that will help
keep them awake in years to come. They need habits of mind that will
ensure greater meaning and growth throughout their careers, on top
of providing them with tools for greater self-awareness and fulfillment
in their personal lives. In order to deliver, instructors in higher educa-
tion and corporate trainers alike need to add value to their teaching in
rather special ways. We believe that meaningful advice in crucial areas
and exercises that foster self-awareness, transformation, and growth can
achieve this.
The purpose of this work is to enhance personal growth and

understanding of students and the overall learning experience in
organizational behavior (OB) and other management courses and
workshops, with the goal of helping to shape a more conscious work-
force of people who have what it takes to succeed during uncertain
times, despite the ebb and f low of the career market. The book will
present four concise overview chapters, focused on (1) Authentic
Leadership; (2) Workplace Spirituality; (3) Appreciative Inquiry;
and (4) Ethical Leadership/Emotional intelligence, each followed
by a selection of exercises related to that chapter. Users of this book
will find that the exercises are often also very applicable to the top-
ics discussed in the other chapters. The topics of all the chapters
are intertwined, and benefit from many of the exercises in other
chapters.
xii The How and Why of This Book
There are two overarching reasons why people need this type of
resource at present:
1. As change happens faster, layoffs occur more frequently, and

careers change multiple times during one person’s work-life span.
Consequently, working people face greater mental and emotional
challenges. During turbulent times, more often than not, people
tend to fall back on their inner resources and search for ref lec-
tive notes and awareness-enhancing strategies to determine their
future paths with more focus. Being exposed to these strategic

notes and exercises may provide readers with the added motiva-
tion and necessary awareness to refrain from losing track of their
core purpose, to move forward more meaningfully, and to cope
with challenging situations with greater confidence, collected-
ness, and ease.
2. In this day and age, students are not seeking out instructors who
continuously talk at them and treat them as if they were the pas-
sive recipients and depositories of information. Shambu and Meyer
(2007)1 underscore this very clearly, saying “Teachers in higher
education are increasingly expected to engage students in active
learning. Those teachers who are able to improvise—and respond
to the emergent dynamics of the classroom—are better able to foster
such student engagement” (p. 63). A similar perspective is shared by
Stake and Hoffman (2001)2 when they assert that “traditional pas-
sive and absolutist approaches to education are being replaced by
more active and complex models of teaching and learning” (p. 411).
The understanding that students, like members of the workforce,
want an active “part to play” has now settled within all responsible
university and college instructors. These instructors are, therefore,
continuously seeking ways to make their classes more interactive,
more interesting, and more meaningful.
This is a unique, non-traditional, OB-oriented book geared toward f lex-

ible leadership, and offering a series of thought-provoking, motivating,
growth-oriented exercises that will help readers tap into their internal
locus of control. These exercises have proven merit, as they have been
successfully shared and validated by the contributors during a variety of
global OB-related conferences, as well as in classrooms and corporate
workshops. The exercises are widely diverse, and come from instructors
of various cultures, expanding their global appeal.
This work is intended to be a value-adding supplement to textbooks that
are currently used in Organizational Behavior or Management courses.
Most of the current books in this arena provide theories, examples, and
exercises that illustrate work situations without paying attention to per-
sonal and professional growth of the participant. This book would also be
very useful for coaches, trainers, and students in corporate workshops for
The How and Why of This Book xiii
the same purpose: increased interaction, greater participation, and under-
standing by doing.
The work is intended to help audiences (teachers, students, coaches,
trainers, consultants, workshop participants) engage in insightful exercises
that could result in greater understanding of the material presented, while
achieving enhanced awareness of their personal and professional purposes,
goals, and directions.
The experience base for this project is embedded in the teaching of
the various participants, all of whom are professors in Higher Education,
involved in OB-related courses, each with his or her own emphasis on

personal and professional excellence. These scholars/practitioners have
used the exercises presented in this book extensively and successfully in
their courses, in workshops, and at conferences, and have been able to
measure the success rate by the feedback they have received from students,
corporate participants, and colleagues (fellow scholars) at conferences.
We developed this project because we, as Organizational Behavior and
Management course facilitators in higher education, have concluded (along
with many of our colleagues), that there are very few books out there that
enhance the learning process by providing a hands-on approach, without
too much f luff and baggage, accompanied by an abundance of exercises
that deal specifically with personal and organizational spiritual growth
and transformation. The four chapters and the many exercises included
in this book were deliberately selected and specifically focused on self-
awareness, transformation, fulfillment, and growth, with their potential
toward increasing consciousness among business students and members of
the workplace. They were fueled by the many manifestations of corporate
greed, unethical practices, and increasing dissatisfaction among workers
in recent years. We believe that such a book will be a great resource
to business practitioners and students (our current and future managers),
who feel challenged to lead themselves and others to excellence, fulfill-
ment, and collective achievement.
When reading this book, you should not expect in-depth analysis of
any particular management theory. There are enough textbooks and other
literature that fulfill that need. The chapters in this book were selected
specifically to deal with authenticity, a more spiritual approach, awareness
of appreciative inquiry, ethical behavior, and a move toward increased
emotional intelligence. We did so on the basis of a perceived lack of mate-
rial, particularly exercises, in management and OB texts. We hypoth-
esize that the lack of emphasis of this material in management and OB
courses has led to an absence of their being considered important in cer-
tain areas in today’s corporate world, leading to many instances of corpo-
rate misconduct. These are factors that could instigate a major turnaround
in the ways business leaders think, decide, and act, and consequently, in
the way employees feel about their work. These four topics are heavily
interrelated and interdependent and can help any student of organiza-
tional behavior, and any working individual, whether performing at the
xiv The How and Why of This Book
strategic, tactical, or operational level. Authenticity has been shunned in
the workplace in the twentieth century, and workforce members have
been trained to leave their feelings at the door, which has ultimately led to
high levels of stress, burnout, absenteeism, and hypocrisy. These elements
are carefully avoided in spiritual workplaces. Authentic individuals create
spiritual workplaces. The performance in a spiritual workplace is geared
toward people and affirmative approaches, which are some of the main
prerequisites of Appreciative Inquiry. Ensuring longitudinal well-being,
collaboration, and trust are strong foundational elements, and they get
solidified when people behave ethically and apply emotional intelligence.

This, then, is why we selected these topics to center our chapters on. We
have kept the chapters very short, thereby considering and meeting the
need of today’s busy generation to share the essence of a message in as
concise a format as possible. The exercises listed behind each chapter can
oftentimes be applied to multiple settings and topics.
We hope the users of this book will find the courage and inspiration to
become the change they want to see in the world.
Joan Marques, Satinder Dhiman, and Jerry Biberman
Notes
1. Shambu, G., & Meyer, G. (2007).Applying Lessons from Jazz Improvisation in the Management
Classroom. Allied Academies International Conference. Academy of Educational Leadership.
Proceedings, 12(1), 63–67.
2. Stake, J. E., & Hoffman, F. L. (2001). Changes in student social attitudes, activism, and per-
sonal confidence in higher education: The role of women’s studies. American Educational Research
Journal, 38(2), 411.
CH A P T E R 1
Authentic Leadership

This chapter reviews an all-encompassing perspective on leadership,
as it is increasingly acknowledged in the twenty-first century: authen-
tic leadership. It is not hard to understand why authentic leadership
has been making such headway in the past decade. It was instigated by
repeated manifestations of corporate greed, leading to a financial, but
more importantly, a mental and emotional depression noticeable in all
countries of the world. Authentic leadership, as a topic, could fill one or
more books. But in this book, we will limit ourselves to one summative
chapter on the topic, leaving it up to the reader to pursue further read-
ings if interested.
Brief History and Definitions
Authentic leadership, as a phenomenon, impressively moved to the forefront

around the turn of the twenty-first century. It has since grown in popular-
ity, as can be concluded from the number of scholarly and popular works
that mention this leadership style. Authentic leadership may not necessarily
be a fully developed theory, such as situational, path-goal, leader-member
exchange, or contingency leadership, but it has tremendous appeal to the
workers of the twenty-first century, particularly against the background
of the recent string of corporate scandals. In 2002, Forbes.com published a
corporate scandal sheet listing Adelphia Communications, Time Warner,
Arthur Andersen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, CMS Energy, Duke Energy,
Dynegy, El Paso, Enron, Global Crossing, Halliburton, Homestore.
com, Kmart, Merck, Mirant, Nicor Energy, Peregrine Systems, Qwest
Communications International, Reliant Energy, Tyco, WorldCom, and
Xerox1 as companies involved in questionable practices. Most of these
scandals entailed ways of cooking the books to feed the greed of a couple
of individuals at the top levels of these entities, to inf late revenues through
accounting manipulations in order to deceive stockholders, to overstate
assets and liabilities, boost trading volume, or complete a strategic move.
Forbes.com noted that the corporate scandal sheet ceased being updated
2 Managing in the Twenty-first Century
as of September 2002. We are many years and many more scandals further
along. In more recent years we have been confronted with a new wave
of shocking corporate scandals, including American Airlines’ deferred
maintenance of aircraft, the bribery scandal of BAE systems, the federal
takeover of Fanny Mae and Freddy Mac in the subprime mortgage crisis,
and AIG’s liquidity crisis.
The unending stream of corporate blunders has augmented awareness
of the need for authentic leadership. Yet, the foundations of authentic
leadership, as a theory, date back to 1985, when Bass focused on the ele-
ments in transformational and charismatic leadership that were concerned

with the ethical and moral character of leaders. And yet, defining authen-
tic leadership is not easy, because authenticity looks different for everyone.
Garger (2008) underscores that, though the term “authentic leadership”
has grown to be a popular buzzword in journals, magazines, newspapers,
and other popular forums, it has not yet been defined in a unifying man-
ner. Garger (2008) rightfully warns us that some organizations may be
tempted to train leaders to seem authentic and display authentic behaviors,
while not truly adhering to this way of being.
There are several ways of defining authentic leadership, each defini-
tion pointing out the importance of self-awareness and genuine behavior
of the leader. One of the clearly understandable definitions of authen-
tic leadership is “a process that draws from both positive psychological
capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results
in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the
part of leaders and associates, fostering positive development” (Luthans &
Avolio, 2003, p. 243). Authentic leaders, then, are “those who are deeply
aware of how they think and behave and are perceived by others as being
aware of their own and others’ values/morale perspectives, knowledge,
and strengths; aware of the context in which they operate; and who are
confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, and of high moral character”
(Avolio, Luthans, & Walumbwa, 2004, p. 4).
It needs to be made clear that authentic leaders don’t declare them-
selves as such. Authenticity is a quality that is detected by others, who
then decide to follow this leader. Goffee and Jones (2006) underscore
this fact, along with the reality that many organizations don’t particularly
encourage anyone to be authentic. It is quite the contrary: Workplaces
often inhibit people from being their own self, so they become pro-
tective and reserve their genuine self for family and friends. Being an
authentic leader is therefore not as easy as it may seem. It may be natu-
ral, but it gets repressed by today’s corporate reality. And yet, there is
a growing urge for authentic leaders. Liedtka (2008) acknowledges the
fact that scholars across various disciplines have found, through their
research, that there is a mounting desire among people in developed
societies for authenticity. Liedtka also points out that authenticity refers
more to issues of experience, meaning, and existence than to knowl-
edge, truth, and reality.
Authentic Leadership 3
Authentic Leadership in Practice
One business executive who has taken it upon himself to write consistently
about authentic leadership is Bill George, retired CEO of Medtronic. In
a 2007 Harvard Business Review article, George, along with his co-authors
Sims, McLean, and Mayer, comes to the conclusion that you don’t have to
be born with specific leadership traits to become an authentic leader. It is
the knowledge of your life story that gets you there.
George sees authentic leadership as having two components: (1) the
leader is values-driven, and (2) the leader inf luences others to be values-

driven as well. George confirms what has become painfully obvious in
the past few years: Many of our corporate leaders are chosen for the wrong
reasons. They are very charismatic, but lack character. They are stylish,
but lack substance. They are high profiled, but lack integrity. It is a blend
of character, substance, and integrity that keeps a leader focused on his or
her “true north”. Unfortunately, many of the major corporate leaders bow
to the pressure and seductions of a fast-paced, opportunistic world, and
neglect their faith and beliefs.
Dimensions of Authentic Leaders

In his book True North, Bill George distinguishes five dimensions of
authentic leaders: (1) pursuing purpose with a passion; (2) practicing solid
values; (3) leading with heart; (4) establishing enduring relationships; and
(5) demonstrating self-discipline.2 George (2007) explains the deeper
meaning of these five dimensions as follows:
● Purpose is important to prevent becoming victims of our egos.

● Values become visible when pressure increases, and authentic leaders
share one important common value: integrity.
● Involvement of the heart in leadership ensures compassion, responsi-
bility, fairness, and courage.
● Accessibility and openness encourage lasting and rewarding
relationships.
● Self-discipline is practiced in professional and personal settings, so
that people will be more apt to follow you.
Platform for Authentic Leader

In an extension to the five dimensions mentioned above, George and Sims
(2007) suggest the following five steps for becoming an authentic leader:
1. Knowing your authentic self. The importance of self-awareness lies

in the fact that knowing yourself enables you to look for the right
environment in which you can be your best self. Self-awareness
protects you from falling for external tokens of success and helps
keep you grounded in your true beliefs.
2. Practicing your values and leadership principles. Once self-aware-
ness is attained, values and leadership principles become obvi-
ous. Your “moral compass” starts surfacing. Values become clear
through the ups and downs in life, especially the downs, when
so-called friends turn away and challenges mount. Values become
more apparent as life progresses, and it may very well happen that
the values of an organization or colleagues differ from yours. It is
often when the pressure increases that you can fully realize and test

your values.
3. Understanding your motivations. Everybody has an area about
which he or she is passionate. This can usually be traced back to an
earlier life experience. Along the lines of many management books,
George and Sims (2007) distinguish the two motivations that drive
us: intrinsic and extrinsic. Extrinsic motivations—money, power,
titles, status, and the like—are presented to us from outside. Though
they matter, they are not as powerful as our intrinsic motivations,
which pertain to how we feel about the things we do—the satisfac-
tion in our work, the growth we experience, the meaning we find,
and the difference we make. It is crucial to discover our intrinsic
motivators, and avoid the trap of focusing on financial prosperity
and power, motivators that can easily blind us and derail us from our
natural direction. Leaders who are highly motivated by what they
do are more effective and more content.
4. Building your support team. It is important to have at least one per-
son you can fully trust and with whom you can be yourself. It is also
important to surround yourself with people who complement your
qualities. Finding mentors throughout your life is important. Don’t
wait for mentors to appear, but identify them, and approach them.
Make sure you form a group of trustworthy folks who will be honest
to you, and to whom you can be honest.
5. Staying grounded by integrating all aspects of your life. When you
integrate the important aspects of your personal and professional
life, you learn to wear one hat and be the same person all the time.
Staying grounded keeps you from becoming arrogant in high times
or losing all faith in yourself in low times. There may be many areas
in which you perform—work, family, community, friends—but
you can be your authentic self in each area if you make sure you
don’t stress one area too much and make another area suffer. You
should make proper time for each area of your life that you consider
important.
Peter Drucker, one of the twentieth century’s greatest manage-
ment thinkers, felt that leadership should be more about responsibil-
ity and less about making money. His point is one that cannot be
overlooked when considering authentic leadership in these days of
increasing corporate greed, and is therefore added in this chapter as
a sixth step.
6. Nurturing responsibility and keeping focus. Though these two
aspects are interwoven through the five previous steps, this addi-
tional step can help build in extra solidity in the authentic leader’s
performance. Responsibility can easily be questioned in daily evalu-
ations about decisions made and actions undertaken. Responsibility
is ensured when the leader considers a macro-to-micro approach,
in which he or she considers the big picture before making any
binding decisions. A win-win-win approach is the key mindset

here: The first win is for the two parties involved; the second win
for the immediate stakeholders (stockholders, employees, custom-
ers, suppliers, the community); and the third win for the environ-
ment at large. By making this consideration a steady part of the
decision-making process, the authentic leader maintains focus on
the right reasons for doing anything. It will, at times, entail going
for a less profitable option, but it will ensure lasting peace of mind,
and a greater sense of trust amongst all parties involved. More
importantly, it brings the leader’s behavior full circle: By practicing
responsibility and keeping focus, the authentic leader enlarges self-
awareness, keeps values and principles high, stays true to intrinsic
motivations, respects and acknowledges his or her support team,
and stays grounded.
Practicing
values and Re
principles sp
on
ng si
ri
bi
r tu
lity
Nu
Knowing
Under-
your
The standing
authentic
Authentic motivations
self
Leader
A nd
Fo
cu
s
Staying
Buillding
grounded
a support
through
Keeping team
integration
Figure 1 The six steps of authentic leaders (based on George and Sims’ (2007) five steps).
Advantages of Being an Authentic Leader
It’s not difficult to figure out what the advantages of being an authentic
leader are. The first and perhaps most logical advantage is that authentic
leaders simplify their lives by being the way they are, because they don’t
have to wear different hats. Whether among friends, at work, or in family
circles, they are the same, grounded person. Because of that, they don’t
have to remember different attitudes and approaches toward different
people or in different settings. Yet, as mentioned earlier in this chapter,
wearing the same hat all the time is not necessarily encouraged in many

of today’s organizations, as it makes one vulnerable. Therefore, it takes
courage to be authentic, but the plus is that it is recognized by others, and
can lead to great outcomes.
It needs to be stressed, though, that the advantages of authentic lead-
ership extend far beyond the leader alone. The environment in which
this leader operates benefits from the authentic leader’s behavior in mul-
tiple ways. In an exploratory study of 62 midwest U.S. businesses, Jensen
and Luthans (2006) found that employees who felt that their leader was
authentic demonstrated elevated levels of organizational commitment, job
satisfaction, and work happiness. Jensen and Luthans further found that
this employee mentality ref lected positively on business outcomes such as
productivity, customer satisfaction, profit, and employee safety.
Becoming an Authentic Leader
One cannot become an authentic leader merely by taking a course,

attending a seminar, or reading a book: It takes intense self-search, life
experience, well-defined values, and great willpower to be the kind of
person others want to follow. Yet it needs to be underscored that authen-
tic leadership does not stem from the will to be a leader of others, but
from the urge to live right and do the right things. It entails foregoing
short-term victories and major profits to satisfy a limited group, and
focusing instead on long-term progress and well-being to serve a larger
community. The will to become an authentic leader is usually instigated
by a major occurrence in life, something that draws out a complete
shift of mind, and changes a person’s view of life from short-term to
wholistic.
There are, however, ways to help a person on the path toward authentic
leadership. In their 2007 article in the Harvard Business Review, George,
Sims, McLean, and Mayer present a simple questionnaire that can be help-
ful in becoming an authentic leader.
The exercises within this chapter will help you to develop and nurture
authenticity in both personal and professional environments. Many of the
exercises, though categorized in this section, may also apply to the other
chapters of the book, due to the interdependent nature of the topics.
1. Which people and experiences in your early life had the greatest
impact on you?
2. What tools do you use to become self-aware? What is your authentic
self? What are the moments when you say to yourself, this is the
real me?
3. What are your most deeply held values? Where did they come
from? Have your values changed significantly since your child-
hood? How do your values inform your actions?
4. What motivates you extrinsically? What are your intrinsic motiva-

tions? How do you balance extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in
your life?
5. What kind of support team do you have? How can your support
team make you a more authentic leader? How should you diversify
your team to broaden your perspective?
6. Is your life integrated? Are you able to be the same person in all
aspects of your life—personal, work, family, and community? If
not, what is holding you back?
7. What does being authentic mean in your life? Are you more effec-
tive as a leader when you behave authentically? Have you ever paid
a price for your authenticity as a leader? Was it worth it?
8. What steps can you take today, tomorrow, and over the next
year to develop your authentic leadership? (HBR, Febr. 2007,
p. 134)
E X E RC I S E
The Self-Ref lection Exercise: Finding Meaning

Jo a n Ma rqu es, Ed. D. , Woodbur y U niver sity
Purpose and Goals:

This exercise serves to provide clarity to your life and career. It can
be applied for multiple situations. Depending on the focus you choose
in the exercise, it can restore focus, and help prevent a wasteful or
non-authentic life.
Length of Time Required:
Each iteration of the exercise can be finalized in about 20–30
minutes.
Pre-work Needed:
You need to clearly determine the area to be examined in the exercise
before beginning. This exercise works well for professional purposes
(work and career focus determination), and for personal purposes
(relationships, or memberships in organizations). Because there can
be multiple focus points, it is important to have a clear focus before
starting, so that the questions are all answered with that particular
situation, person, or environment in mind.
Best Type of Participants:

Young and older adults in any possible setting.

Number of Participants:
The exercise should always be executed individually first, even
though it works well in teams when members want to find out what
their wishes are for the future. In case of a group session, each mem-
ber should first do the exercise privately, after which he or she can
decide which parts he or she wants to share with others.
Specific Steps:
The exercise should be executed in the sequence recommended,
because each question is based on the answer to the previous
question.
Debriefing Questions:
● What have I learned about myself through this exercise?
● What have I learned about the situation or person I had in
mind?
● What will my actions be now that I have found this out about
my purpose in this particular situation?
Introduction to the Exercise
In our efforts to maintain our authenticity as leaders of our own

lives, and possibly leaders in various personal and professional envi-
ronments, we should remain true to and aware of our principles and
values, in every environment in which we perform. Deviating from
the twentieth century mindset, “it’s my way or the highway,” the fol-
lowing exercise can help us to become more sensitive, cooperative, and
communicative about our paths in life.
The following exercise entails deep connection with one’s spiritual
core in order to attain conformity in leading and being. This is in line
with Gandhi’s authenticity perspective, “I do what I say, I say what I
think, and I think what I feel.”
This exercise can only be implemented successfully if the practitio-
ner is completely honest in answering the questions. Working alone
initially provides safety, so the disclosure of personal information and
uncovering of deeply held beliefs will only be visible to the person
who engages in the exercise, and can therefore not be misused by
others, unless willingly shared. It is therefore wise to be cautious and
selective in what one wants to share, where, to whom, and how.
As authentic performance entails synchronicity of behavior in
all environments, this exercise can be applied to multiple situations
and circumstances, focusing on relationships with self, family, col-
leagues, communities in which we work and live, and the universe,
based on the awareness that everything emerges as a result of these

relationships.
This exercise focuses on sustainable results, fairness, and growth
for the leader, but also for others, due to the fact that the leader lives a
more conscious life. The exercise focuses on your value system, your
sense of ethics and morality. Most of all, it focuses on your goal, on
where you are going. It can serve as a constant examination tool for
your conscience. It can help you find out whether you are actually
sticking to the course you have in mind. This is the focus of reflection
and expansion; ref lection in the sense of, “Am I still on track?” and
expansion in the sense of, “How can I expand my capacity? How
can I truly understand another human being? How can I utilize my
humanistic perspectives to meet the bottom line?” This focus on
ref lection and expansion should be part of your routine. The Self-
Ref lection Exercise can be helpful in every environment in which
you perform. It could be crucial in helping you to determine whether
you still feel in sync with the circumstances, or whether you should
start thinking about some changes.
The Self-Ref lection Exercise
This exercise is an important step on your way to wakefulness. It is not a

one-time thing, but a deep contemplation, which you should engage in
at least twice a year. And, as mentioned before, it is applicable to various
areas of your life.
Step 1—Ask yourself: What is my purpose here?

Once you have formulated that for yourself, move on to the next
step.
Step 2—Am I content with this purpose?
● If yes, proceed to step 3.
● If no, start working on a change of direction immediately,
whether through obtaining additional education, networking,
applying for new jobs, anything to get yourself out of the cur-
rent slump.
Step 3—Is the purpose that I ascribe to my being here the same as the
purpose others see for me (particularly employers, supervisors, and
other key individuals)
● If no, you should ask the conscious questions: Do I care
about this disconnect between perspectives? Is the purpose
I see for myself still rewarding to me in spite of the incon-
gruence? Remember, there can be dissimilarity in perceived
purposes while everyone is still okay with it. In that case you
can also proceed to step 4. However, if you sense that this

incongruence can lead to future troubles, start looking for
alternatives.
Step 4—Would I still want to do this if I earned half of what I earn
now? Am I proud enough of what I do, that I would feel great if it
were to be printed in tomorrow’s newspaper?
● If no, you might still decide to stay in this situation for a while,
but you should start working on your options, because you are
clearly not all that content with where you are. Also, keep in
mind that even if you are entirely satisfied now, circumstances
may change in the future.
Step 5—How can I improve the gratification of my purpose?
● For myself?
● For my colleagues?
● For my employer?
● For the customers I serve?
● For the planet?
As a consequence to this probing analysis you should wonder: Is there

a feasible way to serve all constituents, even if not through one single
act?
● If yes, that’s great and you can proceed immediately to step
6.
● If no, are you still satisfied with the improvements you can
bring about? If satisfied, proceed to the next step; if not entirely
satisfied, you should wonder what matters more to you, stay-
ing with a relative dissatisfaction, or moving on. You may not
be able to keep all the people happy all the time, even if that’s
your intention.
Step 6—As things seem now, would I still want to do this 5 or 10
years from now?
● If yes, then Meaning at level A is achieved, and you’re still on
the right track.
● If no, continue looking for alternatives: Educate yourself, read,
network, surf the net, keep your eyes and ears wide open to
explore potential future purposes.
This six-step self-ref lection exercise (see figure below) can be

applied in any setting: to your personal life, your circle of friends, the
social clubs you frequent, and so on.
Point of attention: Even if you achieve level A meaning today, you

should repeat this little meaning exercise at least twice a year, to

verify for yourself if you’re still at the right place, and if your cur-
rent life still matters to you. After all, whom should it matter to, if
not you?
Step 6:
Would I still do this 5–10
years from now?
Step 5:
How can I improve gratification
of my purpose?
Step 4:
Would I still do it if I earned less
of if it were published?
Step 3:
Is it the same purpose as
others see for me?
Step 2:
Am I content with this purpose?
Step 1:
What is my purpose here?
Figure 2 Finding the Meaning: The Cycle of Authenticity and Self Improvement.
E X E RC I S E
Death Awareness Exercise

Ja n n Freed, Ph .D. , C ent ral C ollege
Introduction
Learning how to talk about death, dying, grief, loss, and transi-
tions is an important leadership and life skill. Instead of viewing

death as the opposite of life, we need to see it as a part of life and
learn to deal with it in a healthy way. Approximately 2.5 million
people die each year in the United States and estimates suggest that
each death leaves an average of five people bereaved (Hazen, 2008).
Shellenbarger (1999) estimates that about 4 million workers expe-
rience the death of someone close to them each year. For busi-
nesses, James and Friedman (2003) have calculated that hidden grief
costs U.S. companies about $75.1 billion annually. Based on sev-
eral decades of survey data collected from more than 25,000 people
who participated in the Grief Recovery© workshops, they claim
that grief is hidden in the workplace, “buried behind stress and
even substance abuse and obesity. James and Friedman asserted that
among the consequences of grief that can lead to financial losses
are difficulty in concentration and errors in judgment, injuries, and
accidents. Unfortunately, the effects of grief can be misunderstood
by others” (Hazen, 2008, p. 78).
Inherent in situations dealing with loss and grief is the aspect of
suffering, which many people try to avoid or deny. Yet the need
to understand suffering should be universal, according to Andre
Delbeqc. He believes in the statement that “the general experience
of suffering acting as a unifying force that connects us with others.
In fact, it is the ultimate meaning of our suffering! It is our suffering
that is the most basic element that we share with others, the fact that
unifies us with all living creatures.”
In a survey of 250 CEOs of companies with revenue of $50 mil-
lion or more, “22 percent said they have had an experience when
they believed they would die, and of those, 61 percent said it changed
their long-term perspective on life or career. Forty-one percent said
it made them more compassionate leaders; 16 percent said it made
them more ambitious; 14 percent said it made them less ambitious”
( Jones, 2009, 0, 2B). Most of the CEOs surveyed indicated that they
learned a lot about life from their brush with death. Jason Calacanis,
co-founder of Weblogs, which sold to AOL in 2005, said that “near-
death experiences give you balance. You become more worldly. Your
ideas become bigger” (p. 2B).
Similarly, Sun Microsystems CEO Jonathan Schwartz has said that
the 1987 train accident that nearly killed him was life changing. Life
becomes “shinier,” and time more precious. After the September 11,
2001, terrorist attacks, Schwartz said, “You should plan for the long
haul, but there is a big difference in doing that and making perpetual
sacrifices” (p. 2B).
Likewise, Steven Jobs, CEO of Apple Computer and Pixar
Animation Studios, said in his 2005 commencement speech at
Stanford University, “Death is very likely the single best invention
of Life. It is Life’s change agent . . . No one wants to die. Even people

who want to go to heaven don’t want to die to get there. And yet
death is the destination we all share. No one has ever escaped it. And
that is as it should be. Your time is limited so don’t waste it living
someone else’s life. Don’t let the noise of others’ opinions drown out
your own inner voice. And most important have the courage to fol-
low your heart and intuition” ( Jobs, p. 32).
Anthony Robbins, a well-known motivational speaker and life
coach, encourages people to have mental “near death experiences”
(NDEs). He says we should have NDEs regularly to help us align our
priorities and keep our egos in check. It is valuable as a leader and as
an enlightened person to acknowledge the fear of dying and to avoid
the deeply ingrained societal habit of denying the presence of death.
Morrie said it best in the book Tuesdays with Morrie by Mitch Albom:
“When you learn how to die, you learn how to live.”
Embracing one’s mortality is a key tool in becoming a sage, and
grief is most often associated with death. But there are many kinds of
losses for which we grieve. How do we as leaders react when other
people are grieving over the large and small losses that take place
within organizations, families, and communities on a daily basis? In
the last four months of 2008, almost 2 million U.S. jobs were lost,
and unfortunately the losses continue. When businesses or firms dis-
solve, “organizational members interpret the ending to be similar
to experiencing a serious illness, divorce, or the death of a spouse”
(Hazen, 2008, p. 81).
“Grief is a psychosocial response to loss” (Pine, 1989, p. 16) and loss
is about change, and change is all around us. People experience all
kinds of losses—in health, finances, divorce—that affect the work-
place. Even when changes in our lives are positive (promotions, wed-
dings, births), something is being lost and some level of grief exists.
How many leaders have been trained in dealing with grief in the
workplace and why should we care? In our culture, talking about loss
and grief has been taboo.
Sex, birth, death, and money all have become politically correct
topics of discussion in our society. But the loss and grief that are
a part of our daily lives are rarely discussed. It is time for that to
change. Because we know relatively little about how grief affects the
workplace, it is likely that few leaders are well-prepared to deal with
the current economic situation in ways that benefit both the organi-
zation and the people who work within it. Work is the place where
most of us live out much of our lives, so it is important for leaders to
be able to understand grief in ways that show compassion, minimize
pain, and provide an environment that helps people heal.
Purpose and Goals:

The purpose of this exercise is to raise awareness of the value of
embracing one’s mortality. The outcome is to help participants “feel”

what it might be like to be dying and experience losses of all kinds.
The outcome inf luences how we might prioritize people, places, and
things in order to put life into perspective. This exercise addresses
personal issues, so please be careful when processing, because people
may become emotional. Be sensitive to the emotions and feelings that
may emerge as a result of the exercise.
Length of Time:
This exercise takes approximately 45 minutes because it should be
done slowly and thoughtfully. It can be done in any sacred space that
is quiet and allows for contemplation.
Participants:
This can be done with any size of group—large or small. This exer-
cise works best with people who are interested in exploring values,
beliefs, and priorities.
Death Awareness Exercise

Needed: 12 small sheets of paper for each person in the exercise
Instructions:
1. Use four pieces of paper to write the names of the four people
most important to you, one on each piece of paper.
2. Write three things you love to do, one on each of the three
sheets of paper.
3. Use three sheets to write down three items (possessions) that
mean the most to you.
4. On the last two sheets of paper, describe two things that have
traditionally helped you to feel strong.
5. Turn all the pieces of paper face down and mix them up in
front of you.
6. Close your eyes, listen, and reflect on your feelings and reac-
tions to what is happening in your life. If at any time the exer-
cise becomes too difficult, feel free to refrain from going on.
Meditation:
Today you go about your day normally. You wake up, take care of
your morning responsibilities, talk to a few family members, and
have lunch with a dear friend. You’ve scheduled an appointment for
a colonoscopy for the next day and take a few moments to run some
last-minute errands before beginning the 24-hour fasting and cleans-
ing period. You arrive at the doctor’s office the next afternoon and
the physician reassures you that the outcome of the procedure should
be fine because you’ve always been healthy and active.
After the procedure you go home and rest. The next day you begin

making arrangements for a vacation you’re planning for the following
week. While on vacation you wine and dine, go to live theater, see all
the tourist attractions, and thoroughly have a blast. It is a wonderful
holiday.
It is an abrupt return to reality when, on your first day back at
work, you learn that, in your absence, the results of your colonoscopy
have come back and they indicate that there are some problematic
spots on your colon.
You await the biopsy report. When it finally comes back a few days
later, you learn the news is not good—colon cancer. It is the kind of
cancer that is not curable. You realize that at some point it will kill
you. The news is as shocking to your loved ones as it is to you and you
all have different reactions.
How is Everyone Reacting?

Read, or have participants read, the paragraph(s) up to a question, then the
question. After each question ask participants to choose a piece of paper, look
at it, wad it up, and put it in the center of the table. What was written on the
paper is now missing from their lives. Why this loss at this time? (Give them
a moment to reflect on the loss and then begin the meditation again with the
next paragraph and question.)
Over the next three –and –a half years you learn personally how an
aggressive tumor can destroy the human body, but you also learn that
you are more than a body . . . even if others cannot come to the same
realization. You have surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. You pass
through phases of hats/scarves/wigs that hide your hair loss.
Why this loss at this time? How does it feel to begin to look
different?
After the initial f lurry of medical intervention, there is a period of
relative calm. You resume your previously hectic social schedule, and
your friends tell you how wonderful it is that you have made such a
great recovery from your cancer. You know it is not true. Your secret
knowledge of the incurable nature of your cancer eats at you like
another malignancy. However, you tire of telling the story over and
over and so refrain.
Why this loss at this time? Who do you choose not to tell?
You go to see your doctor again for a routine visit. The visits have
become easier because you are feeling better these days, but you want
to discuss your unease about a mass of enlarged lymph nodes near
your left shoulder. The news is not good. The cancer is back. The
doctor breaks the news as gently as she can, but you are devastated.
Your fear for the future can be felt in your gut.

The doctor refers you for radiation and you go through another
period of intensive treatment. You suffer the accompanying fatigue
and the skin burns.
Why this loss at this time? What does it feel like?
This period of intense treatment is followed, once more, by rela-
tive calm. Despite the calm you are afraid, but try to put forth a
strong, cheerful front. The gaps between crises are shortening. The
next problem arises less than six months after the radiation. You are
becoming short of breath. A simple chest x-ray reveals the problem—
f luid in the left side of your chest cavity. A day-trip to the hospital is
all that is required to drain the f luid, but pathology analysis confirms
the presence of malignant cells in your lungs. The cancer is on the
march again.
Why this loss at this time? Who breaks the news to you?
Not two weeks later you wake with a constant burning pain in your
left arm and find that it is much weaker than normal. The doctor
explains that your cancer has begun to invade this area. Over the
span of a few days your left arm no longer functions. You can’t cook.
You can’t even pull up your own underwear. The doctor refers you
to hospice and to a pain clinic to attempt to control the neuro-
pathic pain you are now experiencing. The pain is under control,
but the cancer’s progress echoes silently in the background of your
thoughts.
Why this loss at this time? How does it feel to lose control?
Over the next three months, the hospice team becomes part of
your family. They come regularly and realize that you are getting
depressed. You are given medicine to help, and you find you are
learning that strength is not only physical. You are not the only one
tiring from your disease process; your friends and family are as well.
They come by less often, and even though you want to discuss your
impending death, they don’t or can’t. Others are now having to take
care of your finances and personal matters. Your wallet and your life
is now completely open for others to see and manage. You feel even
more exposed. The irony is that at times you want to feel sexy, but
you just are not comfortable enough with the changes in your body
to even go there. Exposure has taken on new meaning.
Why this loss at this time? Who is beginning to take over your business
needs?
A month goes by and the cancer spreads under the skin of your chest
and the tumor breaks through the skin, erupting into a foul-smelling
sore. You are now bed-ridden. Nurses come daily to dress the wound
and apply antibiotic gel to try to control the smell. You are appalled at
the ability of uncontrolled cancer to eat away at your f lesh and more

importantly at your sense of personal dignity. You learn that dignity
must come from elsewhere as well. While you are weakening and
your body is failing, you are ironically stronger.
Why this loss at this time? What is making you stronger? What is
strength now?
Your worry about dying, and leaving your family is now compounded
by the depression of one of your family members. You somehow feel
responsible, but unable to change the situation. You try to offer some
of the personal insight you have gained, but it does not change the
fact that your loved ones are mourning your impending departure
from this world.
Why this loss at this time? Who is depressed?
The holidays come and go. The decision is made to install a ven-
tricular pump to put narcotics and local anesthetic directly into the
central nervous system. Thankfully, it is a successful exercise and, at
last, your pain is again controlled.
Why this loss at this time? What changed about the way you celebrated
the holiday?
The tumor is now spreading into your neck and the decision has been
made not to try to stop the tumor. Your doctor tells you that the end
will likely arrive within a few weeks. In the remaining weeks you
say your “goodbyes,” your “I’m sorry’s,” and your “thank you’s.” You
gradually become so weak that you can no longer speak, but you are
aware of who’s around you and what they are talking about.
Why this loss at this time? What did you say and to whom?
Finally the day comes when you take your last breath and you die.
1. How did you feel during the exercise?
2. What were the hardest things to lose?
3. What insights did you gain?
4. What conclusions did you draw from the experience?
Conclusions
This exercise works well with people of any age. It has proven to be
a moving and meaningful activity to help people experience loss,
dying, death, and grieving. People may not remember what you say,
but they will remember how you made them feel. Because losses
in the workplace are inevitable, learning how to help people work
through the process is an important leadership skill. This exercise is
powerful.

E X E RC I S E
Whole-Body Learning*
A Path to Authenticity and Integrity for Moral,
Ethical, and Spiritual Leadership
M . Eileen Higg i ns , D. M. , Frost burg St ate Univer sity
M a r io n L eo n ard, Ph. D. , Frost burg St at e Univer sity
Introduction
This section explores and demonstrates the concept of Whole-Body

Learning* (Hendricks, & Hendricks, 1993) in the areas of integrity
and authenticity. The exercise guides participants through a series
of questions that are synchronized with breathing techniques and
observation of body sensations to arrive at answers that will enhance
self-awareness and understanding of self-motivation (Hendricks, &
Hendricks, 1995). By observing body sensations when asked ques-
tions such as, “I always tell the truth to my employees,” the partici-
pant can begin to recognize the body’s signals that he or she is—or
is not—being authentic or behaving with integrity. Those participat-
ing in the exercise work in dyads, guided by the facilitators, and are
shown how to debrief insights and discoveries at the conclusion of
the session.
The authors of this section reference the book, The Courage To
Teach, by Parker Palmer (1998), because the content speaks not only
* Whole-Body Learning is the tradeMark for the technique created by Gay and Kathlyn
Hendricks, both Ph.D.s of Psychology and founders of The Living University, Santa Barbara,
California.
to every teacher, but also to everyone, such as organizational lead-
ers and managers, who put their hearts and souls into their work.
The subtitle of the book, Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s
[or manager’s] Life, is Palmer’s recognition that the teacher’s [or
manager’s] inner world drives, and is ref lected in, his or her exter-
nal behavior in the classroom or at work. “Who is the self [that]
teaches?” is the question at the heart of Palmer’s book (p. 7). The
same could be asked of leaders and managers: “Who is the self that
manages?”
Palmer explains under the heading Teaching and True Self that

“Identity and integrity have as much to do with our shadows and
limits, our wounds and fears, as with our strengths and potentials”
(p. 13). After a discussion of his definition of identity, Palmer shares
what he means by integrity. He says of integrity,
I mean whatever wholeness I am able to find within that nexus

as its vectors form and re-form the pattern of my life. Integrity
requires that I discern what is integral to my self hood, what fits
and what does not—and that I choose life-giving ways of relat-
ing to the forces that converge within me: Do I welcome them
or fear them, embrace them or reject them, move with them or
against them? By choosing integrity, I become more whole, but
wholeness does not mean perfection. It means becoming more
real by acknowledging the whole of who I am (p.13).
Purpose and Goals:
Twenty-first century leadership requires awareness not only of the

organization’s objectives but also of one’s spiritual guiding forces
(Hendericks, & Hendricks, 1996; Hendricks, 1999). Although
there are many experiential exercises that tap into the unconscious,
allowing for greater conscious awareness and inner wisdom (Kabat-
Zinn, 1990), there are few mainstream exercises that tap into body
awareness.
This section provides directions for a demonstration that will guide
participants through a series of questions that are synchronized with
breathing techniques and observation of body sensations to arrive at
answers that will enhance self-awareness and understanding of their
behavior (Pert, 1997). This exercise can help leaders and managers to
become more authentic and confident in their exercise of personal
integrity.
The first goal of the session is to introduce participants to the tech-
nique of Whole-Body Learning* and its benefits.
The second goal is just to allow the participant to have the experi-
ence and become physically (as opposed to intellectually) aware of the
intrinsic link between thoughts, feelings, and body experiences.
The third goal is for the participant to identify at least one issue
that provokes resistance, sadness, pain, interest, happiness, etc., and
to locate where the feeling is manifested in the body. In the future,
when the participant experiences, for example, throat constriction,
he or she will be alerted that whatever is going on at the moment may
be connected to the issue identified by the exercise.
Planning Details

Length of Session:
One-and-one half to two hours per 20 participants
Proposed Audience:
Managers, leaders, and if desired, employees, as well as all organiza-
tional behavioral and leadership faculty
Maximum Number of Participants Recommended:
The exercise works best when kept to a maximum of 20 participants

because of the debriefing time required.
There should be an even number of participants so that each per-
son can have a partner. The minimum number suggested is 6.
Materials Needed:
Pen and paper for journaling; f lip chart, or projector and transparen-
cies, or document camera, or Power Point slides for showing the list
of suggested statements. The f lip chart is simple and nontechnical for
this simple and nontechnical exercise.
Pre-work Needed before Session by Participants:

None directly. However, it must be explained to the participants that
unconscious material may be exposed during the exercise and that
they are not required to share anything that they deem to be too
personal or intrusive.
Pre-work Needed by Facilitators:

The facilitators should have knowledge of Eastern philosophies of
health and wellness, including knowledge and appreciation of Yoga,
meditation, breathing techniques (pranayama), and other Eastern
body-mind disciplines Farhi, 1996; Goldstein, 1993; Iyengar,
1998).
● The facilitators presumably have done reading in the area of

conscious relationships. The source book, At the Speed of Life: a
New Approach to Personal Change through Body-Centered Therapy,
by Gay and Kathlyn Hendricks (1993), would be of additional
value in preparing to facilitate a similar session.
● The facilitators may at some point want to take the train-
ing sessions offered by Gay and Kathlyn Hendricks through

their Living University in Santa Barbara, California. There is
a foundational three-day training class as well as two 10-day
advanced segments.
Special Requirements:
Quiet space with comfortable seating (or carpeting to sit on f loor)
with adjustable lighting
Background
Few would question that our work life has become increasingly com-
plex and more challenging. Some new phrases that are emerging in
our business worlds are collaboration (Kayser, 1994), mutual responsibil-
ity (Kayser, 1994), self-managing teams (Michaelson, Knight, & Fink,
2002), continuous change (Vaill, 1996), life-long learning (Senge, 1991),
and community building (Argyris, 1982). In a productive business com-
munity, managers need to know how to inspire and empower their
employees to continually learn new skills and to develop more cre-
ative solutions to increasingly complex problems.
In today’s world of heightened change, many are suffering from a
perceived loss of meaning and purpose in their lives, which engenders
a sense of spiritual desolation and impels them on a spiritual quest
(Durkheim, 1947). When individuals find meaning and purpose in
their lives, they become more complete human beings, and, in doing
so, allow others in their world to f lourish (Frankl, 1996).
When managers become aware of their internal dialogue and
develop the courage to interrupt themselves and apologize for or cor-
rect their mistakes in public, they become leaders with integrity. Each
time managers hide their feelings, don’t tell the truth, or break agree-
ments, their bodies store that information. Their bodies not only store
that information, but also ref lect their untruths, which other people
can then sense or experience as incongruence (Pert, 1997).
Managers have developed internal and external congruency
when they are able to be aware of their experiences and communi-
cate them to the outside world. In other words, they have integrity
within themselves as well as with others. It is through Whole-Body
Learning* that managers can learn to be present to their inner expe-
riences and to express their real identities. They learn to deepen their
connections to themselves and to their essences (Rothberg-Kelly,
1998).
Whole-Body Learning* is an opportunity to learn to dialogue
with the body, mind, and spirit. Managers can learn to access their
bodies’ sensations, emotions, and feelings in a loving and accepting
way. Through practice they can learn to cultivate an open and non-
judgmental awareness of the contents of the experience.

Whole-Body Learning* produces rapid changes even as it simulta-
neously grounds participants. Regardless of how deep the emotional
responses, when managers become present to their painful feelings
and love themselves for being with and experiencing them, the stress-
ful feelings disappear. Learning to deeply experience themselves helps
to center and balance them throughout their growth process. Even
though they may be tapping into and releasing old pain, they stay
connected to the here and now through being present to their breath
and sensations in their bodies (Farhi, 1996). Managers can learn
how to change the energy of conf lict into creativity and inspiration
(Hendricks & Hendricks, 1993).
The moment-to-moment Whole-Body Learning* training is
geared for group processes and has a powerful transformational
social impact in all settings. Individuals have an opportunity to work
with conf licts, differences, broken agreements, and their shadow
material. They learn to assume responsibility for their success in
relationships.
General Steps for the Activity
1. Background of the Session. The facilitators brief ly explain

the Whole-Body Learning* concept and how they became
involved in it and how it can be applied not only to the man-
ager in his or her quest for greater and deeper self-awareness,
but also to employees, particularly during leadership or team
building training.
It is recommended that two individuals facilitate the session
so that they can demonstrate for the participants each of the
components involved in the multi-step exercise.
2. Demonstration of the Exercise. The participant will
answer a series of questions posed by the facilitators and
asked by a partner while focusing on his or her breath and
observing his or her body sensations. As significant issues are
raised, the participant will learn to notice what feelings occur
in the body and where they occur. Most participants will
never have experienced this obvious link between thoughts,
feelings, and body reactions. As the participant answers the
questions, the partner will ref lect the answers back without
judgment or spin, will simply mirror any physical or facial
gestures, and will encourage further exploration of the body’s
message.
3. Reverse and Repeat. The partners reverse roles and repeat
the steps above.
Specific Steps and Timing for the Activity

1. The facilitators begin by making introductory and contextual
remarks. (10 minutes)
2. The facilitators next deliver breathing and body scanning
instructions and demonstrations. (10 minutes).
3. The facilitator writes on board or f lip chart (or shows on doc-
ument camera or Power Point slide):
● I tell people when I am angry.

● I tell people when I am sad.
● I tell people when I am scared.
● I tell people when I have made a mistake.
● I tell people I love and care about them.
● I take full responsibility for issues that come up in my
relationships.
● I make room for others to take equal responsibility for
issues that come up.
Set-up # 1: Partners: one is the Speaker and one is the Listener.

(15–20 minutes)
1. Speaker relaxes in a comfortable position and brings the aware-
ness within by either closing the eyes or casting the eyes
downward.
2. Speaker: Takes two rounded, connected breaths while scan-
ning the body beginning at the head and slowly moving to the
feet.
3. Speaker: On an outbreath, makes a statement of any images or
specific thoughts or feelings he or she notices while scanning
the whole body. (For example: “I felt a slight twinge in my
right shoulder and saw an image of a lake,” or, “I did not feel
anything or see anything.”)
4. Listener: States in a nonjudgmental, mirroring way without
any “spin” a summary of what the Speaker said and also points
out and may mildly demonstrate any bodily or facial gestures.
(For example: “I heard you say that you felt a slight twinge in
your right shoulder and saw an image of a lake,” or, “I heard
you say that you did not feel anything or see anything. Also,
when I heard you say that, I noticed that you lowered your
head and crossed your legs.” The Listener may demonstrate
the physical observation if the Speaker doesn’t understand the
verbal description.)
Listener should avoid saying such things as “That’s interesting!”
or “That’s OK,” or “Are you sure you didn’t feel anything?” or
“Wow! I wonder what THAT means.” Speaker should not ask any

follow-up questions, or show any facial emotions unless mirroring
something for the Speaker.
5. Speaker and Listener repeat numbers 1–4 three times.
6. Listener: Shifts to the Speaker role and the Speaker shifts to the
Listener role.
7. Repeat numbers 1–4 several times.
Set-up # 2: Partners: one is the Speaker and one is the Listener.

(15–20 minutes)
1. Speaker selects one of the posted statements to say. Speaker,
keeping the eyes closed or downcast, then takes two slow,
even, rounded breaths. On the second out-breath the Speaker
says out loud the statement he or she selected. The Speaker
takes two more slow breaths and scans the body for any spe-
cific thoughts, images, or body sensations. Speaker, with the
eyes still closed, relates to the Listener any specific thoughts,
images, or body sensations. Speaker then opens eyes.
*Example of specific thought: “I had the thought, ‘I’m not sure
how to do this’.”
*Example of image: “I saw a picture of leaves blowing off a tree
all at once.”
*Example of body sensation: “I felt a constriction across my chest.”
2. Listener repeats back to Speaker in the exact words the Speaker
used, the statement selected and the specific thoughts, images,
and/or feelings he or she communicated, and mirrors any spe-
cific body or facial gestures observed.
This is repeated two to three times using the same statement.
Note: If there were unpleasant associations with the statement or scans, they
will lessen with each new round of the exercise.
3. After the third round of the exercise the Listener then asks the
Speaker: “Do you have any questions?”
4. If the Speaker has questions, he or she can now ask them of the
Listener. The Listener responds using “I” statements nonjudg-
mentally and honestly.
5. Listener: Shifts to the Speaker role and the Speaker shifts to the
Listener role.
6. Repeat numbers 1–4 several times.
7. After the participants conclude the question, observation,
answer, and ref lecting back sequences, the inward focused
partner will have an opportunity to state insights or discov-
eries acquired to the group at large. He or she will also be
encouraged to place his or her thoughts into a journal at the
end of the session.
Debriefing the activity (20–30 minutes depending

on the number of participants)

Whole group comes together in a circle to process its learnings/
insights/discoveries. Any or all of the questions below may be asked
by the facilitator to the group at large.
Question: What did you discover, particularly about your learning
edges?
Question: What’s hard for you to tell the full truth about in your
relationships?
Question: What’s hard for you to take full responsibility for in
your relationships?
Question: Are there any people you allow to take less than full
responsibility?
Question: (If there is time to explore with the whole group . . .)
What opportunities might there be for use of this activity in
business and industry and at home?
Post-session, the participants may want to record in a journal any significant
insight or new awareness that occurred during the exercise.
E X E RC I S E
Using Creative Drawings to Visualize Leadership

Team-based, Right Brain Learning
in a University Classroom
Ma r th a Ma tt are Ph .D. , Assi st ant Professor,
Fros tbur g S tat e U niver si t y
m ma t ta re @f ro s t bu rg. edu
Introduction
Too often, university business courses are approached as an analytical

exercise. Even those courses that address human and organizational
issues take on reductionist qualities and often end up as menus of
theory. The experience of what we’re teaching– the living, breath-
ing, experiencing—goes by the wayside. We sometimes leave out the
right brain lessons; those that teach the breathing, seeing, feeling part
of learning.
There is a wide body of literature built on educational theory
and methods that seek to involve right brain learning. One of the
most impactful proponents was Maria Montessori, whose meth-
ods live today in multiple Montessori classrooms (Bodrova, 2003;
Gutek, 2004; Lillard, 1996; Montessori, 2007; Paterniti, 1992;

Vardin, 2003). Montessori, a physician, developed her holistic
approach to education by teaching impoverished and uneducated
orphans in Italy, who f lourished in her hands. In the classrooms
that still use her methods today, children as young as 2½ learn to
read through first learning hand-eye coordination by cleaning play
tables in large, clockwise motions. They learn mathematical prin-
ciples by working with beads strung in tens. They integrate colors,
art, dance, music, and other expressive forms into all aspects of
math, science, language, and personal skills. It is truly holistic and
it truly works.
The following exercise was developed to incorporate a whole-body
learning experience in the leadership classroom that would more
firmly imprint the concept of leadership on the student (Hendricks,
1993a, 1993b; Leonard & Higgins, 2002).
Overview of the Exercise
This exercise uses team-based, student drawings to explore leadership

in an undergraduate business course. On day one of the semester,
students form teams and, together, draw a representation of how they
view leadership at work. The team then processes their experience
and shares their conclusions and drawing with the class. The same
team, at the end of the semester, again draws their view of leadership,
again processes their experience, and compares their drawings, first
to the ones they prepared at the beginning of the semester, then to
the other teams’ before and after drawings during the class processing
of the exercise.
Purpose and Expected Outcomes of the Exercise
Purpose
This exercise taps into spatial intelligence, one of Gardner’s eight
intelligences (Gardner, 2006). The drawings challenge the students
to “see” leadership outside the usual theory-oriented, cognitively
driven path to defining leadership and give them a mental map of an
important element of their environment. The exercise also serves as
an “ice breaker” as it allows students new to the course and class to
work together on a collective drawing that requires a lot of ref lection
and discussion. The drawings elicit substantial discussion among the
students, inter- and intra-team.
Most significantly, the exercise of re-forming the same teams at
the end of the semester and having them draw their emerged view
of leadership illuminates substantial learning experiences. Views of
leadership visibly change from “top down, hierarchical” to emergent,

intertwined, and integrated views of leadership.
The settings for this exercise are, first, the new classroom with new
students. They may be either undergraduate or graduate students in
the leadership course class. They may or may not already know each
other and the instructor may know some of the students. But it is
assumed that most, if not all, of the students are new to one another
and to the instructor. Ideally, the classroom will have the space neces-
sary to spread out, with teams of 3–4 students in various corners of
the room.
The final part of the exercise, at the end of the semester, is obvi-
ously among people who have become friends and acquaintances over
the semester. There is, ideally, a feeling of trust among the students
and toward the instructor.
During the initial and final exercises, it is desirable for the instruc-
tor to move around the room and ‘drop in’ on students as they work
to be sure that teams are functioning positively and the drawings have
not been co-opted by hidden agendas or are off track.
The exercise takes 50 minutes to complete but may be expanded
somewhat if desired. It is broken down in Table 1 as follows:
The drawings were rolled up and kept in my office and brought
out during the last class period for the second half of the exercise,
which is detailed in Table 2, below:
The final, semester-end exercise takes longer than the first exercise
and may need to be broken into two class periods depending on the
class schedule.
Table 1 Initial Exercise: Activities, Materials, and Timeline
Activity Time Allowed
Introduction of the exercise and its purpose; distribution of large f lip chart 20 minutes
pads with sticky backs and many colored markers; all colors
Team processing of the exercise 5 minutes
Teams share key processing points with the class 20 minutes
Wrap up 5 minutes
TOTAL TIME 50 minutes
Table 2 Final Exercise: Activities, Materials, and Timeline
Activity Time Allowed
Introduction of the final exercise and its purpose; distribution of team 20 minutes
drawings from the first class period; many colored markers; all colors
Team processing of the exercise 15 minutes
Teams share key processing points with the class 20 minutes
Wrap up and integration with course learning 15 minutes
TOTAL TIME 70 minutes

Expected Outcomes
● The students will get to know one another in a substantive
way at the very beginning of the semester.
● The students will begin the course with a shared understand-
ing of their view of leadership and how it might be the same
as or different from the theories discussed over the semester.
● The students will study leadership with an understanding that
they, too, have a theory and that they may explore and develop
their theory concurrently with learning other theories.
● The students will tap into the right brain and use art as a form
of learning and expression.
● The students will form a more holistic and whole-body under-
standing of leadership.
Conclusion
This exercise is a wonderful way for everyone to get to know each

other in a fun, supportive, but explorative way at the beginning of the
semester. It is a really powerful way for students to explore and ref lect
on their understanding of leadership and to explore their develop-
ment during the leadership course.
The concepts that underlie the exercise are drawn from the
following:
1. Maria Montessori’s holistic approach to education (Bodrova,
2003; Gutek, 2004; Lillard, 1996; Montessori, 2007; Paterniti,
1992; Vardin, 2003);
2. Hendricks’ whole body learning (Hendricks & Hendricks,
1993a, 1993b; Leonard & Higgins, 2002);
3. The development of emotional intelligence and multiple
intelligences (Armstrong, 1999; Campbell, Campbell, &
Dickinson, 1996, 2004; Clark, Callister, & Wallace, 2003;
Cooper & Sawaf, 1996; Dulewicz & Higgs, 1999; Gardner,
2006; Goleman, 1995; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2002;
King & Down, 2001; Kornhaber, Fierros, & Veenema,
2004);
4. Social constructionism (Burr, 1995; Gergen, 1999; Shotter,
1993);
5. Human development (Goldhaber, 2000; Kegan, 1982);
6. Experiential learning (Brooks-Harris & Stock-Ward, 1999;
Kolb, 2004);
7. Ref lective and transformational learning (Merriam, 2004);
8. The use of feedback to facilitate learning (Cooper & Sawaf,
1996; Robinson, 2004; Seashore, Seashore, & Weinberg,
1997).
Above all, each student, and even the instructor, will explore a

new way of learning about leadership!
E X E RC I S E
Survey of Managerial Style3

J im Claws on , Ph. D. , D arden U niver sity
Purpose
This exercise will give participants an overview of their self-reported
interests and personal focus on three fundamental leadership skill
clusters: visioning, garnering commitment, and managing prog-
ress toward the vision. There is nothing particularly threatening
or emotional about this instrument so that one need not be unusu-
ally concerned about whether the instrument will stimulate deep
vulnerabilities.
Time Required
The exercise itself can be completed in about an hour. This includes
answering the items, reading the section on theory, scoring one’s own
data, and ref lecting and interpreting the results.
Pre-Work Needed
The instrument is self-contained, however, you might assign this to
students in advance of class and spend valuable class time discuss-
ing the theory, the scoring, and most importantly the interpreta-
tions of the data and the implications for participants’ behavior going
forward.
Best Type of Participants
We have used this instrument successfully with MBA and adult exec-
utive education participants for nearly three decades. We have not
used this with undergraduate students. We believe that the instru-
ment works best with those who have had some organizational
experience and can relate to the three main skill clusters: visioning,
garnering commitment (issue selling), and managing progress toward
the vision.

Number of Participants
This instrument can be used with any number of participants. We
have used it with the groups of up to 300. Because the exercise
involves answering questions in a self-report ref lective mode, learn-
ing about the theory, learning to interpret the results, and optionally
giving and receiving feedback with a partner or triad in small groups,
the exercise can be scaled to very large groups.
Specific Steps
We used a common sequence for virtually all of our self-assessment
and career development tools. This sequence was developed in the
1970s at the Harvard Business School by Tony Athos, John Kotter,
and others. This sequence is as follows:
1. Generate clean data by answering the items in the instrument
without studying or reading about the theory behind it.
2. Read about the theory behind the instrument to demystify the
construction and evolution of the instrument.
3. Practice interpreting the results of the instrument on third-
party data. We use short case data to facilitate this process. It
adds to participants’ confidence if they have had some experi-
ence interpreting data on a third-party case. We usually do
this together in a group so that all may benefit from the learn-
ing attempts of each individual.
4. Score your own data.
5. Interpret your own data.
6. Optionally, we frequently have students read their neigh-
bor’s data and offer additional insights to avoid the problem of
benign self-deception.
7. Finally, we always note that no single instrument is com-
prehensive enough or accurate enough to trust com-
pletely. We urge participants only to trust assessment data
that is consistent across multiple instruments. This inductive
logic process is parallel to business management thinking pro-
cesses in which managers scan multiple pools of data, identify
patterns, make decisions and conclusions based on those pat-
terns, and must live with the consequences.
Debriefing Questions
Given the generalizable process identified immediately above, we
may use a predictable and consistent set of debriefing questions for
this or any other self-assessment tool. Each question can lead to sig-
nificant discussion depending on the comprehension and experience
of the group. Our typical questions are as follows:

1. Please explain the theory behind this instrument. The participants
should be able to describe the concepts involved in the theory,
who conceived of them, and how those concepts might relate
to their immediate career or managerial responsibilities. It is
important to have this discussion in order to demystify every
instrument. Sometimes younger participants are prone to put
too much credibility in the results of a particular instrument.
By the same token, sometimes more experienced participants
are too prone to put too little credibility in a particular instru-
ment. It is important, I believe, to discuss the people who
developed the instrument, what their concepts and theories
were, and in the next question, how they went about opera-
tionalizing those thoughts.
2. How well did the authors of the instrument operationalize their theo-
ries and concepts? This question will give students the oppor-
tunity to think about the quality of the questions asked and
the appropriateness of the scales used. Many participants will
not be prepared to discuss the nuances of instrument develop-
ment, nor may they have the statistical background to under-
stand the nuances of scale development. Each instructor will
have to decide how much detail they want to get into in this
regard.
3. Given our discussion of the first two questions, what can this instru-
ment say and what can this instrument not say? Parts of this discus-
sion may become redundant quickly, so the instructor should
pay attention to whether or not students understand the limi-
tations of the instrument being discussed. If they do, you
may move forward with some confidence that the students
will not over- or underinterpret the results of any particular
instrument.
4. Here is a set of sample data. What inferences can we draw about this
person from these data? Having a set of third-party case data,
however brief, is a great way to assess participants’ abilities
to interpret the results of an instrument and to operational-
ize their understanding of the theory and concepts involved.
You may use other students data if they have already agreed to
allow their data to be viewed in this way, or case data devel-
oped by others previously. If you would like to see some of
these data sets, please feel free to contact the author. In this
discussion I find it important to encourage the participants
to be cautious and careful in their interpretations. Encourage
them not to jump to speculative conclusions, but to stay close
to the data. A good convention is to use a sentence comple-
tion exercise, namely, this is a person who . . . and then complete
the sentence with the inference from the data. A simple data-
based inference might be something like, this is a person who

places more emphasis on visioning then on garnering commitment and
managing progress. This instrument could generate a minimum
of three and up to 15 or more possible inferences.
5. Take a few moments and draw as many inferences as you can from
your own data. Students may have already done this before they
come to class, but if they haven’t, it’s good to give them five
minutes or more in class to practice developing inferences
from raw data.
6. Exchange data with your neighbor, and draw as many inferences
as you can from their data. Be sure to write these down so you can
return your inferences in written form to your neighbor. The value
of this exercise is to help us avoid benign self-deception. At
some point in the self-assessment module, I will have a dis-
cussion about JoHari’s Window, and the issues of blind spots.
A second set of eyes may be better able to see patterns than
the primary set of eyes, who have become used to and often
take for granted patterns that are a part of their profile and
personality.
The Exercise
Survey of Managerial Style

Managers constantly identify desirable behavior both in themselves
and in others with whom they work. Much of this behavior takes on
a characteristic pattern. Knowing something about these different
patterns may help us to become more productive professionals. This
instrument measures an aspect of managerial style. Please complete
all items, then score and interpret them according to the instructions
that follow.
Note that people will often rate questions such as those included
in this packet in terms of how they think they should answer or
in terms of the way that they would like to be. This is not what is
wanted here. Please answer the items in terms of how much you
agree with a statement as it applies to what you actually do. Give
careful thought to your answers and remember that your results are
only valuable to the extent that they ref lect what you actually do,
not what you think you should do. If you are a student now, consider
the last job you held as you answer these questions. If you have not
worked before, think about what you think your first job experience
will be like.
As you complete the survey, please answer ALL items. You will
probably note that some of the items on the survey are very similar;
this is necessary to ensure that the survey information is statistically
reliable. Please rate each item INDEPENDENTLY without regard to
your responses to previous items. Finally, please note that there are no

right or wrong answers on this survey.
SURVEY OF MANAGERIAL STYLE
Section I: General Information

1. How many major organizational levels are there in your organi-
zation, from the chief executive to the lowest rank? In figuring the
number of levels in your organization, it may help to sketch out the
levels on the back of this page.
NUMBER OF MAJOR LEVELS IN YOUR
ORGANIZATION: _________
2. If the chief executive is at level one in your organization, at what
numerical level are you?
YOUR ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL: _________
3. How many people report directly to you?
NUMBER OF DIRECT REPORTS: _________
4. Overall, how many people are in your reporting line of author-
ity? For example, in item 3, if you mentioned four people directly
reporting to you, and the first person has 30 employees, the second
has 49, the third has 12, and the fourth has 29, and none of their sub-
ordinates has subordinates, then the overall number in your line of
authority is 120.
OVERALL NUMBER IN YOUR REPORTING
LINE OF AUTHORITY: _________
Section II: Management Style Items
Directions: For the 30 items below, read each item and rate it in
terms of how much you agree that the item describes you. On the
scale, SA = Strongly Agree, MA = Moderately Agree, LA = Slightly
Agree, LD = Slightly Disagree, MD = Moderately Disagree, and
SD = Strongly Disagree.
ITEM AGREEMENT/DISAGREEMENT

SA MA LA LD MD SD
1) Managing company progress toward () () () () () ()

a vision represents a major portion of
what I do in my job.
2) I am methodical in the way that I () () () () () ()
carry out my job responsibilities.
3) Most of my work-related activity is () () () () () ()
in thinking about the future of my
organization.
4) I am a real “take charge” type of () () () () () ()
person.
5) Garnering commitment in people () () () () () ()
toward meeting some organizational
goal represents a major portion of what
I do in my job.
6) I am very decisive. When I must make () () () () () ()
a decision, I stick to it.
7) Whenever I must present information () () () () () ()
to a group, I typically speak without
notes or outlines.
8) I focus my professional energies () () () () () ()
on envisioning the future of the
organization.
to a group, I write out the speech, then
read it to the group.
10) I am self confident. () () () () () ()
11) I focus my professional energies on () () () () () ()
getting people in my organization
to build their commitments to our
organization and its goals.
12) I learn best by diving in and seeing if () () () () () ()
something works or doesn’t work.
13) Most of my work-related activity is () () () () () ()
watching and managing indicators of
organizational activity.
14) I spend most of my professional () () () () () ()
time considering views of what my
organization can become.
ITEM AGREEMENT/DISAGREEMENT
SA MA LA LD MD SD
15) Most of my work-related activity is in () () () () () ()

pulling people together for the purpose
of attaining an organizational goal.
16) I think that the most important aspect () () () () () ()
of my job is preparing for future needs
of the organization.
17) I manage my professional time () () () () () ()

efficiently.
18) I think that the most important aspect () () () () () ()
of my job is persuading people to
accept my vision for our organization.
19) I make an effort to participate in group () () () () () ()
activities.
20) I focus my professional energies () () () () () ()
on managing and monitoring my
organization’s progress toward a goal.
21) Thinking about what my organization () () () () () ()
might look like in the future represents
a major portion of what I do in my job.
22) I am a predictable person. I think that () () () () () ()
people know what to expect of me.
23) At work I try to foster close personal () () () () () ()
relationships with my coworkers.
24) I spend most of my professional time () () () () () ()
in managing company progress toward
a vision.
25) Solving problems in unstructured () () () () () ()
situations is an important part of what
I do.
26) I would rather do something myself () () () () () ()
than delegate responsibility to
someone else.
27) I learn on my own first, then apply () () () () () ()
what I have learned.
28) I spend most of my professional time () () () () () ()
convincing others in my organization
to carry out a plan.
to a group, I speak while using an
outline as a reference.
30) I think that the most important () () () () () ()
aspect of my job is looking at how
my company is performing and
determining what it is that it needs to
do to stick to the company plan.
NOTE! Do not read the rest of this note until you

have completed the questions that come before!
SCORING AND INTERPRETING YOUR DATA
The Theory
This questionnaire was designed to measure aspects of your leader-

ship style and preferences. Measuring leadership is not easy. Social
scientists have been arguing for decades, even centuries, about the
answer to the question “What makes a good leader?” Out of this

debate have emerged numerous theories about what makes a good
leader. But these theories are often contradictory and confusing.
We believe that, in spite of the controversy about what the concept
of leadership comprises, a practical, immediate model of leadership
would help focus the developmental efforts of managers on things
they can begin doing now.
Given our reading of leadership studies and our observation of
leaders in the world, we have concluded and suggest that leadership
includes three fundamental clusters of skills and abilities: creating
vision, garnering commitment to that vision, and monitoring and
managing progress toward the realization of that vision.
Vision. Powerful leaders have a clear vision of where they want their
organization to go. Vision is the view a person holds about what the
organization will look like and be doing in the future. Obviously,
some people have greater visions than others, and some have visions
that extend further into the future than others. And some have
visions that don’t work or come to fruition. Each manager can and,
we believe, ought to have a vision of his or her organization, what
they think it can become, where they think it is going, how it should
be operating, and what it should be like to work within it.
Vision is an essential part of leadership. Having a vision requires
creativity; one must be able to think and see beyond the present time
frame and beyond the usual options. The ability to see ahead and
to see non-traditional alternatives is a creative part of leadership. So
is the ability to frame the context of a business problem in broader
terms that question current assumptions. The ability to incorporate
these often unusual thoughts into a cohesive vision of the future of
the company defines the first set of leadership skills.
Commitment. The ability to garner the commitment of others to
one’s vision forms a key cluster of leadership skills. A leader may
have a vision of what an organization can become, but unless others
receive and become committed to that vision, it is unlikely to be real-
ized. Leaders can create visions, but commitment, on the other hand,
is offered by followers. It is this commitment of a group of followers
that allows leaders to build their visions into organizational realities.
A key task of the leader, then, is to garner commitment from those
people who are critical to his or her success.
Leaders may foster commitment in a variety of ways: public com-
munications, one-on-one interactions, involving others in the deci-
sion-making process, and by modeling commitment to an idea, to
name a few. However the successful leader goes about it, he or she is
able to develop and maintain strong commitments from others to his
or her vision for the organization.
Monitoring and Managing Progress toward the Vision. The

third cluster of skills that we see in leadership is the ability to moni-
tor and manage progress of the organization toward the vision. For
us, this is the bulk of “management” education today: ascertaining
what the right measures are to monitor and the techniques and tools
of getting those indicators to yield the right results. This aspect of
leadership focuses on the details of the business. That we place mon-
itoring and management as a subset of leadership does not denigrate
it. Rather it points out that though managers can indeed be leaders,
in our view they need to augment their skills with the visionary and
commitment building skills outlined above. To us, management is a
component of leadership. Ensuring that deadlines are met, objectives
are achieved, and budgets are used appropriately are valuable and nec-
essary (but not sufficient) leadership skills.
Leadership and the Survey of Managerial Style (SMS)

Although some writers have drawn a provocative and dichotomous
distinction between leadership and management, we believe they
are closely related and that a consideration of the f luid relationship
between them is more productive. Hence, we assert that leadership
is not so much a question of whether someone is either a manager
or a leader, but rather how much emphasis one places on the com-
ponent skills of leadership, of which management is one. Knowing
something about how one tends to emphasize creating vision, gar-
nering commitment, and monitoring and managing progress toward
the vision can help in several ways. We’ll outline some of those, but
first, let’s score the data you have generated.
Parts I and II of the SMS are designed to gather general informa-
tion about you and to measure your self-perception of your work
behavior with regard to each of the three clusters mentioned above.
From these data, you can begin to construct a picture of your leader-
ship profile, that is, how much you emphasize leadership overall and
how much you emphasize the three different clusters of leadership as
outlined previously. With these data, you can begin to consider how
strong your desire to be a leader is and how your behavior is distrib-
uted across the three dimensions of leadership.
Scoring Your Data
Step 1. On the Section II Scoring Form on the following page, you

will see that values are associated with each point on the scale
used in Section II of the survey: Strongly Agree = 6, Moderately
Agree = 5, Slightly Agree = 4, Slightly Disagree = 3, Moderately
Disagree = 2, and Strongly Disagree = 1. For each section of the
scoring form, indicate the score for each of the items listed. For
example, if you checked “slightly agree” for item 3 and “mod-

erately agree” for item 8, your scores for these items would be 4
and 5, respectively. Please note that in Section II scoring, not all
items are scored. The extra items in Section II of the survey are
included to control measurement error and are not included in
the individual scoring procedure.
Step 2. Sum the scores in each column to derive scores for vision,
commitment, and management.
Step 3. Sum the scores for vision, commitment, and management
to derive your total score.
Step 4. Compute proportional values for vision, commitment, and
management by dividing the scale score by the total score.
Section II Scoring Form
Score your responses as shown below.

Strongly Agree = 6, Moderately Agree = 5, Slightly Agree = 4,
Slightly Disagree = 3, Moderately Disagree = 2, Strongly Disagree = 1
Source Score Source Score Source Score
Item 3 ________ Item 5 ________ Item 1 ________

Item 8 ________ Item 11 ________ Item 13 ________
Item 14 ________ Item 15 ________ Item 20 ________
Item 16 ________ Item 18 ________ Item 24 ________
Item 21 ________ Item 28 ________ Item 30 ________
Total Total Total

Vision ________ Commitment ________ Management ________
VISION GARNERING MONITORING AND

COMMITMENT MANAGING
PROGRESS
Note: Maximum Scale Score = 30,

Minimum Scale Score = 5
TOTAL SCORE SECTION II

(Vision + Commitment + Management) = _______________
PROPORTIONAL VALUES FOR SECTION II

Vision/Total Score = ________%
Commitment/Total Score = ________%

Management/Total Score = ________%
Step 5. Next, complete the SMS Profile on the following page. The
concentric circles on the next page represent varying strengths of
leadership: the larger the circle, the greater the interest in lead-
ership. The letters associated with each circle correspond to the
total score obtained in Section II of the survey. Find the circle
that corresponds to your total score in Section II and trace the
circle with a heavy marking pen.
Step 6. In the score profile, there are 32 dotted line segments that
you can use conveniently to create your profile. First, starting
anywhere, draw a solid line from the center of the circle out to
your circle (A, B, C, D, or E). Then note that each dotted pie
segment represents about 12 degrees (11.25 exactly) out of the
360 degrees in a circle. If your V score were 40% of your total
score, then .40 of 360 = 144 degrees. Divided by degrees for
each dotted segment, this gives you 12, so you would count
12 segments from your first line and draw a second line from
the center to the circumference. Do this for one of your other
scores to produce a pie chart with three segments, one each
for V, C, and M. Label each segment with their corresponding
V, C, or M.
Note: When you have finished scoring your data, you should have
a pie chart with three divisions in it. The size of the pie ref lects
your overall interest in being a leader. The size of each of the three
wedges, one each for creating vision, garnering commitment, and
monitoring and managing progress toward the vision, indicates
the relative strength of each leadership skill area. When you have
completed the profile, proceed to the interpretation section.
Survey of Managerial Style
Profile

A
A B C D E
Figure 3 Round Circle with Score Letter Scales on Right Diameter Line.
Total Score Scale: A = 15–29 B = 30–44 C = 45–59 D = 60–74

E = 75–90
Interpreting Your Profile
The first thing to note is that it is not necessarily good or bad to desire
to be a leader. Leadership roles place demands on individuals just as
all positions in life do; some people enjoy that set of demands and
others do not. Regardless of how superficially attractive the recogni-
tion and apparent inf luence of leaders may be, unless your personal
skills and interests fit the demands of a particular leadership position,
you are is not likely to be happy or successful in that position. Thus,

the size of your leadership pie is not a value judgment about you or
your worth in your organization or in society. Rather, it is a descrip-
tion of your present preferences and as such can be used by you to
make more sound decisions about yourself and your work.
The same can be said of the relative strength of the three basic areas
of leadership as proposed in this document. Knowing something about
your relative position in the areas of vision, commitment, and manage-
ment can certainly help you to elaborate your leadership skills and may
serve to guide you as you make career and educational decisions. We
encourage you not to treat these three clusters of leadership skills as
fixed and equally desirable. It is quite possible that you could be fairly
evenly balanced among these skills. Alternatively, you might obtain a
moderate score in one area and higher scores on the others. Each profile,
of course, will have different implications for your planning, develop-
ment activities, and perhaps for the way you manage your work.
We expect that scores in these leadership areas can change depending
on context and the demands of your job. Patterns of response such as
these remain to be researched. For now, the important thing to note is
that we are talking about general leadership functions and that strength
or weakness in one area is not necessarily desirable or undesirable.
Interpretive Alternatives
For each of the alternative profiles below, write your interpretation

of what they might mean to the individuals or corporations that have
them. See if you can identify individuals who fit each pattern.
C M
Figure 4 Interpretive alternative 1.
V
C M

V
C
M
V
M
C
VCM DATA FORM

Group: _______ Date: __/__/__
Directions: If asked to do so by your instructor, please fill out this

data form, remove it from the survey packet, and give to your instruc-
tor. Your instructor may then compile general information for your
review. Please also submit your data online at http://faculty.darden.
virginia.edu/clawsonj.

1. NUMBER OF MAJOR LEVELS IN
YOUR ORGANIZATION: ____________
2. YOUR ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL:
(Please express level as a number.) ____________
3. NUMBER OF DIRECT REPORTS: ____________
4. OVERALL NUMBER IN YOUR
REPORTING LINE OF AUTHORITY: ____________
5. YOUR AGE: ____________
6. GENDER: (Please circle.) Male / Female
Source Score Source Score Source Score
Item 3 ________ Item 5 ________ Item 1 ________

Item 8 ________ Item 11 ________ Item 13 ________
Item 14 ________ Item 15 ________ Item 20 ________
Item 16 ________ Item 18 ________ Item 24 ________
Item 21 ________ Item 28 ________ Item 30 ________
Total Total Total

Vision ________ Commitment ________ Management ________
VISION GARNERING MONITORING AND

COMMITMENT MANAGING
PROGRESS
Note: Maximum Scale Score = 30, Minimum Scale Score = 5

TOTAL SCORE SECTION II
(Vision + Commitment + Management) = _______________
PROPORTIONAL VALUES FOR SECTION II
Vision/Total Score = ________%
Commitment/Total Score = ________%
Management/Total Score = ________%
E X E RC I S E
Leadership and Changing Work Environments: Using

Role-Play Exercises to Illustrate the Impact of Strong
Leadership
Ken n eth L evit t, Ph .D., East St roudsburg Univer sity
Howa rd C. Fero, A lber t us Magnus College

Introduction and Theoretical Background
This role-play exercise focuses on the role that strong leadership plays
in promoting acceptance of organizational change. The role plays can
be used to demonstrate the importance of employee commitment to
change, and the role that leadership can play in the change process.
This exercise can be used by instructors who teach leadership, as well
as by consultants looking for fun and engaging ways to explain basic
leadership concepts.
Jellison (2006) describes change as a process in which performance
goes through a series of stages. In his model, organizational perfor-
mance initially takes a sharp drop when the change is introduced.
This drop is natural, and is caused by resistance to change by employ-
ees. In successful change initiatives, the drop eventually levels off, and
performance begins to improve. This improvement in performance
can’t occur until the employees become committed to the change.
One of the factors that impacts employee commitment to change
and the change process is the presence of strong leadership (Higgs,
2003; Kotter, 1990). It is leadership that helps people to counteract
their natural inclination to resist change, and hopefully, commit to it.
The literature on resistance to change is quite abundant, with many
reasons as to why we all tend to ‘push back’ against it. One reason is
the potential loss of power associated with organizational change.
Bruckman (2008) does a nice job citing the literature on some of
the reasons behind resistance to change, and because a comprehensive
review of the literature on this topic is beyond the scope of this proj-
ect, we will simply allude to some of the reasons he has cited, such as
a threat to the status quo, the confidence in one’s ability to perform,
questioning of the impact of the change on one’s values, a distrust in
the organization or management, etc. This difficulty in acceptance
of change makes it that much more critical for managers to behave in
ways that bring down the barriers to change.
One of the theories of leadership that has been studied in rela-
tion to change and resistance to it is transformational leadership.
This type of leadership is “at its core, about issues around the pro-
cesses of transformation and change” (Bass & Riggio, 2006, p. 225).
The relationship between transformational leadership and change
was further investigated by Herold, Fedor, Caldwell, and Liu (2008),
who found a positive relationship between it and affective com-
mitment to change. Additionally, the relationship between leader-
ship and change was explored by Groves (2005). and a relationship
between followers’ level of openness to change and their ratings of
leaders’ levels of charisma was shown. In essence, the presence of
positive leadership in any form, albeit transformational, charismatic,
or simply the existence of positive leadership traits (effective com-
munication, sensitivity to follower needs, etc) should, according to

today’s accepted theories, lead to increased commitment (Herold
et al., 2008).
Leadership Behaviors and Change
Higgs and Rowland (2005) detail behaviors they originally defined

in 2000 and 2001. These behaviors, when exhibited by leaders, will
lead to the successful implementation of a change. The behaviors
include the engagement of others in the change process,, ensuring
that the change is understood and the requisite tools are provided,
the development of effective plans for the change, and “facilitating
and developing credibility” (p. 127), which is described as “ensuring
that people are challenged to find their own answers and that they are
supported in doing this” (p.127). The precepts of the above behav-
iors are included in the role play scenarios to illustrate the model of
change and leadership.
Leadership and Change—Role Play
Purpose and Goals of the Exercise

The purpose of this exercise is to illustrate the role that managers play
in reducing resistance to organizational change. By engaging in role
plays, participants will learn the difference that supportive leadership
plays in reducing barriers to change. The role plays provide a fun and
entertaining way to illustrate the concepts and stimulate discussion.
Length of Time
The exercise has been designed for use in a 90-minute class but can
be easily adapted for classes lasting 50 minutes or 1 hour and 15 min-
utes. Three role-play scenarios are provided (See Appendix A), each
offering different ways to demonstrate the impact of leadership on
change. The role plays can be used independently or together to best
demonstrate change in different situations and industries.
Pre-Work
For optimal impact students should be familiar with basic theories of
leadership as well as the components of organizational change. The
more versed students are in these dimensions, the more the facilitator
can discuss higher-level issues pertaining to organizational change
and leadership impact.

This exercise can be used by instructors at both the graduate and

undergraduate levels.
8–30 Participants
Exercise Procedure
Opening Remarks (10 minutes)
Introduction of transformational leadership and change (based on
pre-readings)
Role-Play Exercises (45 minutes)
Step 1: The class is broken up into small groups (4–5 people)

and each group is given one of the six role-play scenarios (see
below). Participants should be given 5 minutes to contemplate
their role in the scenario. Initially, the students should not be
made aware that that there are two different versions of each
scenario.
Step 2: Groups are instructed to create a short skit with one person
acting as the manager, and the other group members playing the
role of employees. The groups will be given 5 minutes to plan
their role-play skits where they will ‘act out’ the situation and
spend approximately 5 minutes playing the role of employees and
managers of the given organization.
Step 3: Groups perform versions 1A and 1B of the skits in front of
the class.
Step 4: After versions 1A and 1B have been demonstrated, the
instructor asks the class to ref lect on the difference between the
two scenarios that were performed.
Step 5: Steps 3 and 4 are repeated for role plays 2 and 3.
Concluding Remarks and Debrief (35 minutes)—The instruc-
tor leads a class discussion of the actions of the employees based on the
role plays and expands on the impact of leadership on organizational
change.
Debriefing questions
At the conclusion of the role plays the following questions can be
used to help guide discussion:
a) Have you experienced situations like those demonstrated here

today?
b) Would you characterize your experience as falling more in
line with the “A” role play or the “B” role play?
c) What impact did the situation you are contemplating have on
you, your morale, or that of others in the organization?
d) Based on what you have read about leadership, what style(s) do
you think were shown in each of the role plays?
e) Based on your knowledge of organizational change, why is
leadership such an important factor in its implementation?
Concluding Thoughts
Change is difficult for people to accept. It is unrealistic to think that

managers can get people to be thrilled about changes that introduce
uncertainty, and threaten status. That said, managers can reduce fear
and resistance to change by being supportive of their employees. This
exercise can demonstrate the real effects that supportive leadership
can have in reducing resistance to change.
Appendix A: Role Play Scenarios
Role Play 1a:
A manager enters a conference room filled with the supervisors of his

50-person print shop. He tells them to communicate the following to
their teams: The company has been absorbed by a large full-service
graphic communications business. The manager tells his supervisors
that more information is forthcoming.
Role Play 1b:
The owner of a small 50-person print shop enters the shop f loor
room and tells his team that their 50-person print shop has merged
with a larger full-service graphic communications organization. He
tells them that the CEO of the new organization would like them to
meet with him in the next several days so they can discuss the transi-
tion. The owner tells his staff that he would like them to make a list
of questions they have so he can make sure they are addressed by the
new CEO. He assures his staff that he has their back.
Role Play 2a:
A professor walks into a lecture hall about midway through the

semester. She tells her organizational behavior class that although the
syllabus states that the final project is to be a group project where
each group would study a pre-assigned organization that the profes-
sor would assign, the professor has decided that each student should
do an individual paper on an organization of his or her own choos-
ing. She then moves into her lecture.
Role Play 2b:
A professor walks into a lecture hall about midway through the

semester. She tells her organizational behavior class that she has an
idea for a change in their final project. She was thinking that instead
of having the students research an organization that they aren’t famil-
iar, it would be fun and interesting for them to choose their own
organization to study. She asks the students to take a few minutes and
consider what an organization is and how they can apply what they’ve
learned thus far in the class to an organization with which they are
familiar. The professor asks the students if they would like to tackle
this challenge individually instead of as a group so that they can have
the freedom to dig deep into their own organization. She reinforces
to them that if they take on the challenge individually she will be
providing them with all the tools and mentoring they need to suc-
ceed. A discussion about the benefits of the assignment ensues.
Role Play 3a:
A memo is received by members of a financial services company

alerting financial planners that due to tough economic times those
people who don’t meet their goals by the end of the third quarter
will be terminated. When the third quarter arrives 35 percent of the
financial planners are downsized.
Role Play 3b
The managing director of a financial services company calls a com-

pany-wide meeting to discuss the impact of the economy on the
organization’s ability to keep their planners employed. The director
tells her employees of the eventuality of having to eliminate some of
the planners who are not meeting their goals. The director tells her
team that this is something that she hates to do, but needed to find an
objective way to determine who to lay off. The managing director
challenges her team to meet their goals and offers to help them brain-
storm new ways to do so. When the third quarter arrives 20 percent
of the planners are downsized.

E X E RC I S E
Understanding Stress and Developing Resiliency to

Stress through Time Management and Life Balance
Ka th i J. L ovel ac e, Ph. D. , U niver si t y of Idaho
Ja n e D. Pa ren t, Ph . D. , Mer r i m ack College
Introduction
Many of us experience stress on a regular basis. Time pressures, unmet

goals, life changes, and misunderstandings between co-workers,
family members, or friends can all trigger stress and tension in our
lives. Gaining the skills to manage these stressors allows us to achieve
greater life satisfaction and meaning. Therefore, the goal of this exer-
cise is to provide participants with background information about
stress and to increase their understanding of the causes and effects of
stress. In addition, this exercise helps participants increase personal
resiliency to stress through developing time management and life bal-
ance skills.
Background
There are many definitions of stress. Hans Selye (1974), often
considered the father of stress, defines stress as the nonspecific
response of the body to any demand made upon it. Lazarus and
Folkman (1984) define stress as a condition or feeling experienced
when a person perceives that demands exceed the personal and
social resources the individual is able to mobilize (i.e., demands
exceed resources). Importantly, stress can result from positive
things such as getting a new job (termed eustress) and negative
things such as missing a deadline (termed distress). In this exercise
we use the term stress interchangeably with distress, eustress, and
strain. We also encourage participants to write their own defini-
tions of stress.
We emphasize that it is not practical to eliminate all stress because
people need some stress to perform effectively. The Yerkes-Dodson
Law (1908) is a useful visual that depicts this point through an inverted
“U”. The model shows that there is an optimal point (the top of the
inverted “U”) where a certain amount of arousal or stress is necessary
to increase alertness, heighten awareness, and motivate the performer.
Yet too much or not enough stress (represented by the two tails of the
“U”) results in a lack of concentration and decrease in performance.

Finding this balance of optimal performance is important to sustain-
ing long-term well-being.
To help find this balance it is useful to know your stressors. Stressors
are defined as anything that is intense enough and/or brought to bear
for long enough to induce a reaction of stress (Seyle, 1974). Common
stressors include procrastination, interruptions, indecision, perfec-
tionism, Type-A behavior pattern, negativity, loneliness, financial
insecurity, test anxiety, and life/lifestyle changes. Participants can
also identify with the consequences of stress, which we categorize
into psychological (e.g., anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, bore-
dom, apathy), physical (e.g., headaches, muscle tension, high blood
pressure, lower immunity, fatigue, back pain), and behavioral (e.g.,
smoking, alcohol abuse, eating [weight gain or loss], sleep difficulties,
hostility/violence).
To articulate the relationship between stressors and the conse-
quences of stress we introduce Cannon’s (1932) “fight or f light”
response and diagram the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
(Selye, 1974), which builds on Cannon’s research and examines the
effects of chronic stress. The GAS consists of three stages: Alarm,
Resistance, and Exhaustion. A person responds to a stressor (real or
perceived) by first entering into an alarm stage, where the physi-
ological response is shortness of breath and increased heart rate as
the body prepares for fight or f light. The next stage is the resis-
tance stage, where the response is to perform at a heightened level
of arousal. This resistance stage is very effective for managing the
stressor in the short term (i.e., fighting or taking f light), yet the
long-term effect of this resistance is exhaustion, the final stage of
the GAS. The exhaustion stage may be momentary as the body re-
establishes homeostasis, or may last longer in the form of illness and
disease.
After explaining the GAS, we focus on time mismanagement as a
stressor and time management as a tool for eliminating this stressor so
that alarm and the fight or f light effect is minimized. We also focus
on life balance as a way to build resiliency so that when stressors are
confronted, the resistance level is stronger and exhaustion is less likely
to occur.
Appendix A provides the teaching notes and handouts for the
base exercise. The base exercise can be completed in 65–75 min-
utes. Appendix B includes the teaching notes and materials for the
extended exercise, which includes the time management activ-
ity. The recommended time for the extended exercise is 100–120
minutes.

The purpose of this exercise is to increase awareness of the many

causes and effects of stress and to allow participants the opportunity
to identify the ways in which stress directly and indirectly affects
their life. Similarly, this exercise shows participants how the body/
mind reacts to stress. Once a foundational understanding of the rela-
tionship between stress and performance is created, the second exer-
cise focuses on time management as a strategy for managing stress. In
addition and in conjunction with managing time, we emphasize the
importance of finding balance in life.
The goals of the exercises are
1. To understand how stress affects performance

i. Define stress (for yourself ) and identify your key stressors.
ii. Recognize the physical, psychological, and behavioral con-
sequences of stress.
iii. Learn how the body/mind reacts to stress.
2. To learn strategies for managing stress
i. Practice effective and efficient time management.
ii. Develop resiliency to stress through life balance.
The expected outcomes of the exercise are for participants to learn

how stress is currently affecting their life and to gain the motivation
and skills to manage stress in a way that is sustainable and results in
positive outcomes. For students there is no pre-work needed to par-
ticipate in this exercise.
Best Setting for the Exercise, and Why

This exercise can be conducted in a classroom setting. In general, no
special facilities are required, although it is best to do this exercise
in a face-to-face setting because participants can gain insights into
their own life through the observations/comments of other partici-
pants. Additionally, the social aspects of the setting are important
for signaling that many of the causes and effects of stress are felt by
others and that social support is a way to build resiliency to stress.
We have only used this exercise with undergraduates, although
graduate students and working adults could also benefit. There is
no minimum or maximum number of participants that can partici-
pate. We have conducted this activity with as few as 10 participants
and as many as 55.
We recommend using this exercise in the beginning of the term.
We have often used this exercise during the second day of class to
provide participants with the tools to manage the multiple oppor-
tunities/projects that the start of the term presents. In fact, the start
of the term can be viewed as a stressor in the GAS, activating the
alarm stage. Participants often operate in the resistance stage during

the school term, only to become ill after the term has ended (i.e., the
exhaustion stage). This example can help illustrate the ways in which
we react to stress.
Points of Attention or Caution to the Audience

It is helpful to use this exercise to assist participants in scheduling
the activities (exams, papers, etc.) that are required in the course.
Therefore, having the syllabus with due dates readily available is
recommended. We have used this exercise as both a graded and
nongraded activity. Appendix C includes instructions for a stress
management plan that we have used as an end of the term assign-
ment worth ten percent of the course grade. Making the assignment
worth course points increases the probability that participants will
spend the time to make the exercise meaningful to their personal life.
Participants often report that the exercise is useful and meaningful to
them regardless of whether it is graded.
Whether using this exercise as a graded or ungraded exercise
(but particularly if this exercise is a graded assignment), participants
should be assured that they are not required to reveal personal infor-
mation or any information that they are not comfortable exposing.
We do not collect the exercise materials, and participants are free
to keep this information to themselves. We include information on
how to contact the University’s counseling center and often explore
the counseling center’s website during the exercise. In preparing for
this exercise, instructors should know what services are offered by
the university or organization (i.e., Human Resource’s Employee
Assistance Programs) in order to have this information available
to participants and to know the types of support the institution
offers. Instructors should also use more general examples of stress-
ful situations (e.g., late on an assignment, perfectionist tendencies)
versus emotion-laden examples (e.g., death of a parent, fatal acci-
dent). These more sensitive issues should be referred to a profes-
sional counselor.
Appendix A: Teaching Notes and Handouts for
Exercise 1
Time: 50–75 minutes
Teaching Notes: (Use in conjunction with Exercise 1 handout)

1. Introduce the goals of the exercise. If using the extended ver-
sion of the exercise that includes the time management exer-
cise, inform participants that we will be focusing on time

management as a way to eliminate stress. Life balance is a
component of both the base and extended exercise and is con-
sidered a way to increase one’s resiliency to stress.
2. Go through the Stress and Performance section and allow time
for participants to write in their own answers (What is your
definition of stress? What are your stressors?). Participants can
share their responses and discussions can revolve around the
different perceptions of stress and the differences/similari-
ties of the causes and effects of stress. After the introduction
of thinking about what stress means to you, we review the
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) to show how we physi-
cally react to stressors. Use examples such as the entire school
term or short-term situations such as going on an interview,
managing a conf lict, or going on a first date. After explain-
ing the GAS diagram, describe the different consequences
of stress. Participants can then respond to the question: How
does stress affect you?
Optional Variations/Suggestions:
a. Self-assessments of stress-prone personalities (e.g., Type A
behavior pattern), hostility, depression/anxiety, self-esteem,
stress “temperature,” negative affectivity can all be used to
provide a baseline for participants. These assessments can
be found online and in organizational behavior/managerial
skills textbooks. Blood pressure, pulse rate, diabetes, and
other medical evaluations can also provide information to
participants.
b. Connections can be made between the consequences of
stress (physical, psychological, and behavioral) and the pos-
itive outcomes of the different strategies for managing stress
(the next section). For example, managing time to order to
schedule exercise can result in improvements in mood and
lower blood pressure.
3. Strategies for Managing Stress. There are several strategies for
managing stress. Whetten and Cameron (2005) describe time
management, developing collaborative relationships, and
creating meaningful work as three approaches to eliminat-
ing stress. This exercise expands on time management. Self-
assessments and discussions about emotional intelligence or
conf lict management exercises can be used to create active
learning activities for building collaborative relationships.
Hackman and Oldham’s (1976) Job Characteristic Model can
serve as an extension for creating meaningful work. Self-
assessments focused on preferences for mechanistic or organic
organizational design can also fit here. (See also Leiter, &
Maslach, (2005). Banishing Burnout: Six strategies for improv-

ing your relationship with your work. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.)
In the base version of this exercise, we have participants
review the seven common ways to mismanage your time and
the suggestions for reducing the time mismanagement issue
(in handout). Participants identify the areas that affect their
time management and then set goals for improving time
management.
4. Building Resiliency to Stress: An important way to manage
stress is to build resiliency to stress. We examine three ways
to build resiliency (physically, psychologically, and socially).
However, the goal of this section is to articulate that creat-
ing balance in one’s life (in all areas) is essential to well-being
and resiliency to stress. Therefore, we start with a life bal-
ance activity The life balance activity requires participants to
evaluate the relative percentage of time that they spend in each
of the areas of life represented in the sectioned circle by shad-
ing in the pie-shaped areas where they spend their time. The
point of the activity is not add to the areas where they already
spend time, but to balance out areas that have been neglected.
Again, several versions of life balance activities are available
(see for example Jim Clawson’s Balancing Your Life at http://
faculty.darden.virginia.edu/ClawsonJ/). An important goal of
this activity is to recognize that overemphasizing one area of
life to the neglect of other areas can leave you depleted and less
resilient.
Activities for building physical, psychological, and social
resiliency include
a. Good nutrition and regular exercise, important for physical
resiliency. Using the Surgeon General’s recommendation
for physical activity, we apply the FIT acronym. FIT for
health benefits is F = frequency (minimum: 5 days a week;
maximum: 7 days a week), I = Intensity (60 to 80% of
maximum heart rate [moderate], e.g., walking, bicycling),
T = Time (20 to 60 minutes in the target heart rate zone
[moderate intensity]). Participants determine their target
heart rates and identify how they build physical resiliency.
(Surgeon General’s recommendation and how to determine
your target heart rate are provided in handout.)
b. Completing a hardy personality self-assessment (in hand-
out) to assess psychological resiliency. Hardiness consists
of commitment, control, and challenge. Research stud-
ies have found hardy personalities more resistant to stress.
Participants write out how they can increase these three
factors in their life.

c. Social support, which buffers the ill effects of stress.
Having a trusted friend or professional to talk with about
concerns and have a good laugh can reduce stress. We
provide contact information for the available counseling
services.
5. Coping Strategies: Part of managing stress is mindfulness.
The exercise ends with activities that focus on breathing,
meditative relaxation, creative visualization, and affirma-
tions. Practicing restorative breathing (e.g., full breaths, good
posture, gentle shoulder rolls) and positive reframing, partici-
pants can transform their life in ways that create sustainable
well-being. Participants are encouraged to create an affirma-
tion, which is a present-tense positive statement that affirms
what they want in life (e.g., I am worthy of the best in life,
I believe in my abilities to be successful). Depending on the
energy of the participant group, we have also ended the ses-
sion with a YouTube clip of Ellen DeGeneres dancing with
celebrities, and encouraged participants to enjoy some physi-
cal movement.
6. Assignment Option: A goal of this exercise is for participants
to develop their own stress management plan using the infor-
mation covered in this base exercise and primary and second-
ary research that they have collected on their own. An outline
for this assignment can be found in Appendix C.
Debriefing Notes:
To debrief the exercise, we ask participants to complete an anony-
mous survey that includes the three following questions (rated on a
5-point Likert scale—strongly disagree to strongly agree):
1. This workshop was a useful activity.

2. I learned something valuable about stress and techniques for
managing stress.
3. I believe I will use some of this information in my life.
One open-ended question is included: What information was the
most interesting and useful to you?
It is also worthwhile to have a verbal debrief that includes the
above questions and allows participants to explore additional related
areas and resources that are particularly relevant to them. If using this
exercise as a graded assignment for later in the term, participants are
encouraged to further research these relevant areas. Instructors can
also direct participants to organizational and community resources.
The debrief should help participants know that they are not alone and
that many resources are available for managing stress.

Exercise 1: Understanding and Managing Stress
Goals:
1. To understand how stress affects performance

• Define stress and identify key stressors
• Recognize the consequences of stress
• Learn how the body/mind reacts to stressors
2. To learn strategies for managing stress
• Strategies for eliminating stress
• Strategies for building resiliency against stress
• Strategies for temporary coping
3. To develop a personal stress management plan
Stress and Performance

Q: What is stress? A: A condition or feeling experienced when a
person perceives that demands exceed the personal and social resources the
individual is able to mobilize (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
What is your Definition of Stress?

Q: What is a stressor?
A: Anything that is intense enough and/or brought to bear for long
enough to induce a reaction of stress.
Stress can be the result of “good things “(eustress) as well as “bad

things “(distress)
Common stressors: procrastination, interruptions, indecision, per-

fectionism, type-A behavior pattern, negativity, loneliness, financial
insecurity, test anxiety, life/lifestyle changes.
What are your Stressors?
Stress and Performance (continued)
Q: What are the consequences of stress?
A: There are three main categories of the personal consequences of
stress: Psychological, Physiological, and Behavioral.
Psychological: anxiety, depression, negativity, low self-esteem, dif-

ficulty concentrating, boredom, apathy

Physiological: muscle tension, high blood pressure, lower immunity,
fatigue, ulcers, headaches, back pain
Behavioral: smoking, alcohol abuse, eating (weight gain or loss),
sleep difficulties, hostility/violence, emotional outbursts
How does Stress affect you?

Strategies for Eliminating Stress
Q: How can I eliminate stressors?
A: Many stressors can be eliminated through effective and efficient
time management, collaborative relationships with others, and finding
satisfaction through meaningful work. These three aspects of elimi-
nating stress also relate to the ways in which we can build engage-
ment (energy, involvement, and personal accomplishment) and reduce
burnout (exhaustion, cynicism, inefficacy). Time Management can
increase energy and reduce exhaustion and is related to workplace
factors such as job demands, job control.
What are your time mis-management issues?

Confusion, Indecision, Diffusion, Procrastination, Avoidance,
Interruptions, Perfectionism
Determine your time mismanagement issues (see next page!).
Suggestions:
Set Personal and Professional Goals.

1.
2.
3.
Know what motivates you, Find purpose.
1.
2.
3.
Learn to say “no,” Prioritize.

1.
2.

3.
Identify pattern., Use rewards, cues.

1.
2.
3.
Reduce perfectionism (cognitive restructuring).

1.
2.
3.
Set boundaries. Establish “work” and “play” times.

1.
2.
3.
Determine “return on investment.” Draw the line between necessary and

excessive.
1.
2.
3.
Common Reasons for Time Mismanagement
Below are the seven deadly sins of time (mis)management (Rice, 1999).
Do any of these “sins” affect your success with time management?
1. Confusion: Where am I going?
Complain about wasting too much time, but not sure where your time is
actually going.
Suggestions: Set Personal and Professional Goals
2. Indecision: What should I do?

Failing to make decisions that need to be made.
Handling tasks too many times.
Suggestions: Know what motivates you, Find purpose
3. Diffusion: Mental and physical overload.

“Too many irons in the fire”, doing more than is possible, not knowing
your own limits.
Battered mind syndrome
Suggestions: Learn to say “no”, Prioritize
4. Procrastination: That will keep for another day.

“I wish”, and “I just can’t get started”
Suggestions: Identify patterns, Use rewards, cues
5. Avoidance: Escape to fantasy land.

Doing anything/everything but what you are supposed to be doing.
Dwell on trivial aspects.
Connected with perfectionism
Suggestions: Reduce perfectionism, Cognitive restructuring
6. Interruptions: Getting started is the hard part.

Crisis excuse, upset in relationship, overheard gossip.
Damaging to complex projects.
Suggestions: Set boundaries, Establish “work” and “play” times
7. Perfectionism: I was raised a perfectionist.

Unrealistic standards for self and others
Compulsive overdoing
Suggestions: Determine “return on investment”, Draw the line between necessary
and excessive
What is a collaborative relationship?

A relationship built on trust, honesty, respect, kindness,
emotional awareness.
Collaborative relationships can increase involvement and
reduce cynicism.
Related Workplace Factors: Rewards and Community
What are the characteristics of meaningful work?

Meaningful work provides variety, autonomy, and
regular feedback.
Meaningful work is significant and important to the
individual and organization.
Meaningful work can increase personal accomplishment
and reduce inefficacy.
Related Workplace Factors: Fairness and Values
What can you do to eliminate stress in your life?

Activity: Using the circle below, shade in the portion of each piece
of pie relative to the amount of attention paid to each area.
Practice Life Balance

Spiritual Cultural
Physical Family
Work Social
Intellectual
Figure 8 Practice Life Balance.

Source: Whetton, D. & Camerson, K. (2002). Developing Managerial Skills (5th edition). Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall Publishing.
* * *
Strategies for Building Resiliency against Stress
Q: How do I build resiliency to stress?

A: A physically, psychologically, and socially healthy person is more
resilient to stress than an unhealthy person. (Life balance is key.)
How can I be physically resilient?
Good nutrition and regular exercise provide you with greater
endurance and strength.
Minimize your caffeine and sugar intake!
The Surgeon General’s Report states that every U.S. adult should
“accumulate 30 minutes or more of moderate intensity physical
activity on most, preferably all days of the week.”
Apply the FIT acronym for Health Benefits
FIT is
F= Frequency (minimum: 5 days a week; maximum: 7 days a week),
I= Intensity (60 to 80% of maximum heart rate [moderate], e.g.,
walking, bicycling),
Target Heart Rate: 1. 220–Age = Maximum Heart Rate (MHR);
2. MHR x .60, and MHR x .80 = your target heart rate range
T= Time (20 to 60 minutes in the target heart rate zone [moderate
intensity]).

What is your target heart rate range? _________
What is your 10-second count target
heart rate range? _________
What activities do you do to achieve your FIT goals? _________
My action plan for building physical resiliency to stress is (list three

action items)
1.
2.
3.
How can I be psychologically resilient?
Practice optimism and constructive thinking.
Develop a hardy personality through commitment (a sense
of purpose in life),
control (ability to inf luence events in your life), and challenge
(perceiving life experiences as opportunities).
Take the Hardiness Questionnaire in Appendix A
Score: Commitment __________
Control: __________
Challenge __________
What is your action plan for increasing your psychological resiliency?

How can I be socially resilient?
Develop supportive social networks.
Seek trained professional support when needed!
Counseling Center Contact Information:
Strategies for Temporary Coping
Q: How can I temporarily cope with stress?

A: Be aware of how you are responding to stressful situations.
Remember to breath and center yourself through mindful-
ness. Practice creative visualization and personal affirmations.
Cognitively reframe situations as manageable.
Breathing, Muscle Relaxation, and Mindfulness

Practice meditative relaxation in your daily life.
Try 10 minutes today!
Creative Visualization and Affirmations
Use intention (the desire, belief, and acceptance to a goal)
to visualize your success.
Phrase affirmations in the present-tense and in the
most positive way you can.
Reframing
Change your outlook to see obstacles as opportunities.
What can you do to cope with stress

as it happens? ____________
Create an affirmation to repeat several

times a day. ____________
* * *
Appendix A (Hardiness Self-Assessment)

Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly
disagree disagree agree agree
a. Trying my best at school makes a 0 1 2 3

difference
b. Trusting to fate is sometimes all I can do 0 1 2 3
in a relationship
c. I often wake up eager to start on the day’s 0 1 2 3
projects
d. Thinking of myself as a free person leads 0 1 2 3
to great frustration and difficulty
e. I would be willing to sacrifice financial 0 1 2 3
security in my work if something really
challenging comes along
f. It bothers me when I have to deviate from 0 1 2 3
the routine or schedules I’ve set for myself
Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly

disagree disagree agree agree
g. An average citizen can have an impact on 0 1 2 3

politics
h. I know why I’m doing what I’m doing at 0 1 2 3
school
i. Without the right breaks, it is hard to be 0 1 2 3
successful in my field
j. Getting close to people puts me at risk of 0 1 2 3
being obligated to them

k. Encountering new situations is an 0 1 2 3
important priority in my life
L. I really don’t mind when I have 0 1 2 3
nothing to do
Scoring
To get your scores on control, commitment, and challenge, first write
the number of your answer
Control
Scores: A: ____ + G ____ MINUS B:____ + H: ____ =
Commitment
Scores: C: ____ + I ____ MINUS D:____ + J: ____ =
Challenge
Scores: E: ____ + K ____ MINUS F:____ + L: ____ =
Total Scores: 10–18: a hardy person; 0–9: moderate hardiness;
below 0: low hardiness
Discovery
Childhood/Adolescence/
Organizational adult
stage reflections
Organizational need on race/ethnicity.
Dream
Destiny Using
Individual Embracing Diversity Affirmative
development plan & Images
for diversity and Supporting Inclusion to envision
inclusion. practicing
inclusion.
Design
Dialogue Circles on
race/ethnicity: an
opportunity to share
and develop.
What How When Champion/Sponsor
1.
2.
3.
4.

* * *
Appendix B (Time Management Survey)
Below are several time-related difficulties people sometimes experi-

ence. Please indicate how often each is a difficulty for you, using a
number as follows:
0 = Seldom or never a difficulty for me

5 = Sometimes a difficulty for me
10 = Frequently a difficulty for me.
_____My time is controlled by factors beyond my control.
_____Interruptions
_____Chronic overload—more to do than time available
_____Occasional overload
_____Chronic underload—too little to do in time available
_____Occasional underload
_____Alternating periods of overload and underload
_____Disorganization of my time
_____Procrastination
_____Separating home from work/school
_____Transition from work/school to home
_____Finding time for regular exercise
_____Finding time for daily periods of relaxation
_____Finding time for friendships
_____Finding time for family
_____Finding time for vacations
_____Easily bored
_____Saying “yes” when I later wish I had said “no”
_____Feeling overwhelmed by large task over an extended period
of time
_____Avoiding important tasks by frittering away time on less impor-
tant ones
_____Feeling compelled to assume responsibilities in groups
_____Unable to delegate because distrust quality of others’
performance
_____Unable to delegate because no one to delegate to
_____My perfectionism creates delays
_____I tend to leave tasks unfinished
_____I have difficulty living with unfinished tasks
_____Too many projects going at one time
_____Get into time binds by trying to help others too often
_____I tend to hurry even when it’s not necessary
_____Lose concentration while thinking about other things I have

to do
_____Not enough time alone
_____Feel compelled to be punctual
_____Pressure related to deadlines
How do you measure up to the following standard?

Zero-49 Low difficulty with time-related stressors
50–99 Moderate difficulty with time-related stressors
100 or more High difficulty with time-related stressors
How satisfied are you with your time-related difficulties?

Very satisfied
Somewhat satisfied
Not very satisfied
Now go back and underline the five most significant time-related
stressors for you.
* * *
Appendix B: Teaching Notes and Extended

Time Management (Exercise 2)
Time: 60–120 minutes. Sections can be shortened or lengthened

depending on time limits.
Teaching Notes:
Part 1: Time Concepts: (approximately 10 minutes in groups, 5

minutes to discuss as a class) This section allows participants to
work in groups to discuss time and time management.
Part 2: Getting Organized: (approximately 10–15 minutes) This
section focuses on “Quadrant Planning” with attention given
to Quadrant 2: Important, Not Urgent Goals. Ask participants
to identify the three to four things that are most important to
them. What contributions would they like to make? What prin-
ciples do they value? What do they hope to accomplish from
their goals (e.g., wealth, happiness, belonging)? As part of get-
ting organized, participants should list their long-term goals, fol-
lowed by medium-range and short-term goals. The idea is that
these goals should be in line with each other such that short-term
and medium-range goals lead to the achievement of long-term
goals.

Part 3: Scheduling: (approximately 10–15 minutes) In this sec-
tion participants practice prioritizing activities that will lead to
the accomplishment of their goals. Other scheduling tips include
determining acceptable levels of perfection, using “wasted” time,
letting some things go undone, doing difficult things first, and
saying no.
(Can take a short break between Part 3 and Part 4.)
Part 4: Barriers to Success: (approximately 15 minutes) This
section focuses on the ways in which people mismanage time.
Participants take a self-assessment to determine barriers to effec-
tive and efficient time management and assess the seven sins of
time mismanagement. Each time mismanagement element is paired
with suggestions for reducing or eliminating this barrier to suc-
cess. Participants should note areas where they need to focus to
improve their management of time.
Part 5: The Bottom Line: Life Balance: (approximately 10
minutes) Ultimately, participants focus on life balance as the out-
come of good time management. This section presents the same
life balance exercise as the base exercise.
Note: For each section, participants can engage in a class discussion
to share ideas and perspectives.
* * *
Time Management Exercise
Part 1: Time Concepts

Part 2: Getting Organized
Part 3: Scheduling
Part 4: Barriers to Success
Part 5: The Bottom Line: Life Balance
Part 1: Time Concepts
Thinking about Time and Time Management

As a group, discuss the following items. Try to arrive at a consensus
or if not note areas of differences.
1. What kinds of problems result from poor time management?

2. What do we mean by time? (Try to develop a definition of
time.)

3. What is meant by “managing time”? Can we really do it?
4. What does managing time have to do with being an effective
manager of yourself and others?
Part 2: Getting Organized

Understanding that Time is Life
Goal Setting
Quadrant planning is one method of time management, which
focuses on personal goal setting. Quadrant planning was developed
by Steven Covey (1989) and is a long-term approach to time manage-
ment. Table 1 presents the four quadrants that distinguish between
urgent and not urgent and important and not important tasks. The
first step is to find out what is truly important to you (Quadrant 2
Questions). Ask “Am I doing the right things?” Once this question is
answered then you can ask the second question “Am I doing things
right?”
Table 19 Covey’s Quadrant Planning Model
Quadrant 1: Urgent and Important Quadrant 2: Important, Not Urgent

Crisis Preparation
Pressing problems Prevention
Deadline-driven projects Values clarification
Urgent Meetings Planning
Important things that we have Relationship building
procrastinated on True recreation
Empowerment
Quadrant 3: Urgent but Not Quadrant 4: Not Urgent, Not

Important Important
Interruptions, some phone calls Trivia
Some mail, some reports Busy work
Some meetings Some phone calls
Many proximate, pressing matters Time wasters
Many popular activities Escape activities
Am I doing the Right Things?
Find out what is truly important to you. Are you spending time doing
things that are meaningful and important to you? To help answer
these questions, complete the following questions:
What are your lifetime goals?

These are your long-term goals.
What are your “medium-range” goals?
What would you like to accomplish? Where do you want to be 1

to 3 years from now? (Do these goals help you with your long-term
goals?)
What are your short-term goals?
What would you like to accomplish? Where do you want to be 6
months from now? (Do these goals help you with your medium-
range goals?)
*** Prioritize the goals in this last section, 1 = highest importance
to you.
Part 3: Scheduling
Step 2: Prioritizing your Activities to Reach your Goals

Phase 1: Make a to-do list. List all the things you want to do in the
next few days.
Phase 2: On the next page organize your activities using an ABC
rating system.
A = Must be done today. Some examples would be studying for a

test that is in a few days, getting gas if your tank in near empty,
going to the gym, starting research on a project that is due in a
couple of weeks, spending quiet time meditating, or spending
time with a family member. Your A list items are important but
not necessarily urgent.
B = Should be done today. These items are of some importance to
you. Some examples would be getting gas if you are on a quarter
tank of gas, starting research on a project that is due a month
from now, changing the water in the fish tank.
C = Could be done or not. These items have little importance to
you. These items could be done but it is not important if they are
not completed. Some examples would be washing the car, going
to the mall to buy a shirt, or reading the newspaper.
Prioritize your activities:
A ITEMS
B ITEMS

C ITEMS
* * *
Day/Date___________________________________________
Must Do
A1 Priority___________________________________________
A2 Priority___________________________________________
A3 Priority___________________________________________
A4 Priority___________________________________________
A5 Priority___________________________________________
Important Secondary Tasks

B1 Priority___________________________________________
B2 Priority___________________________________________
B3 Priority___________________________________________
B4 Priority___________________________________________
B5 Priority___________________________________________
Nice To Do
C1 Priority___________________________________________
C2 Priority___________________________________________
C3 Priority___________________________________________
C4 Priority___________________________________________
C5 Priority___________________________________________
Scheduling Tips: Practice control over time, cluster similar activi-

ties, use time blocking, internal prime time, break large projects into
manageable subprojects.
Other Tips:___________________________________________
Part 4: Barriers to Success
Below are several time-related difficulties people sometimes experi-

ence. Please indicate how often each is a difficulty for you, using
number as follows:
0 = Seldom or never a difficulty for me

5 = Sometimes a difficulty for me
10 = Frequently a difficulty for me.
_____My time is controlled by factors beyond my control.
_____Interruptions
_____Chronic overload—more to do than time available
_____Occasional overload
_____Chronic under-load—too little to do in time available
_____Occasional under-load
_____Alternating periods of overload and under-load
_____Disorganization of my time
_____Procrastination
_____Separating home from work/school
_____Transition from work/school to home
_____Finding time for regular exercise
_____Finding time for daily periods of relaxation
_____Finding time for friendships
_____Finding time for family
_____Finding time for vacations
_____Easily bored
_____Saying “yes” when I later wish I had said “no”
_____Feeling overwhelmed by large task over an extended period
of time
_____Avoiding important tasks by frittering away time on less impor-
tant ones
_____Feeling compelled to assume responsibilities in groups
_____Unable to delegate because distrust quality of others’
performance
_____Unable to delegate because no one to delegate to
_____My perfectionism creates delays
_____I tend to leave tasks unfinished
_____I have difficulty living with unfinished tasks
_____Too many projects going at one time
_____Get into time binds by trying to people others too often
_____I tend to hurry even when it’s not necessary
_____Lose concentration while thinking about other things I have
to do
_____Not enough time alone
_____Feel compelled to be punctual
_____Pressure related to deadlines
How do you measure up to the following standard?

Zero-49 Low difficulty with time-related stressors
50–99 Moderate difficulty with time-related stressors
100 or more High difficulty with time-related stressors
How satisfied are you with your time-related difficulties?
Very satisfied, Somewhat satisfied, Not very satisfied
Now go back and underline the five most significant time-related
stressors for you.
Common Reasons for Time Mismanagement

Below are the seven deadly sins of time (mis)management (Rice,
1999). Think about your time-related stressors from the above survey.
Do any of these “sins” affect your success with time management?
1. Confusion: Where am I going?

Complain about wasting too much time, but not sure where your time is
actually going.
Suggestions: Set Personal and Professional Goals
2. Indecision: What should I do?

Failing to make decisions that need to be made.
Handling tasks too many times.
Suggestions: Know what motivates you, Find purpose
3. Diffusion: Mental and physical overload.

“Too many irons in the fire”, doing more than is possible, not knowing
your own limits.
Battered mind syndrome
Suggestions: Learn to say “no”, Prioritize
4. Procrastination: That will keep for another day.

“I wish”, and “I just can’t get started”
Suggestions: Identify patterns, Use rewards, cues
5. Avoidance: Escape to fantasy land.

Doing anything/everything but what you are supposed to be doing.
Dwell on trivial aspects.
Connected with perfectionism
Suggestions: Reduce perfectionism, Cognitive restructuring
6. Interruptions: Getting started is the hard part.
Crisis excuse, upset in relationship, overheard gossip.
Damaging to complex projects.
Suggestions: Set boundaries, Establish “work” and “play” times
7. Perfectionism: I was raised a perfectionist.

Unrealistic standards for self and others
Compulsive overdoing
Suggestions: Determine “return on investment”, Draw the line between necessary
and excessive

Part 5: The Bottom Line:
Life Balance
Life balance is an effective way to manage time. Keys to life balance
include doing what really matters, balancing structure and spontane-
ity, sitting and thinking, and simplifying.
Are your priorities what you are spending time with?
Table 4 Life Balance
What people said their priorities were: How people actually spend their time:
1. Family 1. Other interests including recreation and TV

2. Personal character, including belief, 2. Work or career
inner growth, and education
3. Work or career 3. Personal character, including belief, inner
growth, and education
4. Other interests including recreation 4. Family
and TV
Spiritual Cultural
Physical Family
Work Social
Intellectual
Figure 10 How do you spend your time?
Introduction to Participants and Facilitators: Both of these exercises

require participants to uncover deeply held beliefs. In our experience
participants are good at managing how much of these beliefs they
want to reveal and when. We do however start with a cautionary note
saying that engagement with deeper work and life meanings goes to
the essence of who we are as human beings and can therefore some-
times provoke strong responses. We therefore always co-facilitate or
otherwise ensure there is someone available who can accompany a
person out of the room if they need a bit of time to themselves.

* * *
Appendix C: Guidelines for Developing Your

Stress Management Plan
Objective: The purpose of this assignment is for you to assess the

primary stressors in your life and to develop a plan for managing your
stress. Managing stress is a life-long endeavor and this project will
provide you with the tools and techniques for effectively managing
stress.
Elements of Your Stress Management Plan
Time Management: Your plan will use time management strategies

as your underlying foundation. As such, you will use the prioritiz-
ing, scheduling, and implementing tools that we discussed in class to
structure your plan. In addition, identify which of the time misman-
agement factors (confusion, indecision, diffusion, procrastination,
avoidance, interruptions, and perfectionism) affect your ability to be
successful. Incorporate into your plan your strategies to reduce or
eliminate these time mismanagement factors.
Life Balance: Creating balance in your life is the next layer of your
stress management plan. Identify a holistic view of important areas
in your life by using the life balance circle discussed in class or by
adapting this example to fit your life goals. The seven life balance cat-
egories include Physical, Spiritual, Family, Social, Intellectual, Work,
and Cultural.
Stressor Identification: Using the material from our text (Rice, 1999)
and class discussion, assess your tendencies in regard to managing
stress and creating life balance. For example, do you have “Type
A” tendencies, certain perceptual biases, tendency toward anxi-
ety or depression, lack of personal control, physiological or health
challenges? Identify what stressor(s) you want to focus on. For you
plan, please include outside readings that explore this stressor in more
detail.
Adherence: Include your strategies for adhering to your plan.
Examples include personal rewards, social facilitation, and goal
attainment.
Mechanics:

Pre-Plan Data: Your plan should include “pre-plan” data where you
record your activities for one week. You can start this any time. The
pre-plan will serve as your comparison and also as an assessment of
how you are currently structuring your week. During each day record
your activities and your “feelings” about the day. Ideally, from this
pre-plan you can start to develop your stress management plan.
Plan: The actual “plan” should include the ways in which you are
creating balance in your life. Apply the principles from our text
and include outside readings that supplement class learning. Follow
through on your plan for at least one week and include your assess-
ment of how the plan is working (similar to your pre-plan compo-
nent). Include how your “adherence” strategies are working. Also,
discuss the reasons why this plan is important to you. What you are
accomplishing? What goals are you satisfying?
Grading: Your plan will be graded on the quality of the content
and mechanics components. Organization will also be assessed. Is
the paper well organized? Can I clearly find all the required parts?
Reasoning: Does your plan make sense? Does it incorporate course
material? Spelling/Grammar: Is the paper proofed? Does it f low well?
Other: 10 pages MAXIMUM
Notes
1. http://www.forbes.com/2002/07/25/accountingtracker.html
2. George, B. & Sims, P. (2007). True North, pp. xxxi-xxxiii, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
3. This exercise, Survey of Managerial Style (UVA-OB-0358), was prepared by S. Gail Pearl under
the supervision of James G. Clawson, Johnson & Higgins Professor of Business Administration at
the Darden Graduate School of Business, University of Virginia. We acknowledge the ideas and
previous, related drafts contributed to this work by Paul D. McKinnon of Novations, Inc. and
Quentin Englerth of The World Group, Inc. This case was written as a basis for class discussion
rather than to illustrate effective or ineffective handling of an administrative situation. Edited
for inclusion in this volume by James Clawson, Copyright  1984, 1995, 2010 by the University
of Virginia Darden School Foundation, Charlottesville, VA. All rights reserved. To order copies,
send an e-mail to dardencases@virginia.edu. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, used in a spreadsheet, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechani-
cal, photocopying, recording, or otherwise—without the permission of the Darden School Foundation. Rev.
10/95. Reprinted with permission.
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CH A P T E R 2
Workplace Spirituality

This chapter describes and summarizes the research and writing that has
been published on spirituality in the workplace. It defines workplace spiri-
tuality and distinguishes it from workplace religion, and contrasts modern
and spiritual paradigms of work. It next uses a model for understanding
levels and ways of analyzing research on spirituality in organizations to
describe research that has so far been conducted in the area of workplace
spirituality and areas in need of further study. Finally, it describes issues
that can arise in attempting to make an organization more spiritual and to
staying on a spiritual path.
Introduction
There are multiple definitions of workplace spirituality, most of them

with a common core. In this chapter, two definitions of workplace spiri-
tuality will be used as a foundation. The first is Giacalone and Jurkiewicz’
(2003) definition, which states that spirituality in the workplace is “a
framework of organizational values evidenced in the culture that pro-
motes employees’ experience of transcendence through the work process,
facilitating their sense of being connected in a way that provides feelings
of compassion and joy.” The second definition is by Marques, Dhiman,
and King (2007), stating, “Spirituality in the workplace is an experience
of interconnectedness among those involved in a work process, initiated
by authenticity, reciprocity, and personal goodwill; engendered by a deep
sense of meaning that is inherent in the organization’s work; and resulting
in greater motivation and organizational excellence.”
In separating spirituality from religion, the Dalai Lama’s (1999) distinc-
tion will serve as a guide:
Religion I take to be concerned with faith in the claims of one faith

tradition or another, an aspect of which is the acceptance of some
form of heaven or nirvana. Connected with this are religious teach-
ings or dogma, ritual prayer, and so on. Spirituality I take to be
concerned with those qualities of the human spirit—such as love and
compassion, patience, tolerance, forgiveness, contentment, a sense of
responsibility, a sense of harmony—which brings happiness to both
self and others (p. 22).
Two contrasting paradigms—modern vs. Spiritual

Biberman and Whitty (1997) described two contrasting paradigms of
individuals and organizations—namely, modern vs. spiritual. These will
now be brief ly discussed.

Most organizations have been designed and managed for the past
100 years using a paradigm based largely on a logical and mechanistic
paradigm—a paradigm that values reason and “scientific” principles,
which will be referred to as the modern paradigm. The paradigm assumes
that people can be scientifically measured and categorized based on intel-
lectual and other characteristics they possess, and that certain people are
meant to be leaders whereas others are meant to be followers (or other
variations of superior versus inferior), and that organizations, and indeed
the whole world, run on rational laws that, once discovered, dictate the
only correct way for the organization to run. This paradigm has given rise
to such organizational practices as scientific management, employment
testing, and job instructional training.
In this paradigm, rational decision making and logical thinking are
encouraged, and emotions are to be avoided. Another major component
of this paradigm is the belief in scarcity of resources—that is, that all
resources, including financial and human resources, exist in finite quanti-
ties, and possession of a resource by one person or unit implies its unavail-
ability to other persons or units. This belief has led to such personal and
organizational practices as competition, political manipulation, “padding”
of budget requests, empire building, and lack of trust and cooperation
between persons and units. In addition, this paradigm leads to a belief that
the person or organization is separate from other persons or organizations,
and that preservation of the self, even if it is at the expense of the other, is
paramount to survival. In contrast to the modern paradigm is a paradigm
we will call a spiritual paradigm, stemming from organizational interest
in spirituality.
The two paradigms can be contrasted on both the individual man-
ager and organization level. On an individual level, persons who ascribe
to the modern management paradigm would be expected to have rigid
attitudes and beliefs about the nature of themselves, other managers, their
superiors and their subordinates (similar to what McGregor described as
Theory X), and a set pattern of behaviors in dealing with each of them.
They would also be likely to establish and follow specific procedures or
rules of behavior for themselves and others, and be resistant to change.
They would attempt to base their decisions purely on logic and reason,
Workplace Spirituality 81
and would frown on the use of intuition and the display of emotion. Their
scarcity belief would be likely to lead to their not trusting other people, to
the use of win-lose tactics in dealing with conf lict situations, and to using
a variety of power and political tactics to secure their own power base.
They would also have a hard time delegating power to others.
Persons operating from a spiritual paradigm perspective would be open
to change, have a sense of purpose and meaning in their life, appreci-
ate how they are connected with a greater whole, and have individual
understanding and expression of their own spirituality. In contrast to a
scarcity belief, they possess what has been referred to as an “abundance”

mentality—a belief that there are abundant resources available to all, so
that there is no need to compete for them. They would also be more
likely to trust others, share information, and work in concert with teams
and co-workers to accomplish mutual objectives, and to empower their
co-workers and people below them in the organizational hierarchy. They
would be more likely to use intuition and emotions in reaching decisions.
They would also be more likely to use win-win collaborative strategies in
conf lict situations.
Organizations that operate from the modern paradigm possess rigid,
bureaucratic structures and hierarchical chains of command. They are
more likely to use formal communication channels, have very formal
policy manuals, and procedures for every activity and job title in the
organization. They are more concerned with following policies and pro-
cedures than in pleasing either internal or external customers. The belief
in scarcity of resources leads to competition between organization units
for budget, personnel, and other resources, and leads to politics and power
struggles between units.
In contrast, organizations that operate from the spiritual paradigm
would be expected to have f latter organization structures and a greater
openness to change. Their belief in abundant resources would lead to
greater interconnectedness and cooperation between organization units,
and empowerment of workers at all levels of the organization. Rather
than believing in the preservation of the self at all costs, these organi-
zations would be more concerned with existing in harmony with their
environment, and would thus be more supportive of the ecology and
environment, and more concerned with meeting the needs of internal
and external customers. These organizations would be more likely to
encourage creative thinking and the working together of organization
units to establish and accomplish mutually agreed-on mission statements
and objectives for the organization.
Levels and Ways of Analyzing Organizational Spirituality

Researchers in the field of spirituality in organizations use different defi-
nitions, constructs, levels, and aspects of spirituality and of organizations.
Tischler, Biberman, and Altman (2007) introduced a model that orga-
nizes possible research in the field, so that future researchers can increas-
ingly build on each others’ research. The model can be broken down
into three main dimensions—level, measures, and validity. “Level” refers
to the level of analysis of the study, and is divided into individual, work
unit, whole organization, and society. “Measures” refers to the types of
data being examined or phenomena being measured by the measurement
instruments or procedures used in each particular study; they are described
as measuring cognition, emotion, action, behaviors, or processes, or other
measures. “Validity” refers to the way in which the phenomenon being

studied is validated, as either internally perceived experiences (interior)
validated only by the person having or reporting the experience, or
externally observable or measurable phenomena (exterior), which can be
“objectively” validated. This three-dimensional model resulted in 32 pos-
sible combinations.
Tischler, Biberman and Fornaciari (2007) tested the above-mentioned
model by applying it to 187 empirical journal articles published in the field
of Management, Spirituality and Religion from 1996 to 2004. Classifying
the published research using the model shows those areas of research that
have received the most and the least amount of research attention. These
findings and implications were summarized and further discussed by
Biberman and Tischler in Spirituality in business: theory, practice, and future
directions (2008), and will now be summarized.
Most of the studies reported were at the individual level. There were
few studies at the organizational level and very few reported at the work
unit level and society levels. With regard to measures, most of the studies
reported using surveys to measure cognitive and action/process variables.
Those studies that were done using interviews, focus groups, and other
types of qualitative techniques were most likely to measure a combination
of cognitive, emotional and action/process variables. In terms of validity,
most of the studies used interior validity from some type of self-report.
The results of testing the model suggest that future research should be
conducted at all levels (particularly at the work unit and organizational
levels) and should involve more attempts at external validity, using mea-
sures that go beyond self-report to more externally observed measurements
such as observations or externally measured behaviors or processes.
Creating a Spiritual Organization

In the following section, issues that can arise in attempting to make an
organization more spiritual will be examined.
Stages of Organization Growth or Change

Individuals on a spiritual journey are often characterized as going
through several stages, which are variously described in different spiritual
traditions, but which have several things in common. In the Christian
tradition, the process of spiritual transformation is known as the three
ways—the purgative way, the illuminative way, and the unitive way
(Benefiel, 2008). Along the way, spiritual transformation includes “dark
night” experiences.
Organization and group theorists have described organizations and
groups as going through stages. Many organizations can be described
as going through changes or stages that would make them less spiritual
as they grow from a small entrepreneurial company to a large successful
company. In these cases, while the owners of the small startup company

may have started with spiritual values or intentions, as the company
grew and became more successful, they became more likely to fol-
low traditional management policies and organization design policies,
resulting in a large company run by traditional command and control
policies.
There are companies, however, that choose to remain faithful to the
spiritual values with which they were started, even as the company grows.
In these cases, organizations can go through stages that mirror the spiri-
tual growth stages that an individual can undergo. Analogous stages of
spiritual growth for an organization can thus be described.
Making Your Organization More Spiritual

Inf luences or drives to make an organization become more spiritual can
come from any level of the organization. In most cases, the inf luence
comes from the top—from the founder or CEO of the company. But the
inf luence can also come from the bottom or from any level of the organi-
zation, especially if there are mechanisms in place to elicit employee input
and feedback. Thus, in some cases, employees have requested prayer and
meditation groups and/or opportunities.
When it comes to making an organization more spiritual, the following
questions and potential answers arise:
● Does an organization go through the same stages of spiritual devel-

opment as does a person?
Organizations could be said to go through stages similar to that of a

person, as illustrated by Benefiel’s Tom’s of Maine example.
● Does the leader have to go through the changes first, and then inf lu-
ence the rest of the organization to change, or can the change occur
at any level? Does it need to be an individual change first, or can a
group or organizational unit begin the change process?
Although change is most often initiated by leadership at the top, it

could also be initiated at other levels of the organization. In every case,
however, the spiritual change would begin first in an individual or group,
who would then be motivated to change the organization in a similar
direction.
● Just as a person encounters opportunities to grow spiritually or to

begin on a more spiritual path, does an organization encounter the
same type of opportunities? If so, what would they be?
An organization, just as a person, can encounter opportunities to begin

on a spiritual path. Just as a crisis or other opportunity for self-examination

and ref lection can lead to a personal spiritual transformation, so too can a
similar opportunity occur in an organization. Examples of such opportu-
nities could be a financial or other crisis in the organization, a change in
leadership, or a company takeover.
● Just as an individual encounters challenges along the spiritual path,

does an organization encounter the same type of challenges? If so,
what would they be?
Organizations can also encounter challenges along the spiritual path. A

common challenge faced by organizations occurs when an entrepreneur
starts a company along spiritual values with which the members of the
small company all agree, the company is successful and grows, and the
company growth leads to an inf lux of new managers or employees who
no longer are familiar with or “buy into” the original values of the found-
ing entrepreneur (Benefiel’s case example of Tom’s of Maine is a good
example of this), or the company either restructures or gets bought out
by a larger company that is not familiar with or does not “buy into” the
original values of the founding entrepreneur.
● Is there an organizational equivalent of the dark night of the soul?

How would an organization deal with it and transcend it?
An organizational equivalent of the dark night of the soul would occur

when the members of the organization begin to lose sight of or to ques-
tion the spiritual values that they once held. For example, members of the
organization may question whether their practices are in keeping with the
values expressed in their mission statement. When such a crisis occurs,
the organization needs to provide mechanisms—such as executive and
employee retreats and speak-out sessions—for organization members to
revisit the organization’s values.
● Does it matter at what level of the organization such challenges

occur?
Just as change is most often initiated by leadership at the top, but could
also be initiated at other levels of the organization, so, too the challenges
can occur at any level of the organization.
Staying on the Spiritual Path

Even a spiritual organization faces challenges to remaining on the spiri-
tual path. These are most likely to occur as the organization becomes
bigger and more formalized, or as the organization faces greater competi-
tion or economic challenges. How can the organization remain true to its

spiritual values and practices?
The organization needs to remain open to challenges and criticisms
from all of its internal and external constituencies. It needs to be f lexible
in its ability to respond to these criticisms and challenges. The organiza-
tion needs to provide frequent and ongoing opportunities to revisit and
celebrate its mission and values, and to critically examine ways in which
it can respond to challenges while remaining true to its spiritual values.
These opportunities could include company retreats and celebrations. The
organization can appoint people or units to provide ongoing feedback on
its processes, as well as people or units to look for ways to promote an
abundance (as opposed to scarcity) interpretation of and response to ongo-
ing challenges from within and without the organization. Leaders of the
organization can realize that the impetus for change can come from any
level of the organization, not just from top leadership, and create mecha-
nisms or positions throughout the organization to monitor and be ready
to respond to the impetus for change.
What can you do as a member of an organization to help make the orga-
nization more spiritual? As an individual organization member, regardless
of your title or position in the organization, you can work on your own
spiritual development and deepen your own spiritual practices, by engag-
ing in daily prayer, meditation, and spiritual study. You can look for ways
in which insights you gain from your spiritual practice could be applied to
your organization and work situation, particularly in the areas of decision
making and interpersonal communication with your fellow organization
members. The more you engage in your own spiritual growth, the more
the organization will benefit from your growth in consciousness, regard-
less of your title or formal position within the organization. If you are a
manager or a senior officer in your organization, you can look for ways
in which insights you gain from your spiritual practice can lead to better
ways of motivating and leading other organization members, and to bet-
ter ways of designing the organization and to improving organizational
processes.
The exercises following this chapter will help you to develop both your
own and your organization’s spirituality, as well as with your and your
organization’s values, time management, dealing with stress, and conf lict.
Many of the exercises, though categorized in this section, may also apply
to the other chapters of the book, due to the interdependent nature of the
topics.
E X E RC I S E

Contemplating Meaningful Work
Two exercises to make meaningful and meaningless
work visible to self and others
Ma r jo L ips -Wier sm a, Ph. D. , U niver sity of
Can ter bu r y, New Zealand
Lan i Mo r r is , Ph . D. , In dependent Leader shi p, Motivation, and
Su s ta in a bil it y C onsult ant , New Zealand
Introduction
“An unexamined life is not worth living”. But what is it exactly

that is worthwhile to examine and how is this activity different
from daydreaming or worrying? How do we focus our contem-
plation on what really matters and motivates us?
This chapter is based on the assumption that “to be human is to be in

search of meaningfulness.” We offer two exercises based on a model
called “the Holistic Development Model,” to assist you in structuring
contemplation and to make it easy in both personal and organiza-
tional contexts. You can download a version of this model for free
from www.holisticdevelopment.org.1 We have worked both theoreti-
cally and practically with this model over the past ten years and the
research on which the model has been built has been peer-reviewed
by our academic colleagues (Lips-Wiersma, 2002; Lips-Wiersma &
Morris, 2009). One key finding of our research is that human beings
already know what is deeply meaningful to them, but a number of
things get in the way of attending to this knowledge and acting on it.
There is a tendency to leave meaningfulness unexplained or vague,
as if everyone knows what it is, and knows that it is important, but
can’t easily put it into words (Overell, 2008). The model helps people
in articulating and attending to meaningfulness. It is constructed on
the basis of the meanings that research participants (of a wide vari-
ety of occupational, ethnic, religious, etc. backgrounds) were found
to have in common. Our work is designed to make contemplation
a democratic activity (rather than having those in charge prescribe
meaningfulness for others) and a regular and pro-active activity (rather
than it being relegated to an annual personal development plan or a
personal or organizational response to external factors). The work
aims to support thoughtful individuals in thoughtful organisations.
It has long been a given that the search for meaning is intrinsic
to being human, and research increasingly shows that the absence
of meaning and purpose is a pathological condition. This human
search for meaning has been well recognized in management theory
and practice. Intrinsic motivation, work alienation, transformational

leadership, and organizational culture theory all implicitly assume
that human beings yearn for meaningful work, and many organiza-
tional practices have been developed on the basis of these theories.
More recently, workplace spirituality, work engagement, workplace
ethics, and positive organizational psychology specifically address the
significance of meaningful work. The exercises in this chapter can
therefore be used in the context of a variety of academic disciplines
and a variety of organizational practices.
We introduce two exercises: one that aids ref lection at a personal
level and one that makes deeper meanings visible at a group level.
With both of these exercises we discuss how the Holistic Development
Model can aid contemplation. In the first exercise we focus on the
importance of structuring contemplation. In the second we focus on
the importance of sharing with others what is deeply meaningful to
us in a way that respects diversity of worldviews.
E X E RC I S E
Making Meaningfulness Visible to Oneself
Purpose and Goals
We call this exercise “My inner CV.” In a usual CV we draw atten-

tion to our accomplishments, our objective experiences, the sequence
of actions that makes up our career. But what about the subjective
questions of meaning? How do we document what goes on inside?
How do we evaluate how meaningful all those actions and experi-
ences have in fact been?
Contemplating THE meaning of life is too difficult for people to do.
The question is often perceived to be too large or grandiose to attend
to. It also seems to assume that there is one overarching meaning of
life and that failure to detect it is somehow a moral failure.
This exercise helps people ground questions about the meaning of
life in their daily existence. It also aids in breaking the big questions
down through working with the elements of the model. This enables
participants to work with the deep and difficult questions about life
and have a structure for responding to such questions. With the aid
of the model, the participant asks him or herself, “What have I been
up to all these years in terms of meaning? What parts of my life, what
experiences have been a cause of self-development, what have been

times of self-expression, when and where did I do things that gave
me an experience of unity with others, and where did I feel myself to
be of service to others?”
Requirements
Per person: one full and one empty copy of the model (can be down-
loaded from the website). One sheet with a brief explanation of each
of its elements (also to be found on our website). You will also need a
couple of pages of blank paper and a pen.
Time
This exercise can be done within 20 minutes with another approxi-
mately 20 to 30 minutes of discussion time.
Participants
We have done this exercise with old and young, those who have
deeply thought about the meaning of life and those who have not,
and with people from diverse ranges of cultural, social and occupa-
tional backgrounds. It can be done with groups of different sizes and
the discussion time and process (e.g., whole group/small groups) can
be adjusted accordingly.
Instructions
Our instructions are pretty simple. We invite participants to focus
on a particular time and/or a particular area of interest—depending
on what focus is important for the person (e.g. work, all life roles).
We ask them to write down when they experienced meaningfulness
in each of the quadrants in the model. (We usually give an example
for each quadrant.) Depending on the time available and the specific
aim, this can be narrowed down (e.g. over the last year, in relation to
a team, a particular change initiative), or it could look back over the
whole of life to get a sense of the inner journey.
The language used to set up the exercise can be adjusted depend-
ing on the audience—it can be framed as a spiritual CV, as an exer-
cise into discerning “what matters most,” or an exercise to simply
make visible the inner life that has often been hidden beneath the
outer one.
For the discussion we usually simply ask: what did you note?
Here are some examples of the sorts of things participants might
write down.
In “developing and becoming self ” participants might cover actions
such as meditation, walking, inviting feedback from friends and work-

mates, consciously developing intuition, etc. They also write down
events such as facing a death in the family, becoming a father (“A self
I did not know before”), or learning such as doing a course on phi-
losophy. In “unity with others” participants might cover actions such
as being a friend, a mentor, a workmate, trying to be a peacemaker;
or events such as celebrating Christmas at work, having regular team
meetings, family get-togethers, having evening dinner together; or
learning, such as communication skills training.
Discussion
Participants comment on a range of outcomes that are particularly

helpful to them.
1. The content and structure of the model aids in making visible

what is meaningful.
I thought I was pretty good at contemplating on what I had been
doing and who I was becoming. However the structure of the model
meant that I looked much more broadly than I would usually do and
so my reflection became much richer.
2. The content and structure of the model aids in attending to
the deeper reasons for action
I was amazed to see that my work–which had always seemed to be
about me (as a self-employed consultant focused on making money in
my business mind)—had in fact always been about service to others.
Seeing where it actually sat has allowed me over the years to stop wor-
rying about running a business and focus much more on how I can best
make a difference. This has transformed my business, and also made
me more at peace with myself.
3. The content and structure of the model aids in seeing the vari-
ous elements of meaningful life in the correct relation to each
other.
It aided me in evaluating my life-purposes in relation to each other.
It became quickly apparent that I’d been spending a lot of time and
energy on “unity”(and hence on others) and not so much on “expressing
full potential.” I realized I was in danger of losing myself if I only cast
myself in the role of peacemaker or synthesizer. These roles provide me
with meaning but if I enact them in an unbalanced way, I experience
life as being less meaning ful.
4. The content and structure of the model allows the person to
see the self as an integrated whole, while attending to specific
areas.
I noticed that I had strongly developed “expressing full potential”
and decided I wanted to develop “service to others” a bit more. Because
in the CV exercise I had clearly mapped out all the things I’d done and

been, I could pay attention to “service to others” based on the strengths
that I had already developed in “expressing full potential.”
E X E RC I S E
Collective Conversations About Meaningful Work
Rationale
If it is difficult to ref lect on meaningfulness for oneself, it is even

more difficult to do so in the collective. Meaning is often perceived
to be a private matter or too hard to talk about in the commercial
world, which usually legitimizes conversations to the extent that they
lead to hard and fast outcomes. However, the question of “How do
I live a meaningful life?” is not separate from our relationships. The
question not only asks, “what happens if I treat myself as a deeply
meaningful being?” but also “what happens if we treat each other as
deeply meaningful beings?” What if we treated those who manage us
as meaningful beings, what if we treated those who are managed by
us as human beings? To allow for meaning to emerge from the collec-
tive, we need something that both brings our own deepest knowing
to the fore and also assists us in sharing that with others in order to
be able to both identify the meanings on which we collectively agree
and act on them in a way that incorporates diversity. This is what this
exercise is designed to do. This exercise can serve as a foundation for
a range of organizational practices such as work engagement, organi-
zational culture, and vision.
Requirements
Copies with descriptions of each of the elements of the model (can be
downloaded from the website).
Eight large f lip chart sheets (with headings of the elements of the
model—see Instructions below) and walls to attach them to.
Markers for each of the sheets.
Instructions
Put eight sheets of paper around the room (on walls or any other place
where they can be easily read). Head each of these with one of the ele-
ments of the model: “service to others,” “inspiration,” reality of self
and circumstances, developing self, expressing full potential, unity

with others, being versus doing, self versus others. We usually also
provide an empty sheet on which participants can add anything that
is meaningful to them but not adequately captured in the model.
Ask participants to go around the room and write down what they
already believe about the importance of each of the elements of the
model (also “what they hold dear,” “already know” about the impor-
tance of each of the elements to them). Make sure that they do not
add their names to what they have written. Give examples such as
“In a previous exercise people wrote down such things as ‘you need
to be the change you want to be in the world’ under ‘developing and
becoming self ’.” It is important that people feel free to write down
anything that comes to mind. This can be wisdom from a parent, a
quote, or something they just know/believe. It can really be anything
from a religious text to a Yogi Berra quote, as long as it is meaningful
to them.
Once everyone has written something down, ask the participants
to go quietly around the room and read what everyone has written.
Examples of what participants have written down for one of the
element of “service to others” might be
“If you help one, you help all”

“Work if performed in the spirit of service is worship”
“Good people help others”
“If you think you are too small to make a difference, try sleep-
ing in a closed room with a mosquito”
“To give and not to count the costs”
“Generosity of spirit”
“By serving others you come closer to self-realization, accep-
tance andultimately peace”
“Love thy neighbour as thyself ”
Time
Depending a bit on the size of the group, but we usually take at least
1.5 hours for this exercise. It is important to give the participants time
to carefully read what others have written.
Participants
As was the case with the previous exercise, we have done this exer-
cise with old and young, those who have deeply thought about
the meaning of life and those who have not, and with people from
diverse ranges of cultural, social and occupational backgrounds.
It can be done with groups of different sizes and the discussion
time and process (e.g. whole group/small groups) can be adjusted
accordingly.

Discussion
Participants comment on a range of outcomes that are helpful to

them.
1. The first thing that you are likely to notice when everyone is
moving around the room is the respectful silence.
Of course I knew that other people must also contemplate the mean-
ing of life, but to so clearly and immediately see the evidence that I am
not alone in this is deeply moving. The depth and breadth of all of the
comments really struck me. There was a subtle change in the room as
we started to see each other as meaning ful beings.
2. In the workplace participants comment on how using the
model enables and legitimizes the topic of meaningfulness in
the conversation.
Having the model present, and being told that human beings know
what is intrinsically meaning ful to them, meant that I did not have
to think about how my beliefs came across. I could simply write them
down in the knowledge that others would do the same. It did not feel
too risky or self-revealing also because the process allowed for a certain
amount of anonymity.
3. The content and structure of the model allows for common-
alities as well as diversity to be made visible.
If you look at all the things that people write down, you quickly
realize that you want the same, that the same things drive you. At
the same time you realize that we may all have different reasons
for wanting this, different worldviews. Some people draw on inner
knowledge, others from sources outside of themselves; some religious,
others secular. It really helps to have both unity and diversity vis-
ible. It aids in speaking our own truth while respecting the truth of
others.
4. The method allows for decision making from a place of
strength
This process brought all of our deepest knowing into the room. It
aided in much more thoughtful decision making.
Next Steps
On the basis of this exercise you can continue with a range of prac-
tices, depending on your expertise and what it is that you want to
focus on. For example, in a classroom it is useful to highlight the
commonalties and differences in worldviews. It is also an excel-
lent exercise to make students aware of the extent to which self-
determination is possible in contemporary organizations, such as
through (1) identifying what makes their study more and less mean-
ingful, (2) identifying which of these factors are both internal and

external to themselves, and (3) which of the internal and exter-
nal factors can be changed. In an organization that is interested in
work engagement it can be followed up with conversations about
current practices that enhance and diminish individual and collec-
tive capacity. For an organization that is interested in arriving at
an organizational vision that emerges from the collective, it allows
individuals to take conscious responsibility for such a vision and
make natural connections between the organizational vision and
themselves. We encourage you to follow the exercise up with any
technique that you are already skillful in and toward any purpose
of your choosing.
POINTS OF ATTENTION
Our exercises on meaningful work take as a starting point that indi-

viduals are motivated by what is intrinsically meaningful to them
(their higher level psychological or existential needs) and that this
knowledge is intrinsic to the human condition. It is important to
remember the following principles in using the exercises.
1. Our work with the model is profoundly democratic. We do

not assume that a person in charge knows more about how to
live a meaningful life than a person who is not in charge. This
is the strength of this work. As one participant said: Because we
had done the exercise first we started to all treat each other as purposeful
beings. We were no longer right or wrong or powerful and not powerful
but simply in search of answers as to how we could achieve what we all
wanted—while also collectively coming to terms with a range of con-
straints to this. It is therefore very important that anyone who
works with these exercises is willing to get out of the way,
does not have the desire to bring more or better formulations
to the f loor or to provide meanings to others. Meaningfulness
needs to be based on personal discovery and free choice rather
than prescription or domination. The exercise succeeds if it
is understood that a quest for meaningfulness is an impor-
tant way to assert our individual and collective humanness. It
allows for students/employees to assert themselves as “being
human” and, from that place of strength, to identify opportu-
nities for practices that enable them to be more fully human
(and make suggestions for removing those obstacles that get
in the way). Hence, working with the Holistic Development
Model works when it is a genuine inquiry. It does not work
well when it needs to meet the requirements of a pre-defined
managerial agenda.
2. As with appreciative inquiry, when we pay attention to the
positive (what is meaningful), the negative (what is meaning-

less) also arises. The work therefore aids in voicing the “via
positive” as well as the “via negative.” We see this as a con-
structive development and would strongly encourage you to
allow for both of these to emerge. As one research participant
said: Meaning fulness and pretence do not dwell together in the same
heart. It puts me at peace when both can be articulated. It also gives
me trust in the organization. Even if we do nothing with some col-
lective feelings of frustration, at least they are collectively shared and
they are okay to be there. Of course we don’t get everything right and
that’s okay. At the same time, the exercise can aid in going to
the heart of the matter in a constructive way. As one research
participant said: We were presented with the facts and figures for
the next couple of years. The picture did not look rosy. Our boss
asked us to provide ideas but we were defensive and negative. If he
had started with the exercise and asked us (and himself) why we were
here and what was that about our work that was meaning ful to us,
even though things were tough, I think a much more useful and sus-
tainable response could have emerged. As another said: It is so easy
to go into a negative spiral, particularly when you only voice feelings
of negativity to your colleagues but not to your boss. You confirm to
yourself that you are powerless. However here you can speak to your
place of strength. You can say “I’m human. Therefore, being able
to do or have X (e.g. to be of service, to make moral decisions, to be
creative) makes me a better, fuller human. I function better if I can be
fully human.”
3. The model does not work when it is presented as if it cap-
tures THE meaning of life, as this is experienced as being
too prescriptive (and is also factually inaccurate). We present
it as a model that aids in identifying and talking about what
is deeply meaningful to us—in relation to daily life. Some
argue that the model is based on a Western paradigm, but the
research participants have come from a vast range of cultural
and religious backgrounds. Of course some cultures would
naturally lean more to the right or top side of the model
whereas others might more naturally lean elsewhere. It is
important to have the time to discuss such differences as well
as similarities.
Finally, there will always be those who want to change the very
model itself and over the years we have learned much from this and
adjusted the model according to such findings. The way we have
worked with this is to first ask participants to do the exercise with
the model as is and then change anything they like as long as it more
closely reveals to them what is and what is not meaningful.

CONCLUSION
We have used the model in a broad variety of contexts, and so have

many of our colleagues. It has been used in relation to a range of issues
that require contemplation such as diagnosing, inquiring, planning,
organizing, grounding, and facilitating. For example, it has been used
to diagnose how meaningful current study is for business students and
performing arts students; to assist CEO’s to inquire into how they
take employee motivation into account in their daily decision mak-
ing; to plan on the basis of what is most meaningful to create a living
vision for a local community center; to organize the various elements
of a leadership program for prisoners; to ground roles and job descrip-
tions into what is meaningful to the individual and the workplace; to
facilate an interactive part of a talk, etc. It has also been used in many
parts of the world, including the United States, the United Kingdom,
the Middle East, Europe, and Eastern Europe.
We hope you too will feel encouraged to find an opportunity to
use the Holistic Development Model. When you do, please contact us
as we would love to hear the results and connect you up with others
who also use this work.
E X E RC I S E
Organizational Values Integration Ref lection

Ga r y Bo elh ower, Ph. D. , St . Scholast i ca Univer sity
a n d Ju di Nea l, Ph .D., U niver si t y of Arkansas
Activity’s Purpose and Goals:
Most organizations are so caught up in day-to-day survival and con-

stant crisis management that they don’t take the time to stop and
ref lect on the core values that guide their organization. The purpose
of this exercise is to help you and your organizational team identify
your most important values and then to evaluate for yourself how
much these values are integrated into the way you do your work and
run the organization. A values-centered organization is more sus-
tainable over time, and tends to attract and retain the highest-quality
employees.

90 minutes
Pre-work Needed:
None
This exercise works best for people who are an intact team within an
organization. However, it can also be used for individuals in a class-
room setting to demonstrate a values integration process that they can
then utilize in their workplace. Recommended for graduate students
and part-time working students.
Minimum: 1
Maximum Recommended: 50
Specific Steps:
1. The facilitator will hand out the Organizational Values

Ref lection Form and review the steps with participants.
2. Participants are then sent out to work on the form for 30 min-
utes. Ideally they should have access to the outdoors or to
other places that support inner ref lection. Ask them not to talk
to anyone until they return.
3. After 30 minutes, participants return to the room and are put
in triads. Each person shares their top five organizational val-
ues, and the details about at least two of the values from the
ref lection portion of the form.
4. After all three people have shared, they each help each other
to identify specific actions that can help with living a cho-
sen value in a more integrated way in the workplace. The
facilitator may wish to give an example of one of his or her
core organizational values and an action that the organiza-
tion could take to integrate that value more. Most people are
uncomfortable committing to concrete actions, yet this can be
the most valuable part of the exercise. It helps if the facilita-
tor walks around to the triads and coaches people on concrete
actions they might take.
5. The participants reconvene into a large group for the debrief-
ing questions.

1. How important is it to be aware of your organization’s
values?
2. In what ways might this be important to leadership? To the
culture of the organization? To profitability?
3. What role does one’s faith or spirituality play in values forma-
tion and values clarification?
4. Can organizational values change?
5. What happens if the organization doesn’t live by its values, or
doesn’t pay attention to them?
6. What did you learn from this exercise?
7. Are there any changes you are going to make as a result of
your organizational values ref lection?
(create this section to look more like a form—needs to be set apart.)
ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES
REFLECTION FORM
STEP ONE: Through a brainstorming process, identify what you

think are your organization’s five most important values, the val-
ues that are at the core of what the company is about, and put
them in a prioritized order (with one being what you think is the
most important to the organization).
STEP TWO: Define each core value in a sentence or two. In
your definition process, it may help to think of an experi-
ence in your work when you and/or others fully lived out this
value or an experience when you deeply felt the absence of
this value.
STEP THREE: Ref lect on where you are in the process of incor-
porating or integrating this value in your work using the values
integration scale below.
1. We live this value every day. It has become a seamless part

of our consciousness and everyday work life. We feel great
about how deeply this value has become an integral part of our
everyday life at work.
2. We live this value consistently, it is more present than absent
in our daily work life. We feel like we are making signifi-

cant progress toward the full integration of this value in our
thoughts, actions, balance of time, and priorities. However,
we are still challenged to live it more fully, especially in times
of tension or stress.
3. We live this value in an on-again, off-again way. Sometimes
we are able to really bring it alive in our workplace and other
times it seems that we are far from making it a reality in how
we live and work every day. We really want to incorporate it
more fully into our organization, but we need to explore its
practical applications more closely.
4. We live this value only occasionally. Although we believe in
our hearts that it is really important, we have only begun to
translate this belief into everyday action. When we do act on
this value, we feel like we are on the right track and living out
of our true culture.
5. We have intellectually recognized this value as very impor-
tant to this organization but we haven’t really begun to put it
into practice. We know that living out this value would bring
greater meaning and satisfaction to our work life. Now we
need to find the ways to begin to incorporate it.
STEP FOUR: Focusing on one or two values, create a set of action
steps that will enable you and others to more fully incorporate
the chosen core value into your work life.
STEP ONE: Identifying your values
On this page, brainstorm at least 20 values that are core to what the
organization is all about. Don’t worry about whether or not some-
thing is technically a value or not. What is important is if it is core to
your organization and how the organization wants to be in the world.
When you have the complete list of your values, choose the top five
that you believe are most important to the organization. Finally, pri-
oritize these values, with number one being the value that is most
important to the organization. Notice any feelings or thoughts that
you have as you make your choices in narrowing the list and setting
priorities.
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
STEPS TWO AND THREE: Defining your
values and rating them on the Integration Scale
Value Priority ONE:
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5

Live it Live it On-again Occasionally Desire
every day consistently off-again live it to live it
Value Priority TWO:
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5
Value Priority THREE:
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5
everyay consistently off-again live it to live it
Value Priority FOUR:
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5
Value Priority FIVE:
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5

STEP FOUR: Action steps for values integration
Choose one or two of your organization’s core values that you would
like to more fully integrate into your everyday life at work. Ref lecting
on the following questions, create 3–5 action steps to incorporate this
value into your daily existence. Questions: What situations are most
challenging for me in living out this value? What people at work
seem to draw me away from this value? What people help me to stay
on track with this value? What are the implications of this value for
my everyday schedule? What kind of ref lective processes might help
me to live this value more fully? The one thing that I could do to
really move me along in putting this value into practice would be . . .
Note: These questions can be stated in the plural form if this is being
done in a team. For example: What situations are most challenging
for us in living out this value. What people at work seem to draw us
away from this value? Etc.
VALUE_____________________________________
Action Steps:
VALUE_____________________________________
Action Steps:
E X E RC I S E
Meditation on Work as a Calling

Jer r y Biber ma n, Ph .D. , U niver si t y of Scranton
Most spiritual traditions talk about the concept of one’s life work as
being one’s “vocation” or “calling.” The concept of “dharma,” for
example, is that we are each born with one ability or skill that we
can do better than anything else, and that our “dharma” is to use that
skill or ability in the service of others. The tragedy of September 11
has caused many people to reexamine their values and the direc-
tion of their lives. In a similar way, the recent accounting and other
business scandals have also prompted many people to question their
values and their motivations.
Many authors have suggested that due to the fast pace of our envi-
ronment, a number of individuals are experiencing a lack of mean-
ing and purpose in their lives. Consequently, they are seeking to

discover their true selves and, in the process, a higher purpose and
meaning to their lives. This spiritual journey, for many, is not neces-
sarily confined to a religious framework. It is about focusing within,
in order to find greater awareness of Self. Many have suggested that
only through this awareness of Self will individuals become truly
actualized and find meaning and purpose in their work and their
lives. The heightened sense of insecurity and loss of connection to
the self and their values that many individuals have experienced in
their work has prompted many individuals to reconsider how to pur-
sue their careers.
Individuals who experience work as their calling are able to
pursue work as an opportunity to enhance their sense of whole-
ness, energized by their spiritual connection with others (DePree,
1989; Marcic, 1997; Morris, 1997; Stein & Hollowitz, 1992). Work
must provide individuals with something more than conventional
rewards if they are to fully employ their capabilities and find a
deeper meaning in their work (Auger & Arenberg, 1992; Secretan,
1997).
Guided meditation is a technique that can help students become
more aware of their inner Self and goals. You employ meditation
to quiet the mind, to become in a state of awareness of the present,
and to seek to calm your center self (Boorstein, 1996; Hahn, 1976;
McDonald, 1984; Smith, 1998; Suzuki, 1970). Danby (2008) suggests
that business leaders try new techniques of stillness to sharpen their
decision making.
The following is a guided meditation designed to help students to
get in touch with what their life calling may be.
Meditation on Work as a Calling
Purpose and Goals

To help students get in touch with what their life purpose might be,
to learn how to systematically relax, and to introduce students to a
guided meditation experience.
Length of time required
30 to 50 minutes. Times for each part can be lengthened or shortened
to fit the allowable time.
Pre-work needed
None
Best type of participants

Undergraduate, graduate students, and adult learners

Number of participants
No minimum or maximum needed
Specific steps:
1. Introduction (5 minutes)
Students are given a brief introduction to the concept of
work as a calling, and to what guided meditation is. They are
told that they will be asked to close their eyes and relax, that
they will then be asked to imagine certain things, and what
these things will be. They are told that each person’s experi-
ence is unique, and whatever happens during the meditation is
what is supposed to happen for them. They are then told that
after the meditation they will be asked to share their expe-
riences with other class members. Students are assured that
participation in the meditation is voluntary, and that they may
choose whether or not they want to share what happened with
other class members.
2. Meditation (15 to 20 minutes—can be lengthened or short-
ened to fit the allowable time)
Students are asked to sit comfortably, close their eyes, and
take three deep breaths. They are then asked to systematically
relax their muscles—beginning with their head, down to their
toes, and up their torsos. They are then asked to begin to pay
attention to their breathing. The guided meditation instruc-
tions are as follows:
“Sit as comfortably as you can. So sit as comfortably as you

want. Whatever makes you feel comfortable.
Sit in a comfortable position. Good.
I’d like you to take a deep breath. Close your eyes.
If you have glasses, it works better if you take them off.
Close your eyes, take a deep breath, let it out.
Take another deep breath, let it out.
Take another deep breath. Let it out.
Now imagine a beam of light that is located at an angle
about 45 degrees above your nose. This beam of light symbol-
izes calm, peaceful energy.
Wherever this beam of light goes, whatever part of the body
that beam of light goes into, you will feel calm and peaceful.
So imagine that beam of light going into your head now.
Into your eyes. Your Nose. Your mouth.
Imagine your eyes relaxing, your mouth relaxing, your ears.
The back of your head. Your neck.

Now the light starts to travel down your right arm. From
the tip of your arm down through your elbow into your hand
and your fingertips.
Down your left arm, the elbow, the hand and your fingertips.
Starting at the top of your right leg, to the knee, your ankle,
the foot, the toes.
Going down your left leg, then your knee, the foot and the
toes.
Imagine this light traveling up now through the front of
your body, down through the back of your body. Going into
every organ and your whole body feeling more and more
relaxed.
And scan to see if there is any area that is feeling any ten-
sion, and gently bring the light over to any area that feels any
tension.
Feel yourself getting more and more relaxed.
Now begin to pay attention to your breathing.
Don’t change your breath, just be aware of your breath.
And imagine with each breath, that as you inhale, your
stomach expands, and as you exhale, your stomach contracts.
Kind of like a balloon.
This is abdominal breathing. So imagine your abdomen
fully expanding with each inhale and fully contracting with
each exhale.
And with each exhalation, you will release any tension. It is
going away, and with each breath, you will sink deeper into
the chair and become more and more relaxed.
Spend a few minutes now paying attention to your breathing,
and how good it feels to inhale and exhale all the tension away.
Now while you’re staying in this relaxed state, I’d like you
to imagine yourself in a place where you feel most relaxed and
at peace, wherever that place may be for you. Imagine yourself
in that place where you are most relaxed and at peace. Fully
imagine yourself at this place.
What do you see?
What sounds do you hear?
What physical sensations do you feel?
What emotions do you feel right in this place?
Note this is a place you can go to any time you want
to—whenever you’re feeling stressed—by simply closing your
eyes, taking the deep breaths, and imagining yourself back in
this place.
And now I’d like you to imagine yourself in some type of
work setting, where you are enjoying your work, feel fully
engaged, and where you feel like you are doing what you are
being called to do.

So this is a work setting, where you really like your work,
you are fully engaged, and you are doing what you are being
called to do.
What do you see in this place?
What sounds do you hear?
What type of work are you doing?
What kind of physical sensations are you experiencing?
What emotions do you feel?
Now I’d like you to bring your awareness back into this
room, still feeling the same positive feelings. Bring the aware-
ness back into this room, become aware of the other people
in this room.
When you’re ready, open your eyes.”
3. Debriefing (10 to 20 minutes)
Following the meditation, students are asked to share their
meditation experience with the class, or in a large class, with
one or two other class members (5 to 10 minutes).
The instructor then facilitates a discussion of the common-
alities resulting from students’ meditation experiences (5 to
10 minutes).
E X E RC I S E
Spiritual Lifeline: An Integrative Exercise

Ju di Neal , Ph. D. , Univer si t y of Arkansas
Note to Participants about the Personal

Nature of this Exercise
This exercise requires you to remember personal events from your

past. Sometimes this can bring up painful or emotional feelings
as you think about key turning points in your life. You will have
full freedom to share only what you are comfortable sharing. That
includes having the choice not to share anything at all. If something
comes up that feels too tender or vulnerable, you are not required to
talk about it or delve into the event in any way. This is not meant to
be a therapeutic exercise but rather one that increases your aware-
ness of ways that you integrate parts of your life that are important
to you.
Purpose and Goals:

This exercise allows you to ref lect on significant events in your spir-
itual life and in your career life. Often we keep these two parts of
our lives separate. By creating lifelines for our spiritual paths and
for our career paths, we can begin to examine how these parts of
our life may actually overlap. The purpose of this exercise is to help
you become more aware of the ways in which your spiritual life and
your work are or are not integrated, and to give you the opportunity
to explore whether or not you would like to move toward greater
integration.

2 hours
Pre-Work Needed:
The facilitator should read the attached essay on the stages of the
spiritual journey at work and be prepared to offer a 10-minute lec-
turette on the topic.
Materials Required:
One large sheet of f lip chart paper per person.
At least 5–6 different colored magic markers or crayons for each
person.

This exercise works best with graduate students and students with
working experience.
Minimum: 5
Maximum: 50
Specific Steps:
1. The facilitator begins by offering a brief lecturette on the
stages of the spiritual journey at work (see article below).
2. Instructions to participants. “Take a large piece of f lip chart
paper or other large paper and get lots of colored magic mark-
ers or crayons. Draw a lifeline of your spiritual life from
childhood until the present, portraying in symbolic form any
critical events or major turning points that occurred. Do not
use words, only symbols. Use lots of color. Artistic ability is
actually a hindrance in this exercise, because artists spend too

much time on the aesthetics instead of their own unfolding
life story. Keep the symbols simple, but make them identifi-
able enough so that you know what significant event they
stand for. If there is time, you may want to also portray where
you think your spiritual path and your career path may be
going in the future. Once you have done this, create a lifeline
and critical events for your career journey on the same piece
of paper.” Allow 20 minutes for the drawing.
(Note: this part of the exercise works best when people
can go to someplace where they can be quietly ref lective and
alone, ideally in or near nature.)
3. Small Group Sharing: When people return to the room, have
them get into pairs, triads, or groups of four, depending on
how much time there is to share whatever they would like
about their lifelines. The debrief takes about 5 minutes per
person, so a dyad will take 10 minutes, a triad will take 15
minutes, and so on. Each person should only share what they
are comfortable sharing.
4. Leave 20 minutes at the end of the session for large group
debriefing.
5. Large Group Sharing: After the small groups have completed
their debriefing, ask for two or three volunteers to come to
the front of the room to share their lifelines. The facilitator
should be very respectful of each person’s story and should not
make many comments.
1. What do you notice about how the lines or events do or do
not intersect.
2. What else comes up for you?
3. What do you notice?
4. How do you feel?
5. What would you like to take away from this exercise?
Endnote:
Spiritual Evolution at Work
B y Judi Neal
Everyone is on a spiritual path. Some are more conscious of that than

others, but we are all spiritual beings. How does this consciousness
about our spiritual nature unfold, and what effects does this have on

our work in the world? I have developed a model that may provide
some insight into this process. This model is based on in-depth open-
ended interviews with 40 people from different walks of life. Some
of the interview questions were
1. Tell me a little bit about your work background and your

career choices. What role, if any, has spirituality played in the
career choices you have made?
2. How did you come to be interested in integrating spirituality
and work?
3. Tell me about a particularly satisfying or meaningful time
when you were able to practice one or more of your principles,
values, or beliefs at work.
4. Tell me about a time when you had difficulty integrating your
spirituality and your work.
5. What are the costs and benefits to you of focusing more on
spirituality in your workplace?
Data for this model also came from a facilitated online discussion
group on spirituality in the workplace that lasted for three years, with
an average membership of 150 people and over 700 informal conver-
sations with people interested in work as a spiritual path.
One of the key learnings is that interest in integrating spirituality
and work is widespread. The interest exists in sole proprietors, small
businesses, and at all levels of large corporations. It is in nonprofit,
for-profit, governmental, and religious organizations. It also appears
to be occurring in individuals in most of the industrialized countries
and is not just limited to the United States. In spite of the growing
interest, most of the people who are consciously integrating their
spirituality and their work feel very alone and have difficulty finding
others to talk to about this process.
This model addresses (1) what seems to trigger a spiritual transfor-
mation in people, (2) the process of integrating the transformation
into one’s work, and (3) the effects that this transformation has on
their relationship to their work. For example, some of the typical
“causal factors” of spiritual transformation are
● a spiritual crisis such as a life-threatening illness, a divorce,
losing one’s job
● a profound spiritual experience that is the result of a near-
death experience
● a personal epiphany experience related to being in a sacred
place
● being alone in silence for an extended time or being in nature.

The process of integrating the transformation into one’s work
appears to unfold in five major stages.
1. Segmentation: People tend to compartmentalize their spiri-
tuality and to keep it separate from the rest of their lives. It
has no relevance to work or to any other part of life. During
this stage, individuals tend to be motivated by economics and
are preoccupied with accumulating material goods and with
preparing for the future.
2. Spiritual Crisis: Some major life event occurs that deeply
challenges a person’s value system, their perception of the
world, their perception of themselves, and their feelings about
what’s important. Many questions arise about the role of work
in his or her life, and there is much confusion about what, if
anything, to do. Economics are no longer a driving factor.
There is a crisis of meaning, and material goods cannot satisfy
the inner hunger. The individual often experiences paralyzing
fear, uncertainty, and may even go into a depression.
3. Dark Night of the Soul: Among the research participants,
this period tended to last about a year, and often people were
not working during this time. It is a time of searching for
answers, restructuring values, rediscovering the importance of
spirituality, but also feeling very lost. It usually leads to a kind
of letting go and trusting that there is a greater purpose, and
asking to be shown what it is. Spiritual teachers, books, and
support groups can be of tremendous help during this stage.
4. Finding Your Calling Right Livelihood: Often a moment
of grace occurs and things suddenly fall into place. There is
no way to predict how this will happen nor is there any way
to will it to happen. The individual has a strong sense of what
work to do that will nourish her spirit and will allow her to
be of service. From this point on, synchronous events seem
to occur that make moving toward right livelihood appear
almost effortless. It is not uncommon for someone to take a
lower-paying job that is more meaningful work, or that pro-
vides a more balanced work and family life.
5. Beneficial Presence: During right livelihood, the person
lives passionately for their work. At some point there is a sense
of imbalance as the “doing” overwhelms the “being.” People
then begin to simplify their lives so as to spend more time in
spiritual practice, with the understanding that their “work” is
to work on their level of consciousness. They no longer need to
achieve in the outer world. This stage can be just a “time out”
or a sabbatical where the individual takes an extended break
from the outer world to nourish his inner world. Or it can be
the final stage of a life well lived, a sort of “spiritual retire-

ment.” The key focus on this stage is on inner development and
working with the spiritual world for the good of mankind.
Organizations have tended to ignore the fact that employees have
a spiritual nature and that they may go through the spiritual crisis
described above. Often, the lack of understanding and support leads
organizations to lose good people because they don’t know how to
help people through this transformation process.
However, a few very progressive organizations such as McKinsey,
AT&T, Public Service Electric & Gas Company, ANZ Bank,
Methodist Hospital in Houston, and Elf Atochem are offering train-
ing programs based on individual transformation processes. These
programs may be a way to avoid people having to go through the
spiritual crisis stage, because they emphasize an awareness of core
values and look at whether or not behavior and goals are in align-
ment with those core values. They often require that participants
adopt some form of contemplative or spiritual practice to support the
transformational process. The early results of some of these efforts are
being reported at spirituality in the workplace conferences but have
not yet been published. However, they look quite promising.
Exercise for Greater Spiritual Awareness in

Undergraduate Students Role Plays of Conf licts
Commonly Faced by Undergraduate Students:
The Free Rider and the Messy Roommate
Do n a ld W. Mc Co r m ic k, Ph. D. , C ali for ni a State Univer sity
No r t hr i dge
Purpose:
To help instill a spiritual mindset at the educational level, in order to

carry the lessons over into corporate settings in the future.
Introduction
Diane Halpern, the former President of the American Psychological

Association, and her colleague Milton Hakel wrote
Sometimes information learned in a school context will transfer

to an out-of-school context and sometimes it won’t. If we want
transfer, we need to teach in ways that actually enhance the
probabilities of transfer. The purpose of formal education is transfer
[emphasis added]. We teach students how to write, use math-

ematics, and think because we believe that they will use these
skills when they are not in school. We need to always remember
that we are teaching toward some time in the future when we
will not be present—and preparing students for unpredictable
real-world “tests” that we will not be giving—instead of prepar-
ing them for traditional midterm and final exams. (Halpern &
Hakel, 2003, p. 38)
When there is little difference between the situation in the class-

room and the situation outside the classroom, it is easy for students
to transfer what they’ve learned in the classroom to the real world. If
they learn to practice mediation, negotiation, and collaborative prob-
lem solving in situations that closely resemble conf lict situations in
their lives outside of the classroom, they will find it easier to transfer
what they’ve learned in the classroom to their actual lives. This article
contains two short role plays that are designed to give undergraduate
students an opportunity to do exactly that.
When I ask traditional age undergraduate students in my classes
about the interpersonal conf licts they experience in their lives, they
mention two situations far more often than any others. One situation
is class projects where they work in teams; they experience conf lict
with students who don’t complete their share of the work. The other
is conf lict with roommates who are messy and refuse to do their
share of cleaning up. This article offers role plays of these situations.
The individuals in these role plays are composite characters based
on what my students report in class discussions of conf lict in their
lives. These role plays assume that the students are learning to resolve
conf lict using a collaborative approach, not through avoiding, forc-
ing, compromising, or giving in (Thomas, 2002). Role plays such as
the ones here are standard in the pedagogy of conf lict management.
They are usually sold individually to students, like cases.
So, this exercise differs from the other exercises in this book in that
it doesn’t contain a stand-alone exercise. It is essentially two cases,
which are to be used in teaching any of a number of conf lict resolu-
tion methods. Because this exercise does not specify the way the cases
will be used, the exact amount of time for their use can’t be specified,
although it should be noted that these cases are concise—about one
page per role—and so should take less time than longer, more elabo-
rate role plays. There is pre-work that participants need to engage in
before using these role plays. Participants must learn a conf lict resolu-
tion method that they then apply to these cases. The instructor may
explain this method in a lecture or by playing a video beforehand, or
students may read about the method before class. If the latter is the
case, the instructor should also review the steps of the conf lict reso-
lution method right before using either of these role plays. Behavior
modeling has proven to be a powerful teaching method (Scorcher,

1983), so students should also see the method applied in an exemplary
fashion before they try to apply it. The steps and debriefing questions
to use for these role plays are the ones an instructor would ordinarily
use. These role plays do not limit or suggest any particular set of steps
or debriefing questions. The best type of participants are those who
are primed to learn how to resolve conf licts. The content of these
role plays was chosen to facilitate this; these role plays address the
most common conf licts that face college students. These role plays
can be used with any number of participants
In the context of role plays for teaching purposes, a good conf lict
must have bad behavior. A role play in which both characters behave
according to the conf lict management guidelines being taught gives
students no opportunity to practice dealing with problem behavior;
there are no problems to fix. If the guidelines being taught suggest
that students ask clarifying questions to transform general complaints
to complaints about specifics, a good conf lict role play will provide
the opportunity to ask those questions by having one person in the
role play start with general complaints. Both characters should be
believable and their actions should make sense from their own respec-
tive points of view. Neither should be all good or all bad. It should
be possible to figure out most of what actually happened between
the two but both parties in the conf lict should interpret the facts
quite differently, preferably in ways that are self-serving. Although
there is a case to be made for using role plays that are strictly limited
to actual conf licts, there are equally good reasons for creating com-
posite, fictional character descriptions instead. Composite character
descriptions allow instructors to create situations that have all the
characteristics the instructor feels are necessary to maximize student
learning. And maximizing student learning should be the goal of
learning activities (such as conf lict role plays).
Below is a description of what should be included in each role in
a conf lict management role play. The source of these descriptions
is guidelines for conf lict management contained in Whetten and
Cameron’s (2007) textbook Developing Management Skills and Gordon’s
(2001) Leader Effectiveness Training. I assign these books when teaching
conf lict management. The guidelines in these books are similar to or
the same as those in most management textbooks. In most conf lict
role plays, there are two roles—the initiator (who starts the conf lict)
and the responder (who reacts to the initiating behavior).
The description of both roles should have
● An indication of some goal or goals that the initiator and

responder have in common,
● A clear description of the behavior that offended the initiator,
● A description of the emotional reactions of both parties,
● The possibility of a solution that both parties would accept,

● The possibility of a solution that can be measured or kept track
of, and where accountability can be ensured,
● A complex problem with many aspects.
The description of the initiator’s role should have
● The concrete, practical consequences of the behavior that the

initiator finds unacceptable,
● General, evaluative complaints by the initiator that imply that
she or he is making overly negative guesses at the other per-
son’s motives,
● An initial description of the problem in which the initiator
does not own the problem, but instead blames the responder.
The description of the respondent role should have
● Some aspect of the initiator’s complaint that the responder

could agree with,
● An initial description of the problem in which the initiator
does not own the problem, but instead blames the responder.
The description of the roles below meet the criteria described

above.
These two conf lict role plays have been tried in two different
undergraduate management skills classes. Each time the role plays
were successful; students found the role plays engaging and easy to
relate to. The cases provided enough conf lict and problem behaviors
for students to practice their conf lict management skills.
A “Free Rider” in the Team Project
Confidential Instructions for Sara

You are a 19-year-old undergraduate student enrolled in a course,
Principles of Management, and the course requires you to complete
a group project. Your group has four people. You have parents who
have saved for your college expenses, so you haven’t had to take out
any loans and you don’t have to work during the school year. The
project involves making a presentation and writing a report. Everyone
in the group receives the same grade. Your team has a lot of work to
do in the next few days because the presentation and report are due
on Tuesday of next week.
You are really irritated by the behavior of one of the members of
your project team, Rick. When the team first met, Rick said that
he was committed to it, but he has missed one of the team’s meet-
ings and has been late to two. His work for the report was filled

with so many spelling and grammar errors that you feel like you
have to rewrite it. He dresses like trailer trash and to cap it off, he’s
a Republican. You don’t care much about the class but you want to
get a good grade, and to do that your team project has to get an A.
In your opinion, Rick doesn’t deserve an A. You wonder why he
is acting this way. You think he may have A.D.D. or that he may
be what the textbook calls a group “free rider” who figures that he
can get a free ride by getting the rest of the team to do the work.
Or it could be that he doesn’t care if he gets anything above a pass-
ing grade; maybe he is just lazy. Alex, one of your teammates, says
that he called Rick about rescheduling a meeting and Rick didn’t
return the call. Alex also said that whenever he tried to bring this up,
Rick always had some kind of dumb excuse. The team has to fin-
ish the report and rehearse the presentation three times before class
next Tuesday. You are seriously considering asking the professor if
your group can fire Rick and exclude him from the presentation and
report, but before you do this, you want to talk to Rick.
The Team Project’s “Free Rider”
Confidential Instructions for Rick

You are a 21-year-old undergraduate student enrolled in a course,
Principles of Management, and the course requires you to complete
a group project. Your group has four people. The project involves
making a presentation and writing a report. Everyone in the group
receives the same grade. Your team has a lot of work to do in the next
few days because the presentation and report are due on Tuesday of
next week.
Your parents never saved any money for your college, so you have to
work full time. You work for a web design business called WebShop
that specializes in making websites for pharmacies, and you are going
to keep working for them when you graduate. Your boss has made it
clear that your GPA isn’t all that important, but also that you won’t go
far at WebShop without a college degree. The sooner you get it the
better, so you are trying to carry a full course load. Between classes
and work you find it really hard to find time to meet with the people
in your project team. You know the report is due soon and you have
to practice the presentation at least once before class next Tuesday.
You find this course to be really interesting and wish you had more
time to spend on it.
One of the other people on the team, Alex, said that he called
you about rescheduling a meeting but you never heard anything on
your voice mail. Anyway, you wound up missing that meeting. The
team meets regularly just a few minutes after you get off work on

Wednesdays, and you’ve made it to most of the meetings on time
but traffic was bad once and you were late. Another time, you were
just sick of how the team acts and got a cup of coffee and a pastry at
Dunkin’ Donuts on the way. You were late, but so what.
The rest of the people on this “team” at school are full-time
students who live on campus. From what you can tell, the biggest
problems that they have are things like having a hangover after
a fraternity party. One time you tried to schedule a time when
everyone could meet and Sara said that she couldn’t come at the
one time that week you could meet with all of them. You asked her
why and she said it was because she couldn’t change an appoint-
ment to get her nails done! You find her kind of attractive but she
drives you crazy. You are seriously annoyed with her because she
is so inconsiderate. She’s a snob, too. She thinks she’s better than
everyone and treats you like you are an idiot. She also assumes that
everyone has the same politics as her. You overheard her say that
all Republicans are idiots. You hate having to work with someone
who is so prejudiced.
The Messy Roommate
Confidential Instructions for Bill

You are fed up with your roommate, Joyce. What a slob! You’ve
been friends for years; she’s your best friend. But now that she is your
roommate, her messiness is getting to you. Her room was so messy
that at the last house she lived in when a mutual friend came over and
looked at her room he got really upset. He said that someone must
have broken into Joyce’s room and trashed it. And maybe robbed
her. You needed to call 911 right away. You had to laugh. Then you
explained to Frank that her room hadn’t been trashed by some van-
dal, that her room always looked like that. Joyce just won’t clean up
after herself.
All you ask is that she clean up the messes she makes, but she can’t
do it! She can’t do this one simple thing that you are asking! You even
put a little chart on the refrigerator in order to get her to change.
The chart was titled, “Days That Joyce Leaves the Room a Mess.”
But then she put up one beside it that said “Days that Bill Wears His
Pants Too High,” so you took it down. You are now worried that you
really do wear your pants too high.
She lives down the hall. You share a living room, kitchen and din-
ing room with two other students. She comes home late with like a
hundred people and the noise makes it hard for you to sleep. And it
drives you crazy the way she leaves the front door unlocked. There are
dirty dishes in the sink all the time. She doesn’t clean the dishes after

she eats, so when you go to make dinner there is nothing to cook with.
Half the time you can’t even find a bowl to eat some cereal, because
there are no clean bowls. It adds up and gets extremely messy.
The Messy Roommate
Confidential Instructions for Joyce

You thought that Bill had some compassion. You’ve been kind of
depressed lately and you know that you are not very organized.
You are disappointed with him. After all, he’s your best friend. But
lately he has become an irritating, nit-picking, anal compulsive. You
couldn’t tell that from looking at his car though, which you’ve nick-
named The Travelin’ Trash Can.
Bill is still such a nag about cleaning up and it gets on your nerves.
You don’t know what the big deal is about cleaning up, anyway. You
didn’t notice any big mess in the house. There is some little stuff, but it’s
not such a big deal. Bill even tried to humiliate you by putting a little
graph on the front of the refrigerator that said, “Days That Joyce Leaves
the Room a Mess.” Well, you thought that was petty and childish, so
you showed him what it was like by putting up a chart beside it titled
“Days that Bill Wears His Pants Too High.” He took down his chart.
You are taking a lot of classes and you don’t have enough time to
clean up every day. Bill acts like you should do the dishes whenever
he snaps his fingers and asks. You don’t see what’s so bad with you
doing them later, when you have a chance. Bill also gets on your
nerves because he turns up the volume real loud when he plays his
stupid video games and he does this when you’re trying to get some
sleep. You’ve got weird hours because you work as a waitress. You get
off work late and so you bring friends over after work. Your friends
are mostly people like you who work late. You can tell Bill doesn’t
like it when your friends come over, but it’s not your fault that you
have a lot of friends, unlike him. Besides, it’s none of his business who
you have over or when.
Note
1. You can download a variety of versions of the Holistic Development Model. On this website
you will find models with text in them as well as empty ones. These assist participants in naming
the different elements of the model in their own words or doing the exercises using an empty
version. You will also find a brief explanation sheet with the descriptions of each element of the
model so participants can refer back to these descriptions (if needed) when they do the exercises
or so that these descriptions can brief ly be described by the facilitator up front.
On entering the website you will find that we ask you to register before you download.
We freely give away our work, however, the quality of the work is based on ongoing action
research.
In order to continue to carry out this research, we like to know who is working with the

model and in what context.
We ask for this information for research purposes only and, as we give our materials away, you
will not be solicited for any sales purpose.
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River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
CH A P T E R 3
Appreciative Inquiry

This chapter will brief ly present the theory of Appreciative Inquiry
(AI), a strength-based, affirmative approach to effecting change in
social systems. AI deviates from the mindset that an organization is a
fixed entity and gravitates to one that sees it as a facilitative entity for
people. The chapter brief ly reviews the four principles underlying AI:
Constructionist, Anticipatory, Poetic, and Positive. The chapter also
presents the Appreciative Inquiry process, a four-step process devel-
oped around an issue or a topic, and reviews some implications of AI for
management.
To provide a foundational link to AI, this chapter will also present an
overview of Maslow’s work pertaining to Self-Actualization and Being-
Values. As authors, we believe that a good understanding of Maslow’s
work in this regard will furnish a sound framework for understanding and
implementing AI approach in any organizational change setting.
Introduction
Perhaps the only limits to the human mind are those we believe in.
—Willis Harman
Imagine what would happen to you if you had the ability to consis-
tently see and connect with every strength in the universe—every
one of the capacities inherent in a world of 10 billion galaxies and
6 billion people; or to see every positive potential in your son or
daughter; or, like Michelangelo, the intellectual ability to “sense”
the towering, historic figure of David “already existing” in the huge
slab of marble—even before the reality.
—David Cooperrider, in a Foreword to Appreciative Intelligence:
Seeing the Mighty Oak in the Acorn
A Cherokee elder sitting with his grandchildren told them, “In
every life there is a terrible fight—a fight between two wolves. One
is evil: he is fear, anger, envy, greed, arrogance, self-pity, resent-
ment and deceit. The other is good: joy, serenity, humility, confi-
dence, generosity, truth, gentleness, and compassion.” A child asked,
“Grandfather, which wolf will win?” The elder looked him in the
eye. “The one you feed.”
—A Traditional Native American Tale
Appreciative Inquiry as a strength-based, affirmative approach to

effect change in social systems. It has been variously described as an
“affirmative approach to change,” a “culmination of Maslow’s vision of

positive human potential,” and a “new yoga of inquiry.” It is based on
the premise that “human systems grow and change in the direction in
which they ask questions.” If an organization inquires into problems,
it will keep finding problems; if an organization seeks to appreciate
what is best in itself and its people, it will discover more and more
that is good. It can then use these discoveries to envision and create a
new future where the best becomes the norm. By focusing on an orga-
nization’s moments of excellence, and through collective exploration
and positive imagery, AI creates new potentials and possibilities. Thus,
AI continuously searches for what gives life to human systems when
they are most alive, creative, and connected in healthy ways to their
communities. Quinn, in his celebrated book Change the World, writes,
“Appreciative Inquiry is currently revolutionizing the field of organi-
zational development.”
Abraham Maslow: Prophet of Human Potential

As a prophet of human potential, Maslow believed the realization of one’s
total potential (variously described as self-actualization or self-realization)
to be the ultimate goal of all humankind. In his later research, Maslow
(1971) enlarged the list of basic needs to include a still higher category of
needs, called “metaneeds.” He called the ultimate values sought by self-
actualizing people Being-values or B-values. These values were mentioned
again and again by self-actualizing people or by other people to describe
their peak experience. They are composed of the following attributes:
wholeness, perfection, completion, justice, aliveness, richness, simplicity,
beauty, goodness, uniqueness, effortlessness, playfulness, truth, honesty,
self-sufficiency, and meaningfulness.
Next, Maslow (1971) reclassified needs into D-Needs and B-Needs,
with their correlates as deficiency motivation and growth motivation. The
physiological, security, belonging, and esteemed needs may be termed as
Deficiency Needs (D-Needs) because they are activated by deficiency.
Self-actualization needs and the B-Needs may be called Growth Needs
since they represent not so much a deficiency as an unfolding of all those
“wonderful possibilities” that lie deep within each human being, wait-
ing to express themselves. Toward the end of his life, Maslow even went
Appreciative Inquiry 121
beyond self-actualization. He considered self-transcendence to be our
deepest need and highest aspiration.
What Holds Us Back from Achieving

True Greatness?
Why do these possibilities, present in all, actualize themselves in only a
few? Maslow wrestled with the question all his life. One of the factors he
thought blocks growth is the “fear of one’s own greatness” or “running away
from one’s own best talents.” Maslow (1971) believed that “it is certainly

possible for most of us to be greater than we are in actuality. We all have
unused potentialities or not fully developed ones” (p. 34).
To demonstrate this, Maslow (1971) used to ask his students: “ ‘Which
of you in this class hopes to write the great American novel, or to be
a senator, or Governor, or President? Who wants to be the Secretary
General of the United Nations? Or a great composer? Who aspires to be
a saint, like Schweitzer, perhaps? Who among you will be a great leader?’
Generally, everybody starts giggling, blushing, and squirming until I ask,
‘If not you, then who else?’ ” (pp. 34–35). In order to push his students to
higher levels of aspiration, Maslow would also ask, “What great book are
you now secretly planning to write?” (p. 35).
Maslow (1971) believed that the fulfillment of B-values is another
aspect of self-actualization and a harbinger of personal responsibility and
social harmony.
If we were to accept as a major educational goal the awakening and

fulfillment of B-values, we would have a different f lowering of a
new kind of civilization. People would be stronger, healthier, and
would take their own lives into their hands to a greater extent. With
increased personal responsibility for one’s personal life, and with a
rational set of values to guide one’s choosing, people would begin
to actively change the society in which they lived. The movement
towards psychological health is also the movement toward spiritual
peace and social harmony. (p. 188)
Boosting Self-Esteem: Become a Part of

Something Important!
The easiest way to feel needed is to become a part of something important,
something larger, something greater. Then you at once become respon-
sible: “At once, it matters if you die, or if you are sick, or if you can’t work,
etc. Then you must take care of yourself, you must respect yourself, you
have to get plenty of rest, not smoke or drink too much, etc . . . This is an
important medicine for self-esteem: Become a part of something impor-
tant” (Maslow, 1998, pp. 10–11).
According to Maslow (1971), all self-actualizing people have a cause
they believe in, a vocation they are devoted to. When they say, “my
work,” they mean their mission in life. Self-actualizing people are, with-
out one single exception, involved in a cause outside their own skin,
in something outside of themselves (p. 42). Maslow (1998) further
clarifies,
This business of self-actualization via a commitment to an important

job and to worthwhile work could also be said, then, to be the path
to human happiness . . . happiness is an epiphenomenon, a by-prod-

uct, something not to be sought directly but an indirect reward or
virtue . . . The only happy people I know are the ones who are working well
at something they consider important . . . this was universal truth for all my
self-actualizing subjects. They were metamotivated by metaneeds
(B-values) expressed in their devotion to, dedication to, and identi-
fication with some great and important job. This was true for every
single case. (pp. 8–9)
Just having an important task is not enough: the self-actualizing person

must also do it well. Second-rate work is not a good path to self-actual-
ization. Self-actualization means working to do well the thing that one
wants to do. One must strive to be the very best in whatever one under-
takes. Maslow (1971) considered this striving ‘to be the best one is capable
of becoming’ to be the sine qua non of human happiness. “If you deliberately
plan to be less than you are capable of being, then I warn you that you will be
deeply unhappy for the rest of your life. You will be evading your own capacities,
your own possibilities” (p. 35). It is true that cultivation of one’s capacities
requires hard work, dedication, discipline, training, practice, and often
postponement of pleasure.
In Buddhist literature, great emphasis is laid on choosing the right kind
of work. One of the eight components of righteous living in Buddhism is
called right livelihood—the kind of livelihood that fosters self-fulfillment,
inner peace, and contentment. It is difficult to conceive of a feeling of
satisfaction or self-pride, says Maslow (1998) if one were “working in
some chewing gum factory, or a phony advertising agency, or in some
factory that turned out shoddy furniture. Real achievement means inevi-
tably a worthy and virtuous task. To do some idiotic job very well is
certainly not real achievement . . . what is not worth doing is not worth doing
well” (p. 16).
Behaviors Leading to Self-Actualization
What does self-actualization mean in terms of actual behavior? Maslow

(1971) answers this question by describing eight ways in which one self-
actualizes.
1. Going at things “whole hog:” Self-actualization means experienc-
ing fully, vividly, self lessly, with full concentration and total
absorption.
2. Making growth choices: To make a growth choice instead of the fear
choice a dozen times a day is to move a dozen times a day toward
self-actualization.
3. Letting the self emerge: By “listening to their impulse voices,” self-
actualizing people let the self emerge.
4. Taking responsibility: Each time one acts honestly or takes responsibil-
ity, one is actualizing the self.

5. Listening to one’s own self: One cannot choose wisely for a life unless
one dares to listen to oneself, one’s own self, at each moment of life.
To be courageous rather than afraid is another version of the same
thing.
6. Working to become first-rate: Self-actualization means going through
an arduous and demanding period of preparation in order to realize
one’s possibilities. To become a second-rate physician is not a good
path to self-actualization. One wants to be first rate or as good as
one can be.
7. Creating conditions for peak experiences: Peak experiences are transient
moments of self-actualization. They cannot be bought, nor can
they be sought. By making growth choices, by being honest and
taking responsibility, by listening to their inner voices, and by self-
lessly working at a cause greater than themselves, self-actualizing
people create conditions so that such experiences are more likely to
occur.
8. Having the courage to drop one’s defenses: It means identifying defenses
and finding the courage to give them up. It is painful because
defenses are mechanisms against something that is unpleasant. This
requires self-knowledge and courage (pp. 43–51).
It must be noted that self-actualization, according to Maslow, is not a mat-

ter of one great moment. Rather, it is a matter of degree, or little victories
accumulated one by one over time.
Motivations Behind Appreciative Inquiry
The original theory and vision for “Appreciative Inquiry Into

Organizational Life” was articulated by Cooperrider and Suresh Srivastva
at the Weatherhead School of Management during the 1980s at the Case
Western Reserve University. According to Cooperrider, “The basic prem-
ise of Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is to build organizations around what
works rather than fix what doesn’t, focusing on what is right with people
rather than what is wrong.”
Cooperrider and Whitney (2007) describe it as follows:
Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is the cooperative search for the best

in people, their organizations, and the world around them. It
involves systematic discovery of what gives a system “life” when it
is most effective and capable in economic, ecological, and human
terms. AI involves the art and practice of asking questions that
strengthen a system’s capacity to heighten positive potential. It
mobilizes inquiry through crafting an “unconditional positive
question” often involving hundreds or sometimes thousands of

people. (p. 245)
Watkins and Mohr (2001) further elaborate on AI as a holistic framework

of change, and explain,
Appreciative Inquiry [is] a theory and practice for approaching

change from a holistic framework. Based on the belief that human
systems are made and imagined by those who live and work within
them, AI leads systems to move toward the generative and creative
images that reside in their most positive core—their values, visions,
achievements, and best practices. AI is both a world view and a
practical process. In theory, AI is a perspective, a set of principles
and beliefs about how human systems function, a departure from
the past metaphor of human systems as machines. Appreciative
Inquiry has an attendant set of core processes, practices, and even
‘models’ that have emerged. In practice, AI can be used to co-
create the transformative processes and practices appropriate to
the culture of a particular organization.Grounded in the theory
of “social constructionism,” AI recognizes that human systems
are constructions of the imagination and are, therefore, capable of
change at the speed of imagination. Once organization members
shift their perspective, they can begin to invent their most desired
future. (p. 245)
At its core, AI represents “the art and practice of asking questions that
strengthen a system’s capacity to apprehend, anticipate, and heighten posi-
tive potential . . . it assumes that every living system has many untapped
and rich and inspiring accounts of the positive. Link the energy of this
core to any change agenda and changes never thought possible are sud-
denly and democratically mobilized” (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2000,
pp. 5–6). As Cooperrider et al. explain,
AI involves, in a central way, the art and practice of asking ques-

tions that strengthen a system’s capacity to apprehend, anticipate,
and heighten positive potential. It centrally involves the mobiliza-
tion of inquiry through the crafting of the “unconditional posi-
tive question, “often involving hundreds or sometimes thousands of
people. . . . AI deliberately, in everything it does, seeks to work from
accounts of the “positive change core”—and it assumes that every
living system has many untapped and rich and inspiring accounts
of the positive. Link the energy of this core directly to any change
agenda and changes never thought possible are suddenly and dem-
ocratically mobilized. . . . As people are brought together to listen
carefully to the innovations and moments of organizational “life,”

sometimes in storytelling modes and sometimes in interpretive and
analytic modes, a convergence zone is created where the future
begins to be discerned in the form of visible patterns interwoven
into the texture of the actual. . . . Images of the future emerge out
of grounded examples from an organization’s positive past. . . . [This
convergence zone facilitates] the collective repatterning of human
systems. (pp. XVII—XIX)
Cooperrider and Whitney (2000) contrast the commonplace notion that

“the organization is a problem” to be solved with the appreciative notion
that “the organization is a miracle to be embraced.” AI involves a sys-
tematic discovery of what gives “life” to a living system and a consistent
search for the best in people, their organizations, and the relevant world
around them.
Main Principles of Appreciative

Inquiry
AI involves the following 5 principles:
Constructionist principle: Words create reality. What we consider to be

real is created through our social discourse.
Principle of Simultaneity: Change begins the moment we ask questions.
Seeds of change are planted in the first questions asked.
Anticipatory Principle: Image inspires action. An image of the future
precedes actual change.
Poetic Principle: Organizations are like an open book or poetry. They are
open to multiple interpretations and conclusions.
Positive Principle: Positive questions lead to positive information. The more
positive the approach, the more lasting the change.
Problem-Based Approach Vs.
Strength-Based Approach
The following table sums up these approaches:
Table 1 Approaches.
Paradigm 1: Deficit-Based Research Paradigm 2:Strength-Based Research

Identification of Problems Appreciating the Best of What Is

Analysis of Root Causes Envisioning What Might Be
Analysis of Possible Solutions Dialoguing What Should Be
Plan of Action Innovating What Will Be
Basic Assumption: Organizations are Problems Basic Assumption: Organizations are
to be Solved Mysteries to be Embraced
Source: Cooperrider, Sorensen, Whitney, Yaeger (Eds.). (2000). Appreciative Inquiry: Rethinking Human
Organizations Toward a Positive Theory of Change. Illinois: Stipes Publishing.
The 4-D Model
The Appreciative Inquiry (AI) process is generally represented by a four-

step process that is developed around an issue or a topic. Each step is given
a name beginning with “D” and the model is usually known as the 4-D
model.
Figure 1 Discover, Dream, Design, Destiny.

Source: Richard Seel, Introduction to Appreciative Inquiry.
AI and Implications for Management
Cooperrider (2000) presents the following implication of AI for manage-
ment and leadership:
1. Organizations as made and imagined are artifacts of the affirmative

mind.
2. No matter its previous history, virtually any pattern of organiza-
tional action is open to alteration and reconfiguration.
3. To the extent that organizations’ imaginative projections are the key
to their current conduct, organizations are free to seek transforma-

tions in conventional practice by replacing conventional images with
images of a new and better future.
4. rganizations are heliotropic in character in the sense that organiza-
tional actions have an observable and largely automatic tendency to
evolve in the direction of positive imagery.
5. Conscious evolution of positive imagery is a viable option for orga-
nized systems as large as global society or as small as the dyad or
group.
6. To understand organizations in affirmative terms is also to under-
stand that the greatest obstacle in the way of group and organiza-
tional well-being is the positive image, the affirmative projection
that guides the group or the organization.
7. Organizations do not need to be fixed. They need constant reaffir-
mation (excerpted from pp. 46–50).
Conclusion
Appreciative inquiry is not another tool, like team building or qual-
ity management. Rather, it is a whole new approach to organizational
change. Other approaches that focus on mere “problem-solving’ can
only attain limited improvement. These approaches basically focus
on what is wrong in a given situation and proceed to “fix” it with all
the analytical tools available. Yet, due to their confined focus, these
approaches are unable to reach beyond the confines of the dark past.
For achieving quantum leaps of progress, bright images of the future are
necessary. As Cooperrider put it, “We create our organizations based
on our anticipations of the future. The image of the future guides the
current behavior of any system.” It is therefore crucial to imagine big
and to think bold: the type of vision that sees a mighty oak tree in a tiny
acorn. The limitations in one person’s perceptions are not limitations in
the things perceived. Vaclav Havel captures the essence of maintaining
a daring vision this way: “[ . . . ] the real question is whether the brighter
future is really always so distant. What if, on the contrary, it has been
here for a long time already, and only our own blindness and weakness
has prevented us from seeing it around us and within us, and kept us
from developing it?”
The exercises following this chapter will help you in applying AI in
both personal and professional environments. Many of the exercises,
though categorized in this section, may also apply to the other chapters of
the book, due to the interdependent nature of the topics.

E X E RC I S E
Conversations of Mutual Understanding:

Deconstructing Silos by Visually Representing
Organizational Processes
M ic h a el Y. Mo on , Ph. D. , C ali for nia State
U niver s it y, East B ay
Introduction
In this exercise, participants draw diagrams of an organizational

process, creating the basis for dialogical collaboration around
diverse departmental or functional perspectives and their narra-
tives. Creating visual representations of organizational processes
can be stimulating and fun, but how serious is it from a learning
standpoint?
Visually representing organizational processes is an extension of
using metaphor to teach organization theory. Tom Taber (2007)
describes three uses of metaphor in teaching organization theory:
giving meaning to unfamiliar concepts, bringing mental models to
light, and appreciating a variety of viewpoints (pp. 542–544). The
exercise of visually representing organizational processes, described
in this chapter, draws on these three uses of metaphor because the dia-
grams are visual metaphors. That is, the visual representations draw
parallels between organizational processes and the diagrams through
the translation and non-literal rendition of participants’ conceptual
understanding of how the organization seems to work. Sackmann
(1989) defines metaphor as “a figure of speech in which a term or
phrase with a literal meaning is applied to a different context in order
to suggest a resemblance . . . The figurative comparison provides addi-
tional information about the structure, content, and meaning of the
particular situation” (p. 465). If we are to replace Sackmann’s use of
“figure of speech in which a term or phrase with a literal meaning”
with “visual representation,” the diagram becomes the “figurative
comparison” that can help participants glean additional information
about organizational processes.
This visual representation of organizational processes may
enhance understanding of theory beyond the use of linguistic meta-
phors through (1) the explicit consideration of multiple dimensions
of organizational processes and how to represent them and (2) intro-
ducing a non-linguistic mode of learning. An additional benefit of
visual representations is having concrete starting points—that is,

diagrams with at-a-glance renditions—from which participants may
engage in side-by-side comparisons and discuss their perspectives
with each other.
The first enhancement that visual representation of organiza-
tional processes adds to the use of literary metaphors is the explicit
consideration of multiple dimensions. As participants conceptual-
ize a certain aspect of an organization’s processes that they wish to
convey through diagrams, they must also consider issues inherent
in drawing pictures. Such issues include spatial relationships, time
elements, and symbolic versus literal representations. This active
consideration and engagement with various elements of organi-
zational processes when translating one’s understanding into dia-
grams is likely to enhance the development of insights and learning
(Cross, 1986).
The second enhancement to the literary metaphors is the use of
non-linguistic modes of learning. Taber (2007) considers the propo-
sition that much of human thought is image based instead of lan-
guage based (Pinker, 1994) as a rationale for his use of metaphor
to teach organization theory. Whether or not you agree with that
proposition, individuals do have different preferred modes of learn-
ing (Riding & Sadler-Smith, 1997) and the visual non-linguistic is a
primary mode (Plass, Chun, Mayer, & Leutner, 1998), so providing
the option for participants to add a visual representational aspect to
their demonstrated understanding of an organization’s processes will
likely enhance insight and learning.
In this exercise, participants’ diagrams serve as concrete start-
ing points from which they may compare and discuss their per-
spectives with others. The vividness and immediacy of diagrams
serve as compelling points for joining in conversation. Because the
content or import of many visual representations can be largely
ascertained at—a glance, the diagrams provide quick and powerful
demonstrations of differing emphases on various dimensions of an
organization’s processes. Dialogue among participants may focus
on their respective diagrammed perspectives, allowing a poten-
tially important degree of removal from the tendency to personal-
ize perspectives.
This exercise is meant to serve as a tool to facilitate cross-functional

dialogue about the content of an organization’s processes. This tool
has been designed to establish a starting point for dialogue among
participants. It is important to make clear that the diagrams are not
meant to replace constructive and mutually respectful interactions.
Rather, catalyzing conversations about organizational processes
through the use of the diagrams will help jumpstart cross-functional
dialogue with a focus on participants’ work.

The primary outcome of the exercise is to create a model for
understanding diverse stakeholders’ narratives about organizational
processes. Participants can use the notion of visually representing dif-
ferent perspectives as a metaphor in itself of organizational polyphony
(Hazen, 1993). The recognition of the diversity of narratives creates a
countervailing tension to the natural tendency toward organizational
departmental or functional silos. The accommodation of alternative
narratives increases the capacity and willingness to engage in collab-
orative dialogue and sensemaking.
Best Setting for the Exercise and Why
The best setting for the exercise is a breakout room in which indi-
viduals from different departments/functions are gathered. The
participants in this exercise will appreciate a space free of distrac-
tion and with the opportunity to interact with others who repre-
sent contrasting viewpoints. The exercise works best for groups of
4–7 people. The entire exercise may require 2–3 hours. Tables that
can accommodate these groups of 4–7 individuals will be helpful
for some of the exercise tasks. Theoretically, as few as two partici-
pants could benefit from a discussion emerging from this exercise.
However, the richness of dialogue will depend on the diversity
of represented vantage points, as well as the degree of functional
expertise of each participant. On the other end of the group size
spectrum, discussions may become too unwieldy with more than
10–12 participants. Materials include paper and transparencies
of the same size, and pens with which to draw on the paper and
transparencies.
Points of Attention or Caution to

the Audience
Because the exercise requires each participant to draw an informed

diagram of organizational process, it may be helpful to involve indi-
viduals who are conversant with broad organizational processes.
The exercise may be successful without individuals who understand
these broad processes, but the resulting dialogue may be relatively
superficial. It is not necessary to involve individuals who are subject
matter experts, but some level of competency in and understanding
of their respective functions will allow them to serve effectively as
representatives of their department/function’s perspectives. Finally,
if the organization hosting this exercise has a history of contentious
conf lict between represented departments/functions, it may be best
to involve an experienced facilitator. Setting ground rules of engage-
ment when individuals share their visual representations will also be

helpful in such contexts.
The Exercise
1. As a group, draw a diagram on paper of a basic end-to-end

process of an organization that you know well. Use arrows
and other figures to show how the process passes through dif-
ferent events and different people in the organization. Focus
on the process and try to make this diagram as department/
function agnostic as possible. You will have plenty of chances
to have your say from your departmental/functional perspec-
tives later. This means you will simply draw who does what
in chronological sequence across the organization for that
process. An “event” can be a decision, meetings of stakehold-
ers, activities, data gathering, or the addition or subtraction
of individuals in the process. Each event is any occurrence
that contributes to the movement of the process from start to
finish. An example of a diagram may be the start-to-finish
process of a recent reconfiguration of office space in the head-
quarters building. Or it could be the process to modify an
existing product or service that will have an impact on vari-
ous internal and external stakeholders of your organization.
It is best to diagram a process that involves many different
departments/functions and has been the basis of controversy
within the organization. If you need to refer to a depart-
ment, label it as “Person(s) A in [department]”. Leave as much
space as possible between events because you will be writing
between them later.
2. Each participant lays a transparency on top of this diagram
and traces the basic structure (e.g., arrows, figures, and phase
descriptions) of the process on their transparency.
3. Working individually, each participant annotates their
transparency with notes that represent their departmental/
functional perspective on the different parts of the diagram.
First, each participant writes down in the upper left corner
of the transparency the main concerns and challenges their
department/function experiences or foresees in the dia-
grammed process. Next, for each part of the diagrammed
process, each participant writes down concerns, questions,
and areas of support from their perspective next to each
corresponding part of the process. Feel free to mark up
your transparency however you feel inclined! The follow-
ing considerations may be used as topics for the annotations,
but you may decide to use your own criteria for assessing
the organizational process and its phases based on the inter-

ests and functional responsibilities of your department/
function.
a. Are there concerns about the organizational process that

lead your department/function to object to the process
overall? Is there something about the process that makes it
a “deal killer”? What?
b. Specifically what about each part of the process might your
department/function consider problematic?
c. Based on the interests and functional responsibilities of
your department/function, what changes would you rec-
ommend for the process? Why?
d. Are there aspects of the process that your depart-
ment/function supports or even advocates? What and
why?
4. If the group is missing an important or notable stakeholder

perspective, work collectively to develop a separate annotated
transparency for that perspective.
5. Place all of the transparencies side-by-side on the table and
share nonjudgmental observations with each other. Note the
similarities and differences. Ask clarifying questions if nec-
essary, again without judgment. This step is simply for data
gathering and noticing how the different perspectives play out
in the diagrams.
6. Next, as a group, begin discussing the process phase-by-phase,
acknowledging the various positive and negative annotations
associated with each progressive phase. Approach this step
as an opportunity to look beyond traditional organizational
silos as root causes of controversy and, in dialogue with your
counterparts from those silos, to jointly explore organizational
process as inherently complex and dynamic. In a sense, each
transparency represents a distinct narrative about the process.
The purpose of drawing each perspective on a transparency is
both practical and symbolic. It allows different narratives to
be overlaid on each other to see the narrative threads weave
their perspectives through the process, both together and sep-
arately. Of course, some transparencies may be too dense with
annotations for this to be useful, but the clear medium of the
transparency makes this possibility obvious. Symbolically, the
transparency’s clearness reduces any single narrative’s primacy
or power to silence others; for the purposes of this exercise,
visual transparency symbolically evokes narrative plurality.
This and the prior step of the exercise create a basis for liter-
ally seeing and talking through the longitudinal coherence

of each narrative (each transparency) and the complexity of
organization (discussion of the process, phase-by-phase across
narratives).
7. This next step is focused on broader understanding through
reconciliation and multinarrative accommodation and inte-
gration. These processes have probably already begun in
previous steps, but they are the focus of this step. Revisit the
lists of main concerns and challenges written in the upper
left-hand corner of each transparency. As a group, discuss
each item in relation to the previous phase-by-phase dis-
cussion about the process. This exercise won’t necessarily
change each item, but it might allow a reframing of the
underlying premises. For example, a department’s listed pri-
mary concern may have originally been based on the per-
ception that others’ reluctance to support the organizational
process was based on general mistrust of that department
and doubts about the process’s value to the organization.
However, what might arise as a result of the attention paid
to each department’s narrative is that the reluctance is actu-
ally based on communication gaps and missed opportunities
to voice and listen to each others’ perspectives. This is a
common challenge in organizations. The somewhat struc-
tured dialogue and chances for listening designed in this
exercise allow the group to set aside tacit agreements in the
organization about narrative silos. What hopefully emerges
is a process of cross-silo reconciliation and accommoda-
tion for more broadly integrated departmental/functional
narratives.
8. Finally, as a group, rewrite the lists of concerns and chal-
lenges that were discussed in the previous step on the origi-
nal piece of paper. The objectives for this step are that the
list can be combined into a collective set of concerns and
challenges and that the list is shorter than the sum of the
original number of items. You may find many common
items across the transparencies that can be collectively listed
on the paper. And you may also find new items to list as a
result of the multinarrative dialogue about the organiza-
tional process. This is a shared, collectively constructed list
of concerns and challenges. Full agreement is not neces-
sary on every item, but all should understand that diverse
perspectives naturally emerge in organizations and more
empathetic tolerance for such diversity will hopefully allow
overall agreement about how the shared list is one attempt
to represent the organizational-process-as-a-whole. At least
to a degree and hopefully as the beginning of a continuing

process of dialogue, the effect of organizational silos has
been deconstructed.
A. What insights emerged for you through this exercise? Why do
you think they emerged?
B. How might this sort of cross-silo dialogue be integrated in
how the organization “does business” from now on? How
might you take responsibility for yourself as a cross-silo
dialogue starter? What obstacles might arise and how may
they be addressed?
C. For this approach of “deconstructing silos,” do you think the
key is the process itself or arriving at a result or both? (Hint:
It’s both. Why?)
Final Comments
Constructing and making sense of meaning in organizations is largely

what working in an organization demands of us. The egocentric ten-
dency for individuals and groups to adopt a worldview that gives
primacy to a single set of meanings, usually theirs, is a natural one.
However, cross-silo collaboration holds great potential to recon-
struct the organization in a way that collectively shares and con-
structs meaning to work effectively through problems, particularly
systemic patterns (Senge, 1990). Through the processes of appreciat-
ing polyphony, accommodating diversity, and critically considering
multiple perspectives, organizations value the contributions of those
who allow its members to make meaning effectively. My intention in
designing this exercise is that these illustrations be shared among par-
ticipants for the purposes of expanding their internal dialogues and
encouraging stimulating and thought-provoking dialogues with each
other, actively and purposefully engaging in the polyphonic aspects
of organizations.
E X E RC I S E
Dialogue Circle: An Exercise in Gendered

Introspection and Ref lection
R ay K. Hayn es , Ph. D. , In di ana U niver si t y Bloomington
R a ja s h i G ho sh , Ph. D. , D rexel U niver sity
Appreciative Inquiry

Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is a process of organizational change
grounded in social constructivism and positive psychology
(Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). The objective of AI is
that of social innovation instead of problem solving. As noted by
Cooperrider and Srivastava (1987), “Appreciative inquiry refers to
a research perspective that is uniquely intended for discovering,
understanding, and fostering innovations in social-organizational
arrangements and processes” (p. 24). Since its original conception as
an alternative approach to traditional action research, AI has been
applied as a transformational approach for engaging participants
in a collective process for generatively building shared meaning
out of experience and reframing possible futures in organizational
settings (Bushe & Kassam, 2005; Cooperrider & Whitney, 2001).
According to Cooperrider and Whitney (2001), five principles of
AI are
1. The constructionist principle

2. The principle of simultaneity
3. The poetic principle
4. The anticipatory principle
5. The positive principle
The constructionist principle considers organizations as socially con-

structed realities where meaning gets created socially through words
and languages used in interactions among employees. The prin-
ciple of simultaneity is based on the belief that inquiry is a form
of intervention in itself, as inquiry leads to a change in the system.
Unlike traditional action researchers, who generate change options
and implement change after inquiring and diagnosing the system, AI
theorists argue that questions asked in the inquiry stage can be fateful
and thus, change begins the moment the system engages in inquiry.
The poetic principle draws attention to the language of inquiry as,
according to the AI theorists, language has the potential to enliven
and inspire the best in people. The anticipatory principle states that
our present actions are inf luenced by our future vision. Lastly, the
positive principle states that sustainable change can only occur if
there is positive emotion and sentiments such as hope, excitement,
inspiration, and camaraderie.
AI is typically conducted using the 4-D cycle proposed by
Cooperrider and Whitney (2001). The 4Ds represent the four
phases of AI, namely the discovery, dream, design, and destiny
stages. In the discovery stage, participants are required to ref lect
on their personal experiences of the affirmative topic or the focus
of inquiry to build a renewed awareness of their best experiences

related to the topic in the past. In the dream stage, the participants
are required to use the affirmative images they ref lected on in the
discovery stage to envision the possible future where their highest
potential is realized. In the design stage, the participants engage
in a dialogue to express individual observations and ref lections on
the affirmative topic in the interest of building shared understand-
ing and consensus about what should be done in the future. In the
destiny stage, participants commit to actions that can bring about
transformational changes in organizational systems, structures,
processes, and procedures.
The Exercise
Purpose
This team-based exercise is intended for organizational leaders seek-
ing to diversify their leadership ranks with women. It uses dialogue
circles to produce gender introspection, gender ref lection, gender
appreciation, and a stated commitment to gender diversification
within the organization. Its purpose is to help organizational lead-
ers develop specific gender diversification initiatives by building a
renewed understanding of their strengths in cross-gender commu-
nication and interaction. The dialogue circle exercise is premised on
the belief that organizations are in harmony when their objectives
and operations incorporate both male and female perspectives. This
belief is rooted in the perspective that human enterprise is not pos-
sible without the collaboration of males and females, and that gender,
like race/ethnicity, is a core element of human diversity. The dia-
logue circle exercise focuses on this truth by soliciting positive and
progressive discussion on the awareness and impact of gender in our
lives. Gender awareness must be an element of leadership develop-
ment and socialization. Moreover, twenty-first–century leaders must
learn to embrace gender differences and leverage these differences to
moderate and regulate not only what gets done in organizations, but
how it gets done.
Situation
This team-based exercise should be used as part of managerial/exec-
utive leadership development training. Further, it could serve as a
supplemental exercise in modules focusing on diversity/inclusion and
sexual harassment. This dialogue circle exercise on gender introspec-
tion and ref lection is designed and presented in a self-explanatory
manner that enables teams of managerial and/or executive-level lead-
ers to engage in gendered introspection and ref lection without the
need of a facilitator.
Exercise Duration: 2 hours

• 30 minutes for ref lection (Discovery)
• 15 minutes for envisioning the future (Dream)
• 45 minutes for dialogue circle ( Design)
• 30 minutes for initiative development (Destiny)
Procedure:
Eight to twelve individuals, consisting of equal numbers of males and
females preferably from different functional areas of the organization,
are placed in a team to discuss the issue of gender and gender diver-
sification in the organization. Team members come to the exercise
with the understanding that they are to ref lect on their perceptions
of gender roles during three stages of their lives: (1) childhood, (2)
adolescence, and (3) organizational/working.
1. Prepared packets of the dialogue circle exercise on gendered

introspection and ref lection are made available to each team
member
2. Team members engaging with the exercise must first review
the diagram and guide associated with the dialogue circle
exercise for gender introspection and ref lection. This diagram
is accompanied by a guide explaining the process and stages
associated with the dialogue circle exercise on gender intro-
spection and ref lection.
3. Team members engaging with the exercise must then read the
learning objectives and outcomes
4. Team members engaging with the exercise must individu-
ally respond to questions and fulfill requirements associated
with the discovery, dream, design, and destiny stages of the
exercise
ground rules for engaging with the dialogue circle portion of
the exercise.
Discovery
Organizational Adult
stage reflections
Organizational need on gender.
Dream
Destiny Towards Gender Using affirmative
To develop Diversification Images to

and implement Recruitment of & selection envision practicing
gender specific Development & succession gender diversity
initiatives Retention in organizational
roles.
Design
Dialogue Circles on
gender to identify the
reality-rhetoric gap by
sharing individual
reflections.
Figure 2 Diagram of the Dialogue Circle Exercise for Gender Diversification.
Guide to the Diagram
The dialogue circle diagram presented above is based on the princi-

ples of appreciative inquiry (AI). Essentially, the diagram depicts an
organization-environment interaction resulting in the identification
of an organizational need that could be addressed using the AI meth-
odology. Using the above diagram as a guide, each team member
is required to first go through a process of ref lection about gender.
The process of ref lection on the three stages (childhood, adoles-
cence, and organizational adult) of life is represented by discovery or
Stage 1 of AI. Team members are then required to move to Stage 2,
the dream stage of AI, where they are required to use the affirmative
images about the opposite gender developed in the discovery stage
to envision how they might practice and support gender diversity.
Each team member’s participation in Stages 1 and 2 (discovery and
dream) prepares them for Stage 3, the design stage of AI. Stage 3
involves the use of a dialogue circle where team members share their
ref lections and dialogue in positive ways about the role and impact
of gender in their lives. Team members are then required to trans-
late this dialogue into a consensus statement of values about gender
in their organization. This statement must then be reconciled with
official organizational statements about diversity and inclusion to
identify if there is a reality-rhetoric gap. Based on this reconciliation
process, the team moves to Stage 4; the destiny stage, where they are
required to identify specific gender diversification initiatives aimed
at ref lecting their statement of values and/or closing the reality-rhet-
oric gap. The gender diversification initiatives the team develops
must then be vetted and supported by organizational leaders where
appropriate. Leadership support for such initiatives should be moni-
tored annually.
Learning Objectives and Outcomes:

• To understand how well we know the opposite gender by
ref lecting on our individual gender perspectives during three
significant life stages (e.g., childhood, adolescence, organiza-
tional/working adult).
• To not take gender for granted.
• To identify individual and organizational strengths associated
with gender diversity across departmental, hierarchical, and
functional levels.
• To ref lect and learn how individual life experiences shape our
views on gender.
• To engage in dialogue aimed at assessing the state of gender
diversity in the organization.
• To develop and implement specific and attainable initiatives
that achieve gender diversification.
Discovery Stage: Childhood ref lection on gender

Instruction: Please answer the questions presented below in a manner
that permits quick description of your understanding of gender as a
child. You may distill your answers into short descriptive sentences.
1. Think of the time when you first discovered that you were a
male or female, what did being male or female mean to you?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. As a child, whom did you look to for comfort, love, safety and
security?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. As a child what three words would you use to describe males?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. As a child what three words would you use to describe females?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5. What did you want to learn most about the opposite gender?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
* * *
Discovery Stage: Adolescence ref lection on gender

Instruction: Please answer the questions presented below in a man-
ner that permits quick description of your understanding of gender
as an adolescent. You may distill your answers in to short descriptive
sentences.
1. What was your view of the opposite gender as an adolescent?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. List three stereotypes of the opposite gender from your time as

an adolescent.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. List three members of the opposite gender you admired as an

adolescent and describe the characteristics you admired in them.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. List three perceived strengths of the opposite gender from your

time as an adolescent.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5. What did you want to learn most about the opposite gender as
an adolescent?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
* * *
Discovery Stage: Adolescence ref lection on gender

ner that permits quick description of your understanding of gender
as an adolescent. You may distill your answers in to short descriptive
sentences.
1. What was your view of the opposite gender as an adolescent?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. List three stereotypes of the opposite gender from your time as

an adolescent.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. List three members of the opposite gender you admired as an

adolescent and describe the characteristics you admired in them.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. List three perceived strengths of the opposite gender from your

time as an adolescent.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5. What did you want to learn most about the opposite gender as
an adolescent?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
* * *
Discovery Stage: Organizational adult ref lection on gender

Instruction: Please answer the questions presented below in a manner
that permits quick description of your understanding of gender as an
organizational or a working adult. You may distill your answers into
short descriptive sentences.
1. How would you describe gender diversity in your department,

division, or organization with respect to gender?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Describe the typical roles and responsibilities for men and women
in your organization.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. Identify and describe a department in your organization that

incorporates gender diversity.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. List three members of the opposite gender in your organization

and describe their work-related characteristics you admire.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5. What should the organization change about its image and cul-
tural practices to support gender diversity?
_______________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
* * *
Dream Stage: Envisioning gender diversity in organizational roles

ner that permits quick description of how you would support gender
diversity in your organizational role. You may distill your answers
into short descriptive sentences.
1. Based on your renewed awareness of gender and its issues, what
would you do the same or differently when relating and interacting
with a subordinate of opposite gender?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
with a supervisor of opposite gender?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
with a peer of opposite gender?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. What personal practices about the way you manage and lead do
you anticipate changing to support gender diversity?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5. What organizational policies and practices would you change to

support gender diversity?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
* * *
Design Stage: Dialogue Circle on gender

Dialogue Circle Ground Rules: This exercise aims to produce
honest, introspective, ref lective, and nonjudgmental dialogue about
gender in organizational settings. It is possible that for some, the
views and sentiments solicited and shared may be deeply personal and
emotionally taxing, causing some to feel personally and emotionally
uncomfortable. Participants should be mindful of this possibility and
are expected to adhere to the following ground rules for a safe and
comfortable learning environment.
• Participation and involvement is necessary for learning to

occur.
• Participants must be mindful at all times of acceptable organi-
zational conduct.
• Participants must adopt a future-oriented perspective with a
focus only on the positive.
• What is said in this room stays in this room.
• Recognize and respect each other’s differences and
worldviews.
• Behave and communicate in accordance with accepted orga-
nizational code of conduct.
• Be honest without being judgmental.
• Focus on personal learning and growth.
Participant(s) who feel uncomfortable or develop strong or irrecon-

cilable emotions to any aspect of this dialogue circle exercise should
excuse themselves from the dialogue circle and seek an appropriate
person who can help them reconcile their emotions or discomfort.
Dialogue Circle Outcome: Based on your answers to the questions

associated with the design and dream stages, you are now required to
share your responses to the questions posed with other members of
the dialogue circle. Then engage in dialogue leading to a consensus
statement about the team’s values related to gender diversity. Please
reconcile the team’s value statement with existing statements express-
ing the organization’s commitment to diversity. In doing so, please
determine if there is a reality-rhetoric gap.

Team Values on Gender
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Statement of the Reality-Rhetoric Gap

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
* * *
Destiny Stage: The development and articulation of gender- specific

initiatives
Based on the reality-rhetoric gap identified in the design stage, we
ask you to articulate a list of actions that you can commit to in order
to incorporate gender diversity in your organization.
In doing so, please be specific as to how these actions can address the
reality-rhetoric gap in terms of what will be done to close the gap.
Please specify what the actions are, how the actions will be imple-
mented, when the actions will be executed, and who will champion
or sponsor the actions.
1
2
3
4
End.
E X E RC I S E
Dialogue Circle: An Exercise in Embracing Racial/

Ethnic Diversity and Supporting Inclusion
R ay K. Hayn es , Ph .D., I ndi ana U niver si t y Bloomington
R a ja s h i Gh os h, Ph .D. , D rexel U niver sity
Purpose

This team-based exercise is intended for students and junior manag-
ers seeking to understand the importance of diversity and inclusion
within organizational settings. It uses an appreciative inquiry (AI)
framework and the dialogue circle as a forum for ref lecting on the
nature, role, and impact of racial and ethnic differences in our personal
and organizational lives. Like gender, race/ethnicity is a core element
of human diversity and differences in race/ethnicity can be used as a
source for building knowledge and understanding. This exercise iso-
lates and refocuses attention on how these differences have personally
impacted us as individuals and organizational members. Using the AI
4-D framework, students and junior managers engage in a process
of introspection and ref lection that will enhance their capacity for
embracing racial and ethnic diversity and supporting inclusion. All
exercise activities are premised on the belief that organizations are
in harmony when their diversity serves as a source for inclusion and
strength rather than exclusion. Diversity and inclusion must be essen-
tial elements of twenty-first century men and women. Diversity and
inclusion help us to relate and appreciate all that is human.
Situation
This team-based exercise should be used to facilitate discussion about
the race/ethnicity dimension of diversity. The dialogue circle exer-
cise in embracing racial and ethnic diversity and supporting inclusion
is designed and presented in a self-explanatory manner that enables
teams to engage without the need of a facilitator.
Exercise Duration: 2 hours
• 30 minutes for ref lection (Discovery)
• 15 minutes for envisioning the future (Dream)
• 45 minutes for dialogue circle (Design)
• 30 minutes for initiative development (Destiny)
Procedure:
Eight to twelve individuals (students or junior managers) of different
racial and ethnic backgrounds are placed into a team to discuss the
issue of race and ethnicity in society and organizations. Team members
come to the exercise with the understanding that they are to ref lect on
their perceptions of race/ethnicity during three stages of their lives: (1)
childhood, (2) adolescence, and (3) organizational/working.
1. Prepared packets of the dialogue circle exercise in embrac-

ing racial/ethnic diversity and supporting inclusion are made
available to each team member.
2. Team members engaging with the exercise must first review
the diagram and guide associated with the exercise in embrac-

ing racial and ethnic diversity and supporting inclusion. This
diagram is accompanied by a guide explaining the process and
stages associated with the dialogue circle exercise.
learning objectives and outcomes.
4. Team members must then read the definitions of diversity and
inclusion.
5. Team members engaging with the exercise must individu-
ally respond to questions and fulfill requirements associated
with the discovery, dream, design, and destiny stages of the
exercise
ground rules for engaging with the dialogue circle portion of
the exercise.
Discovery
Organizational Adult
stage reflections on
Organizational need race/ethnicity.
Dream
Destiny
Using affirmative
Individual
Embracing Diversity & Images to
development plan
Supporting Inclusion support diversity
for diversity and
and practice
inclusion.
inclusion.
Design
Dialogue Circles on
race/ethnicity: an opportunity
to share and develop
diverse and inclusive
perspectives.
Figure 3 Diagram of the Dialogue Circle Exercise for Racial and Ethnic Diversification.
Guide to the Diagram
The dialogue circle diagram presented above is based on the prin-

ciples of appreciative inquiry (AI). Essentially the diagram depicts an
organization-environment interaction resulting in the identification
of an organizational need that could be addressed using the AI meth-
odology. Each team member is required to first go through a process
of ref lection about race and ethnicity. The process of ref lection on
the three stages (childhood, adolescence, and organizational adult) of
life is represented by discovery or Stage 1 of AI. Team members are

then required to move to Stage 2, the dream stage of AI, where they
are required to use the affirmative images about race and ethnicity
developed in the discovery stage to envision how they might embrace
diversity and support inclusion. Each team member’s participation in
Stages 1 and 2 (discovery and dream) prepares them for Stage 3, the
design stage of AI. Stage 3 involves the use of a dialogue circle where
team members share their ref lections and dialogue in positive ways
about their experiences with race and ethnicity. Team members are
then required to use the transformative learning derived from this
dialogue to develop a personal statement of values regarding racial
and ethnic diversity and inclusion. Team members then move to
Stage 4, the destiny stage where they are required to identify specific
actions or developmental needs that would enable them to embrace
diversity and support inclusion. These actions and developmental ini-
tiatives constitute a significant agenda in their individual develop-
ment plans. Each individual must hold him or herself accountable for
executing the plan.
Learning Objectives and Outcomes:
• To understand what diversity and inclusion are and their

relationship.
• To build awareness of the impact of race/ethnicity in
organizations.
• To understand our personal view and knowledge of racial and
ethnic diversity by examining and ref lecting on our individ-
ual perspectives during three significant life stages (e.g., child-
hood, adolescence, organizational/working adult).
• To not take race and ethnicity for granted.
• To identify individual strengths associated with diversity and
inclusion.
• To ref lect and learn how individual life experiences shape our
views on race and ethnicity.
• To engage in honest, respectful nonjudgmental dialogue about
race and ethnicity.
• To develop an individual development plan for promoting
diversity and inclusion.
Definitions
Diversity: The observable and nonobservable traits and charac-

teristics that differentiate human beings. Race is an observable
characteristic.
Inclusion: A state of feeling valued and a sense of belonging
characterized by racial and ethnic minorities obtaining access to
majority-based organizations where their participation and involve-
ment inf luence decision making, policy positions, and resource
allocation.

* * *
Discovery Stage: Childhood ref lections on race and ethnicity

Instruction: Read and consider the quote(s) below, then answer the
questions presented in a manner that permits quick description of
your understanding of race and ethnicity as a child. You may distill
your answers into short descriptive sentences.
Quote(s) by Desmond Tutu
“A person is a person because he recognizes others as persons.”
“My humanity is bound up in yours, for we can only be human
together.”
1. Can you describe the race/ethnicity of the people you interacted

with as a child?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Think of the time when you first discovered someone of a differ-

ent race or ethnicity, what did it mean to you?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. What words did your parents use to describe children or people

who were different from your race or ethnicity?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. What did you want to learn most about someone who was of a
different race or ethnicity?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
* * *

Discovery Stage: Adolescence ref lections on race and ethnicity
Instruction: Read and consider the quote(s) then answer the ques-
tions presented below in a manner that permits quick description of
your understanding of gender as an adolescent. You may distill your
answers into short descriptive sentences.
Quote by Mahatma Gandhi
“Your beliefs become your thoughts. Your thoughts become your
words. Your words become your actions. Your actions become your
habits. Your habits become your values. Your values become your
destiny.”
1. What was your view of people whose race or ethnicity was dif-
ferent from yours as an adolescent?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. List three stereotypes associated with people of different race and

ethnicity from your time as an adolescent.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. List three individuals of different race or ethnicity whom you

admired as an adolescent. Brief ly state what you admire about
each individual.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. What did you want to learn most about someone of a different

race or ethnicity as an adolescent?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
* * *
Discovery Stage: Organizational adult ref lections on race and

ethnicity
Instruction: Read and consider the quote(s) then answer the questions
presented below in a manner that permits quick description of your
understanding of gender as an organizational or a working adult. You
may distill your answers into short descriptive sentences.
Quote by Martin Luther King
“I look to a day when people will not be judged by the color of their
skin, but by the content of their character.”
1. Describe whether or not you intentionally focus on race and eth-

nicity when interacting with individuals in your personal and
organizational life.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Describe the typical roles and responsibilities for people in your

organization based on their race and ethnicity.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. List three colleagues of different race and ethnicity whom you

admire and describe what you admire about them.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. What in your view is needed to promote racial and ethnic diver-

sity in the organization?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Dream Stage: Envisioning Racial and ethnic inclusion

Instruction: Read and consider the quote(s) then answer the questions
presented below in a manner that permits quick description of how
you would support gender diversity in your organizational role. You
may distill your answers into short descriptive sentences.
Quote by Mahatma Gandhi
“You must be the change you want to see in the world.”
1. Based on your renewed awareness of race/ethnicity and inclu-

sion, what would you do differently when relating and interact-
ing with a subordinate of different racial or ethnic background?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

ing with a supervisor of different racial or ethnic background?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

ing with a peer of different racial or ethnic background?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. What personal practices about the way you work, manage, and
lead do you anticipate changing to support inclusion?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Design Stage: Dialogue Circle on race/ethnicity and inclusion

Dialogue Circle Ground Rules: This exercise aims to produce
honest, introspective, ref lective and nonjudgmental dialogue about
race, ethnicity, and inclusion. It is possible that for some, the views
and sentiments solicited and shared may be deeply personal and emo-
tionally taxing, causing some to feel personally and emotionally
uncomfortable. Participants should be mindful of this possibility and
are expected to adhere to the following ground rules for a safe and
comfortable learning environment.

• Participation and involvement is necessary for learning to
occur.
• Participants must be mindful at all times of acceptable organi-
zational conduct.
• Participants must adopt a future-oriented perspective with a
focus only on the positive.
• What is said in this room stays in this room.
• Recognize and respect each other’s differences and world
views.
• Behave and communicate in accordance with accepted orga-
nizational code of conduct.
• Be honest without being judgmental.
• Focus on personal learning and growth.
Participant(s) who feel uncomfortable or develop strong or irrecon-
cilable emotions to any aspect of this dialogue circle exercise should
excuse themselves from the dialogue circle and seek an appropriate
person who can help them reconcile their emotions or discomfort.
Dialogue Circle Outcome: Based on your answers to the ques-
tions associated with the design and dream stages we ask that you
engage in a dialogue to share your insights about racial and ethnic
inclusion with your team, leading to transformative learning. Please
use this learning to critically ref lect and develop an individual state-
ment of values regarding embracing racial and ethnic diversity and
supporting inclusion.
Individual Statement of Values regarding embracing racial and ethnic
diversity and supporting inclusion
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
Destiny Stage: Integrate actions of embracing racial/ethnic diver-

sity and supporting inclusion as an agenda in your individual devel-
opment plan (IDP)
Based on the individual statement of values regarding embracing
diversity and supporting inclusion identified in the design stage, we
ask you to articulate a list of actions that you will commit to and
integrate into your individual development plan (IDP). In doing so,
please be specific as to how these actions can address racial and ethnic
diversity in terms of what will be done to support inclusion, how and

when the actions will be implemented, and who will be the organi-
zational champion or sponsor your actions.
End.
E X E RC I S E
Traffic Light Exercise

Sa tin der Dh im an , Ed.D. , Woodbur y Univer sity
Purpose and Goals:
This exercise can help you to attain and nurture a more appreciative
mind. It underscores the fact that perceptions and expectations deter-
mine reality. In fact, perceptions are reality. As managers and leaders,
we are in the business of “managing” perceptions.
This exercise can easily be done on our way to work, school, or any-
where else. The participants can be asked to report their experience
in a classroom or workshop setting.
After everyone shares their experiences with the whole group,
the facilitator can lead the discussion using what is presented under
“ref lection” below as pointers to link this exercise to such OB topics
as empowerment, trust, motivation, and appreciate inquiry. Though
simple in execution, it may have an important effect on your future
perspectives toward circumstances and people in personal and profes-
sional environments.
Pre-work Needed:
Having a car and a valid driver’s license.

Best type of Participants:
We have used this exercise with both undergraduate and graduate
students. We have also shared it with workshop audiences varying
from 40 to 60 participants.
Anywhere from 3 to 60 participants (useful for ref lection purposes).
Specific Steps:
We usually ask the participants to get into small groups to ref lect
on the deeper message of this exercise and then share their under-
standing with others by suggesting ways this exercise helps them
to understand human interactions better. It serves as a good
launching pad for leading the discussion about motivation and
empowerment.
● What has this exercise taught me about myself?
● What have I learned about my predominant mindset, and what
should I do about it?
● What have I learned from others during the ref lections?
● How can I implement these lessons toward a more rewarding
life?
Exercise:
Driving daily to your work, conduct a little experiment over the next
few days.
1. First day, take a rough count of the number of red lights you
come across.
2. Next day, similarly, make a rough count of the number of
green lights you come across.
3. Now, try to recall whether, driving to work on those days,
you were getting late (or were in a hurry) or you had more
than enough time to get to your work. If you do it well, you
will notice that when you were getting late or were in a hurry,
you came across more red lights. And when you were not in
a hurry and had all the extra time to get to your destination,
you somehow came across more green lights. Umm! I call it traf-
fic light phenomenon.
Do you think that the city Traffic Light System adjusts the fre-
quency of lights based on your schedule or mood? Of course not!
Well, a little ref lection will show that when we are in a hurry, and

hence under stress, we just tend to notice more red lights. Likewise,
when we are relaxed and not hurried, we tend to notice more green
lights.
Reflection:
There is no fixed reality out there; it all depends on our percep-
tion—the state of our own mind. If we carry a calm mind, a thank-
ful mind, we come across more experiences to be thankful for. If
we carry a disturbed mind, a complaining mind, we gravitate more
toward situations of limitations. We experience the world not the
way it really is; we experience it the way we are. As The Talmud
put it,
We do not see things as they are.

We see them as we are.
This insight is a great application for leaders of all types of organiza-

tions who are charged with the responsibility of motivating its work-
force. If the leaders approach a situation with scarcity mentality, with
a distrustful mind, they will come across more examples of conf licts
and disharmony. If they approach situations with abundance men-
tality, they will come across more opportunities of affirmations and
harmony. In popular language, it is called the Law of Attraction:
Like attracts like. Anything we start appreciating or noticing attracts
more energy like it to help it expand or grow in value. This applies
equally to the positive situations and the negative situations. The
choice is ours.
Appreciative inquiry is the art of noticing more “appreciative
moments” so as to invite them to occur even more frequently and
abundantly. By trusting people more, said Nelson Mandela, we make
them trustworthier. Maslow, the great prophet of human potential
once said, “If the only tool you have is a hammer, then every problem
appears like a nail.”
E X E RC I S E
“The Preferred Classroom” Exercise

T h o ma s A . Co nkl in , Ph. D. , Gannon Univer sity
Introduction
“The Preferred Classroom” exercise provides a structure through

which curiosity, passion, and conversation converge in the creation of

a learning experience that is truly life-giving. The exercise employs
the traditional 4-D model of Discovery, Dream, Design, and Delivery
(Mann, 2001; Ricketts & Willis, 2001) and facilitates small group
conversations among participants The exercise begins to build bonds
and familiarity among students in a way that helps them uncover
shared experiences that otherwise might not surface and through
which this classroom experience can be imagined.
Appreciative Inquiry: Conceptual Roots
Appreciative inquiry is a process of organizational change and trans-

formation grounded in positive psychology (Seligman, Steen, Park,
& Peterson, 2005) and social constructionist thought (Berger &
Luckmann, 1966; van der Haar & Hosking, 2004). It operates on the
belief that human systems move in the direction of their shared image
and idea of the future, and that change is based on intentional and
positive inquiry into what has worked best in the past. This inquiry
is generative (Bushe, 2007) in that it creates energy and momen-
tum for creating more of what members of the organization desire.
Inquiry and change function best when there is a shared voice among
all organizational participants who focus on the life-giving past as a
means of envisioning possibilities for preferred futures.
The central notion of AI turns on the idea of the Pygmalion effect
(Livingston, 1969), which in essence declares that what we expect is
what we usually experience. Since Cooperrider and Srivastva (1987)
originated the concept in their seminal paper “Appreciative Inquiry
in Organizational Life,” AI has become a widely used method of
creating organizational futures that are desired by all stakeholders.
This effect has been demonstrated in a number of different orga-
nizational forms. Cooperrider and Whitney (2000); Cooperrider
and Avital (2004); Fry, Barrett, Seiling, and Whitney (2001); and
Ludema, Whitney, Mohr, and Griffin (2003) provide collections
of writings and documentation of the AI process in their work that
serve as foundations and descriptions for conducting these events in
organizations.
Appreciative Inquiry: Classroom Application Roots
With respect to the classroom, AI has been used to construct

courses with an appreciative orientation toward student experi-
ences and course management (Yballe & O’Connor, 2000). Yballe
and O’Connor have engaged the entire pedagogical effort from
an appreciative stance and applied the basic AI beliefs, values, and
inquiry process used in organizational settings. They furthered this
topic in a chapter that inquires into the creation of appreciative peda-
gogy (Yballe & O’Connor, 2004). Here they described their intent

to design educational processes that were cooperative and included
intrinsic motivation and dialogue with others as a means of creat-
ing a view of the world that was “realistic, positively transforming,
and hopeful” (p. 175). More recently, O’Connor and Yballe (2007)
applied AI to the development of teams in the classroom, claiming
that team members “draw on memories of peak group performance
to build positive images for their team and to inform action” (p. 296).
AI has been used for various educational outcomes, including the
measurement of the effectiveness of desirable practices in a graduate
class on leadership (Conklin & Hart, 2009), the role of university
extension education in communities (Bowling & Brahm, 2002), and
facilitation of change in the administration of educational organiza-
tions (Stetson & Miller, 2003).
Elsewhere, Neilsen, Winter, and Saatcioglu (2005) leveraged stu-
dents’ experience using an AI process to begin a Master of Science
program in organizational development. The process helped facili-
tate the development of a list of shared values for the class. They
described the day-long activity and connected its logic to what
is undertaken in AI summits as described by Watkins and Mohr
(2001). Specifically, they articulated how the process helped to
“heighten the ties between . . . cognitions and positive emotions”
(p. 302). Finally, Neville (2008) underscored the idea that class-
rooms are “living systems simultaneously inf luencing and being
inf luenced by that which is around them” (p. 102). This was rel-
evant for her seminar, which was predicated on foundations of AI
developed by Cooperrider, Sorensen, Whitney, and Yaeger (2000).
These foundations enabled her and her students to explore the tacit
assumptions that inform the dominant perceptions of business and
society.
“The Preferred Classroom” Exercise
“The Preferred Classroom” exercise is based on conversations guided

by affirmative questions that have the potential to generate new
insight and awareness. These questions are engaged by all students
in the class through small group conversation, and are intentionally
oriented to focus on what gives life to their learning experience. The
process ref lects the interdependent nature of dialogue and its contri-
bution to the creation of a reality based on the synergistic power of
each student’s thoughts, actions, and talk.
Objectives
The objectives of the in-class exercise are to

1. Provide an opportunity for students to learn about and experi-
ence a process that is being increasingly used in organizational
life and which they are likely to encounter once they enter the
workforce;
2. Confront tacit and explicit norms of learning (powerless, other
oriented and designed, recipient versus creator);
3. Create an experience that fosters greater self reliance, inde-
pendence, self-direction, and autonomy; and
4. Invite students into a more responsible opportunity for their
education through an exercise that celebrates their experience
as valid, worthy, and reliable.
Ideally, students gain a new level of f lexibility regarding their educa-

tional experience, which previously may have been taken to be cast in
stone. The exercise is intended to stimulate greater awareness of their
own power and agency in the design and delivery of their experience
in class and, it is hoped, beyond. students can begin to more fully
understand their role as agents of change in their lives and the lives
of their organizations. This introduces them to their power in these
environments and helps them to realize that the socially constructed
nature of social systems is malleable and amenable to self-initiated
creation and change. As Johnson and Johnson (1982) have suggested,
students are introduced to an active process as learners rather than
treated as passive recipients of information.
The Process in Practice
It is helpful to introduce AI to the students with a brief overview of

the foundations of the method. The points covered are contained in
Table 1 below.
The introduction lays a foundation that supports the exercise of an
inquiry into new interpretations of learning. After the introduction,
the process followed the Four D cycle shown in Figure 1.
The Discovery of peak moments starts the cycle and leads to
Dreaming about imagined possibilities, then to Design about the
Table 2 Talking points of AI foundations
Appreciative Inquiry • Human systems move in the direction of their images of the
future. They are heliotropic. (self-fulfilling prophecy)
• The seeds of change are contained in the questions we ask.
• Organizations are not problems to be solved, but mysteries to be
embraced. They need constant re-affirmation.
AI Essential Conditions • Get the whole system in the room.

• Focus on the life-giving past to envision and ignite possibilities
of preferred futures.
• This is not problem solving. It is an exercise in anticipatory

learning—the social construction of a preferred future.
AI 4 Key Questions • High point, peak learning experience

• What was valued most in that experience?
• about self.
• nature of work.
• others.
• the organization/school/classroom.
• What are the core factors that give life to that instance?
• Images of future possibility: 3 wishes that would make learning
always like this?
AI Leverage Points • Participatory process, vs. dictated from top management

• Competitive advantage is people
AI 4 Main Steps in • Discovery—Best of what has been

Application • Dream—Best that might be
• Design/dialogue—What it might truly look like?
• Delivery/destination -What will we commit to?
Discovery:
What has
been?
Delivery: Dream:
What will What could
be? be?
Design:
What should
be?
Figure 4 Appreciative Inquiry 4-D Cycle.
now public and shared desires, and finally to Delivery, or where par-
ticipants want to direct their effort in creation of the ideal. This for-
mat offers structure for the dialogue sessions and gently directs the
participants through a step by step process.
Discovery
Students assemble in groups of three or fewer for the Discovery
step. This level of intimacy ensures greater contribution and less
opportunity to “socially loaf ” (Latane, Williams, & Harkins, 1979).

These groups remain intact for each step that requires small group
dialogue, which leverages the emergent relationships that begin to
develop through these conversations. In the Discovery step, students
ref lect on a transcendent, peak learning experience and how they
learned from that moment of greatness. These ref lections become
the basis for creating future images of learning excellence in the
course. In selecting peak experiences, students are encouraged to
expand their definition of “learning environments” beyond the
traditional classroom milieu. Candidate experiences could include
settings such as teams, jobs, or the college social system, anything
that causes orientation to new social or learning formats. These
“moments” could be just that, a moment, or they could also be
extended periods of time where they found themselves having to
learn and make sense of their situation over days, weeks, or even
months.
In the conversations at each step, students are encouraged to have
an open dialogue with rich sharing. The teacher’s role during these
conversations is to serve as a facilitator wandering among the groups,
remaining available for assistance and clarification. In this step, stu-
dents’ conversations are guided by the following questions:
1. What happened in that learning experience?

2. What did you do to make that happen?
3. What did others do to contribute to that experience?
4. How did that experience feel?
The questions act as stimulants to thought and discussion, which

may lead to epiphanies that could inform action. Connecting to past
experience disengages intellectual interpretations and helps students
feel the gut experience of their learning. Themes that emerge from
their shared experience create an opportunity wherein students may
rediscover a past learning experience, see it with new eyes, and then
share it with others. These conversations last approximately fifteen
minutes.
As the whole class reconvenes, an open invitation is made to
the group for reports, thereby reducing any performance anxiety
students may experience when a teacher makes specific requests of
particular individuals. However, a clear expectation is made that
each group will share their discoveries in each step of the exercise.
During this process, students’ descriptions of their experiences are
captured on the blackboard in the actual words students use. An
attempt is made to connect their comments to themes from other
groups in order to consolidate and build bridges. Without fail, this
process yields rich and varied stories of peak learning that often
ref lect common themes across groups. Representative examples of
common themes and characteristics of best learning experiences

include
1. Real world experience;

2. Receiving help and constructive criticism from supervisor/
teacher;
3. Open communication with supervisor/teacher;
4. A supervisor/teacher who took an interest in the person’s
development and career;
5. A non-threatening environment;
6. An experience that was a part of one’s being (this student elab-
orated on this by saying that they felt they had changed in
their core, at the very essence of being); and
7. Feelings of mastery.
Once everyone shares their discoveries, which are written on the

board as they emerge, the comments are reviewed to ensure that
they are accurate and that they represent the students’ experiences.
Opportunities are also made available for anyone to add other items
that failed to emerge in the small group conversations. After a few
moments of silence, to give students time to ref lect and build their
courage to speak, this step is complete and the class is ready to begin
the Dream phase.
After the exercise, the comments from the Discovery step are typed
by the teacher and delivered to the group during the next class ses-
sion. This ensures access to a complete complement of the ref lections
on learning as the students move forward through the balance of the
course and their degree.
Dream
In the Dream step the small groups create budding notions about
what their future class might look like. Conversations about hope-
ful, imagined possibilities are shared during the process of shaping
this future. The goal is to unleash the greatest hope for this class and
to unshackle participants from their tacit, internal editor of what is
“realistically” possible.
Students reconvene in the same small groups from the Discovery
conversation and engage with the following:
1. What would have to happen for this class to be a great learning

experience?
2. What would you hope to learn?
3. Describe your experience if this were a great class.
4. What three wishes do you have that would make learning
always like this?

After approximately fifteen minutes of small group dialogue, the class
reconvenes to hear what was imagined. Again, the comments from
the groups are captured on the board. When completed, the board is
covered with grand ideas about how they might create a peak learn-
ing experience over the ensuing term.
When all groups have shared their Dreams for the future, there
is a brief pause for ref lection and an opportunity to affirm that all
voices were heard. Any new ideas or hopes that come to heart or
mind during this plenary session are invited before this step closes
and distillation begins. The resulting list of specific “hopes” becomes
the working matter from which the destination is crafted. Examples
from the dream list include
1. Build broad and general skills in management;

2. Increase self analysis . . . identify strengths and opportunities
for growth;
3. Treat the class as a meeting where there is a high level of com-
fort between students and the teacher;
4. Real-life experiences and stories from the teacher;
5. Fun Æ interesting Æ great learning experience;
6. Know what separates these students from their colleagues.
What is their competitive advantage;
7. Retain what is learned; and
8. Learn about actual behaviors and practices that lead to
success.
Once all voices are heard, this step ends. This ending begins the
process of narrowing the “blue sky” ideas about the future into
a more meaningful and desired image of the commitment in the
Design step.
Design
The Design stage takes place in the plenary group, where time is
now available for the group to discuss, en masse, their thoughts
on what has been shared. The class takes a moment to review all
that is on the board with an eye to clarity and completeness. Does
this ref lect every contribution to a great learning experience? Are
there other ideas, hopes, and desires that were not made public?
Are there any internal monologues to convert into dialogues with
the class?
This step is relatively quick in the classroom. some discussion
occurs, it is usually less than what took place during the plenary sec-
tions of the Discovery and Dream steps. There may be some general
questions seeking clarity of what a particular group intended by their
offering. The deeper exploration of what they intended is conducted

with the entire class, which makes the thinking and feeling about the
issue public and ensures shared understanding.
Though brief, the Design step offers some early evidence that
the process yields significant hopes of the students regarding their
learning. It ref lects some validity of the process and begins to excite
the students with an awareness of their own agency in making the
world what they want it to be—an often thrilling moment to watch
unfold.
Delivery
The final step in the exercise involves moving from the nominal list
captured on the blackboard, which ref lects the grand desires of the
class, to something that ref lects the will of the class. The Delivery step
helps to identify those items that each student individually believes
are central to creating a peak learning experience. This step moves
away from the collective nature of the desires back to a more indi-
vidualized and yet shared interpretation of the class aspirations. The
ref lection of the collective on the board offers a choice; however, in
this step, each participant has the opportunity to choose from this
collective that which resonates individually with him or her. The
individual choice is contained or bounded by what is desired collec-
tively among the group.
This step begins with the instructor describing the idea of a
gallery walk, similar to a stroll through an art museum, where
students can review and ref lect on the “ jewels” that have been cre-
ated. After they review those jewels that contribute to peak learn-
ing, they indicate which of the options have the most relevance for
them individually. Students have three votes in the form of check
marks to cast next to the items on the blackboard. They may cast
all three for one particular option or distribute the votes in any
other manner they desire. At this point, the f loor is opened for
them to move at their own pace to review and then go to the board
to make their marks.
After students have cast all three votes and everyone has taken their
seats, the class reviews what has taken place and examines the themes
and commonality that emerged among the group. Examples of some
of the most shared desires in this step include
1. To look forward to coming to this class;

2. To learn something important and not have this class be driven
by the test;
3. Real world relevance;
4. Fun;
5. To be able to recommend [this teacher] to others as a professor;
and

6. To learn things that will remain with us after this class has
ended.
The deliverable at the completion of this step is a full list of the most
important and highly desired ideas, themes, and values for the class.
These creations are collected in descending order based on which
items received the greatest number of checks and then distributed to
students at the next class meeting. This list is also the yardstick by
which the class could evaluate their experience over the term. To
what extent did they create and experience that which they said they
desired?
The Final Conversation

Although not a part of the 4-D cycle, one last conversation also takes
place. Students reconvene in their small groups to discuss what each
of them will do to make the ideas contained in the Delivery step a
reality. How could each student take responsibility for realizing in
their behavior what has been claimed as most desirable for a peak
learning experience over the coming term? Students are encour-
aged to make their claim public to their small group cohort on the
premise that a public commitment will receive greater attention and
increase the likelihood of being enacted than a commitment that is
kept covert. Students are also encouraged to declare their particular
commitment to the entire class. There is no mandatory requirement
that they make this public statement, only an invitation to do so.
Once everyone has had a chance to speak, students are asked to
complete an open-ended questionnaire (Appendix) to gather some
sense of the accomplishment of the objectives. Time is also commit-
ted for a discussion to connect the learning points and objectives to
the larger arena of their lives.
The Next Class Session

The final “Delivery” description is given to the students at the
next class period. The implication is discussed that because the class
produced this, the class has the freedom and responsibility to make it
a reality. It is not a list of goals or norms delivered to them by some
authority to whom they must defer. Instead, it is a document that
ref lects the wishes and desires of all of the people in the room and,
because of that freedom, there is now the commensurate responsibil-
ity to create the experience. An open and standing invitation is made
to the class to review their experience over the term as it ref lects or
fails to ref lect the identified future they claimed for themselves. A
commitment is made by the teacher to manage the class and make
time and space available to publicly discuss the concerns of any stu-

dent or the teacher at any time over the term.
Table 2 shows how class time was generally used for each step in
the process.
Table 3 Timetable of Steps in “The Preferred Classroom” Exercise
Step Amount of Time (in minutes)
Intro lecture 15
Discovery conversation 15
Discovery debrief 10
Dream set up 5
Dream conversation 15
Dream debrief 10
Design step 5
Delivery set up 5
Gallery walk 10
Delivery debrief 5
Commitment conversation (The final 10
conversation; small group)
Commitment declaration (Plenary) 5
Open-ended evaluative questionnaire 10
Exercise implications 20
Next class session: review of ideals 10
Total 150 minutes = 2 hours, 30 minutes
Strategies for Success
Though power is an ever-present dimension of classroom life, through

this exercise it becomes less of an issue as students and teacher begin
to experience a sense of partnership in pursuing common concerns
and topics related to the course. However, regardless of how power
may be minimized, one would be naive to suggest or think that this
exercise successfully eliminates the power dimension from the class-
room experience. Even in the design of the exercise, the teacher is the
sole creator of the steps in the process and is the one who determines
that the class be offered the exercise. To be successful in implement-
ing the exercise and the resulting recommendations, the teacher must
be sensitive to the balance of power and control in a classroom and
how that balance impacts the presentation of self and the relationships
with students. Recalling the wise words of a mentor and professor,
considering the “self as tool” is the ever-present challenge of those
who work with others in a facilitating/counseling/teaching role.
One caveat is offered in terms of what the group desires. Though
a teacher may be available for whatever the class prefers, it must be a
win-win proposition. For example, if the group determines through
the AI process that they all deserve an “A” for the course, the teacher
has the opportunity and responsibility to intervene; the aspiration is

acceptable as long as the grades are earned by students and not treated
as an expectation or entitlement from the application of this process.
The success of the exercise depends on agreement by all, and this
includes the teacher as a contributor and participant in the commu-
nity of the class.
This philosophy applies similarly to other common classroom
issues. Attendance has never been a topic of conversation during the
exercise, but when it has come up over the course of the term an open
conversation among the group has occurred that interpreted this issue
through the lens of organizational life. Students were encouraged to
use their freedom in this class and in life. However, it is important to
discuss consequences that may arise from leveraging one’s freedom.
In this conversation students were discussed as fre- thinking adults
with responsibilities that come with that status. This presented an
inside-out (Hunt, 1987) interpretation to the issue and an opportu-
nity to leverage the AI process as one that enabled the class to craft
desired organizations and classrooms, in effect, to build a class that
they wanted to attend.
This exercise beckons for greater freedom and shared voice in our
institutions at large, and in classrooms specifically. This approach to
increasing freedom and responsibility turns the academic enterprise
inside out. Instead of being driven by the organization and its desig-
nees (read professors), it is now one whose design is shared among all
stakeholders of the process.
Final Implications and Conclusion
After the exercise is completed students are asked to ref lect and
comment on its impact on what might be possible in their lives out-
side of school and on to lives imagined after graduation. Questions
such as “What was the best part of this experience for you?” (an
appreciative inquiry into their appreciative inquiry) or “How will
this exercise change the way you think about your education and
life?” or “Are there opportunities for this frame of mind in other
parts of your life?” are considered. These questions open the f loor to
stories about other situations such as work, home, and community
organizations where students believe they might be able to make
a greater impact in their experience. Through this dialogue, the
class moves beyond the domain of the course to understand how AI
presents a new interpretive paradigm by which they might begin to
understand experiences that transcend academic lives. This exercise
provided an opportunity for students to be active participants in the
process of the course and their lives, not just the task requirements
of a class. This helped illuminate the dual nature of work as both
task and process.

Appendix
Evaluation Questionnaire for “The Preferred Classroom” Exercise
1. What did you like about this exercise?

2. What happened that you found life giving, freeing?
4. How do you feel now about possibilities in other domains of
your life after having engaged in this exercise?
5. Are there new possibilities for you to impact other domains of
your life and thereby change your experience there?
E X E RC I S E
Stepping Outside the Comfort Zone

Jo a n Ma rqu es, Ed. D. , Woodbur y U niver sity
Purpose and Goals:
“Stepping Outside the Comfort Zone” is a series of exercises in

which the practitioner sees him or herself as an organization in need
of continuous change. To attain the best output, this exercise should
be executed over a longer time span, and not in just one hour, day,
or even week. It is actually an exercise that needs to recur continu-
ously and longitudinally, in order to establish a repeated pattern of
discovering, dreaming, designing, and improving (see AI figure in
chapter 3) on our lives. This exercise fits multiple purposes, as it is
geared toward snapping out of the sleepwalking state and fully engag-
ing in life, with the effect of serving as a role model and igniting
similar f lares of renewal in others.

Because this exercise comprises a series of different activities, to be
implemented in your life over a longer time, there is no specific time
required. It is, rather, the intention that the practices in this exercise

become habits toward continuous improvement.
Pre-work Needed:
The exercise focuses on the 4 D’s in the AI model—Discovery,
Design, Dream, and Destiny—and presents actions to implement
each D. There is no specific pre-work needed, other than the mental
readiness to prepare oneself for more f lexibility in life, and less stress
when changes occur.

Young and older adults in any possible setting.
The exercises require different numbers of participants. Several could
be executed alone, but some require interaction, and therefore need
at least one other person to be involved. Each exercise will individu-
ally clarify this.
Specific Steps:
The various actions in this comprehensive plan could be executed
simultaneously. There are no specific sequencing limitations.
Debriefing Question:
Because the purpose of this exercise is to become a way of life, there
is no specific debriefing question needed, other than a regular self-
evaluation as to whether you are still staying the course.
Introduction
Why do so many organizations descend into mediocrity after decades

of great success? The answer is as simple as the solution is difficult:
Because they are led by human beings, and human beings, by nature,
don’t like change. As a consequence, these organizations are change-
averse as well, and they dwell in markets that were once f lourishing
but have now become saturated, disinterested, or perhaps even non-
existent! They sell products that have either become obsolete or are
in desperate need of a transformation.
In his book Good to Great, Jim Collins (2001) gave a number of
outstanding examples. One of the cases he reviewed was Darwin
Smith, who turned Kimberly-Clark around from “a stodgy old paper
company” (p. 17) to “the leading paper-based consumer products
company in the world” (p. 17). It took Smith 20 years to bring this

transformation about, but in the end, Kimberly-Clark outplayed its
rivals, Scott Paper (whom Kimberly-Clark acquired in 1995, by the
way) and Procter & Gamble. Among various others, Collins also
compared Wells Fargo to Bank of America. Whereas Wells Fargo
kept reinventing itself, mainly by attracting outstanding people at
all levels in order to keep the adrenaline going in the organization,
Bank of America applied a manipulative strategy of strong versus
weak generals, in which the weak generals became the puppets of
the strong ones, thus keeping an inf lexible and dispiriting hierarchy
secured (pp. 42–44).
The similarity between the two star performers mentioned above
is that their leaders dared to step out of their comfort zone, ensure a
dynamic workforce, and teach this workforce the advantages of mak-
ing bold but responsible decisions, thus securing lasting excellence for
the organization.
Stepping out of the comfort zone is a major challenge to all of us,
because we prefer the easy way whenever we think we can get away
with that. Problem is, the easy way has gradually become an obsolete
phenomenon in and of its own! Now that we’re all part of a global
workforce and a global market, whether we realize and want it or not,
the opportunities as well as the complications have increased. We
have more options, but so do our competitors. And those competi-
tors emerge from the most unexpected places. Change is already on
its way while we’re still adapting to something new.
Due to the fact that stepping out of the comfort zone is such a
major and widespread challenge for many of us, we should consider
ways to first remain aware of this challenge, and second, do some-
thing about it. Undoubtedly, there are various ways in which you can
get yourself out of your comfort zone. Usually a problem is halfway
solved once you are aware of it.
The Exercise
Listed below are four actions you could take, regardless of whether you
are a business owner, a manager of an existing company, a student, or
just an individual who wants to live life to the fullest. The exercises
fit into the four steps of AI—discovery, dream, design, and destiny
(sustaining). As mentioned before, this exercise is not restricted to a
certain time frame. It is a practice that should be converted into a set
of habits to deliver lasting benefits.
1. Discovery: Have lunch with someone outside your regular cir-

cle of acquaintances or business relatives. Try to do this at
least once every other month. This one’s borrowed from Tom
Peters’ book The Brand You 50. Store contact information of
all the interesting people you come across in your Rolodex or

BlackBerry, and access this personal database regularly. You
have no idea what kind of fascinating impulses can come forth
from such a refreshing lunch appointment.
2. Dream: Read something different at least once a month. This
one is also inspired by Tom Peters’ above-mentioned book.
Peters (1999) encourages his readers to visit a nearby maga-
zine shop, and pick up a few magazines they have never read
before. And thinking of it, it makes a lot of sense, because with
this exercise you expose yourself to new worlds, which you
are normally not a part of. You read and see different things,
and “different” is what gets your creative juices f lowing.
3. Design: To design your future career or next steps in your cur-
rent career, consider engaging in exposing yourself to other
cultures and lifestyles. There are basically two ways to do so:
a. Travel. Visit another country at least once every other year.
With the lower airfares these days, it costs next to nothing
to f ly. The absolute winner of this suggestion is that you
get exposed to other cultures and ways of living. Therefore,
you absorb new ideas even when you’re not looking for
them. And you become more familiar with options, which
releases you from the fear-related boundaries that some
people are facing as a result of the fact that they never
leave their geographical comfort zone. And if traveling to
another country is too big a step for you initially, try visit-
ing another state for starters. That might be cheaper and
less complicated.
b. Surf the Internet to keep yourself abreast of what’s going
on in your area of interest. Make sure you don’t stick to the
familiar sites, though. Break the routine. Google up the
topic of your interest and hit some sites that you’ve never
hit before. They may just provide you with some new
perspectives!
4. Destiny: Turn inward. Do some intense self-searching at least
once per quarter.
Figure 5 below depicts what your self-exploration could look like.
Develop a
strategy on how
Yes
Could I to obtain this
obtain an advantage
Yes
advantage Start considering
Do I currently have over others? alternatives:
No
what it takes to Motionlessness =
Yes
achieve the future regression
I envision?
Where and how Undertake
No do I need to action toward
improve? improvement
Do I still envision
a bright future
with my
current activity?
What are my Which of these

Action toward a
alternatives given alternatives do I
No change of
my current prefer, and what
direction
circumstances do I need to do?
Figure 5 Stepping out of the comfort zone: turning inward for evaluation.
Be critical while asking yourself the probing questions listed in
point 4. Assure yourself that you’re not just settling for less today
compared to yesterday, because of your aversion to change. Many
people justify their indolence by raising arguments such as (1) “This is
just a temporary depression of the market in which we operate. It will
get better in a while,” (2) “The lower performance today is due to
unrealistic profits in the past: the market is finally balancing out,” and
(3) “If you think we’re doing bad, look at so-and-so—they’re doing
even worse!” These are some of the standard defenses to protect the
status quo and refrain from stepping out of the comfort zone.

Remember, if you want to get ahead you should always consider
those that are performing splendidly, even if you actually think they’re
io r
at fo
n
or d
Internet
pl ar
ex w
lf- in
se urn
T
Surf the
at r
st he
ffere h
nt
e
c
or ot
eon ve lun
y n
tr a
un l to
e di
co ve
Ha
a
Tr
som
with
on nt
m re
th
a fe
e if
nc g d
The
t o in
Comfort
as th
le me
Zone
at so
d
ea
R
Figure 6 Stepping outside the comfort zone.
out of your league. We all need role models. Why not go for the very
best there are? It doesn’t cost anything. Aiming high with your aspi-
rations is not a bad thing at all. Les Brown puts it this way: “Shoot
for the moon. Even if you miss, you’ll still land among the stars.” Just
keep yourself from getting into the “settling” mode because that will
indicate that you are reactive instead of proactive: You wait for things
to happen before changing instead of being the change that others
have to keep up with. If you delay changing until things get really
bad, you’ve waited too long, and a recovery may be impossible. Stay
away from the comfort zone. It’s an easy place to be with a high price

to pay. Motionlessness equals regression these days. Execute the four
steps to stay out of the comfort zone, and communicate them with all
those around you. It will pay off.
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CH A P T E R 4
Ethical Leadership and Emotional Intelligence

This chapter will ref lect on two themes that have increased in popularity
in the past few decades: ethical behavior at work—particularly important
when reviewed in light of the corporate scandals of recent years—and
emotional intelligence—a growing area of interest in a world of work
where there is increased diversity, cultural blend, accelerating ambiguity,
and augmenting awareness among workforce members. First, the topic of
ethics will be discussed, with specific focus on leadership ethics and orga-
nizational ethics. Subsequently, emotional intelligence will be reviewed,
with some comments on emotional and intellectual intelligence. In the
final part of the chapter, the interplay between ethics and emotional intel-
ligence will be discussed.
Introduction
Two terms have earned increasing interest in the past decades in the busi-
ness world, and therefore also in higher business education: ethics and
emotional intelligence (EI). Though each phenomenon acquired this
attention for entirely different reasons, there is an interesting interplay
between these ethics and emotional intelligence. They seem to be inter-
dependent, another term that has earned high acclaim in the twenty-first
century. This chapter will first look into ethical behavior, inside and out-
side the corporate environment, and subsequently into emotional intel-
ligence. Specific attention will be given to the applicability of these two
topics in contemporary times. Finally, the chapter will discuss the interac-
tion between these two themes.
Ethics: Definitions
Ethics is a very personal, hence very subjective, topic. What is considered

unethical to one may be perfectly acceptable to another. Yet, the recent
decade of major corporate scandals and unethical behavior, instigated by
leaders who were supposed to responsibly lead multi-million dollar enti-
ties, has made it apparent that there is a higher need to discuss ethics than
most people initially thought, especially when preparing business students
to become honorable members of the future workplace.
Up until the ethics scandals, ethics was not considered course mate-
rial in higher education. It was something that employees would select
to discuss in voluntary two-day seminars, and not a requirement for top
management. Unfortunately, it turned out that the ones exempted from
ethics workshops were the ones who needed them most.
In the past years of corporate deception, economic downturn, and

global warming, members of the workforce have started to place the
theme “ethics” in a broader picture than ever before. It has come to their
understanding that unethical behavior can lead to national and interna-
tional economic disasters, and can cause innocent people to lose all they
worked for their entire lives. Increasingly, corporate social responsibility
has become a term that was used as an extension of ethics. The role and
inf luence of business has never been more apparent than today.
The link between corporate social responsibility and ethics lies in the
last word of the first theme: responsibility. Although ethics can be inter-
preted in multiple ways, there are societal standards that cannot and should
not be ignored.
Robin (2009) attempts a generally acceptable definition of business eth-
ics by asserting: “stakeholders should be treated with fairness and respect
in their naturally occurring exchanges with business.”
Leadership Ethics
The shocking revelations of corporate greed and short-term profit-based
behavior of the past decade have prompted an increasing need among
today’s corporate stakeholders to look for individuals in leadership posi-
tions that behave ethically, inside and outside the workplace. This is, in
fact, no more than logical, because the actions and decisions of corporate
leaders usually set the tone of behavior in their workforce. Sims (2009)
stresses the importance of a leader’s reputation within an organization’s
context and asserts that companies can send a strong message into the
community when they get rid of unethical CEOs and hire leaders with a
reputation of fairness, honesty, and responsibility. He mentions Boeing as
an example, as the company let go two CEOs in two years: Phil Condit
in 2003, because he was Boeing’s main man at a time when the com-
pany’s name got tainted in a scandal involving a $23 billion deal, and
Harry Stonecipher in 2005, who got involved in an extra-marital affair
at work.
Valente, Varca, Gotkin, and Barnett (2010) confirm that ethical or
unethical behavior of top managers usually inf luences employees’ ethi-
cal decisions, and the seriousness of an ethical issue usually inf luences
Ethical Leadership, Emotional Intelligence 179
the ethical reasoning. In addition, these authors find that workers who
are satisfied in their job are more likely to perform beyond require-
ments and expectations and will be more prone to behave in an ethically
responsible manner. In a survey consisting of 92 matched manager-em-
ployee pairs from a large financial services and banking firm in which
the relationship between positive job response and behavioral ethics was
measured, Valente etal. (2010) conclude that workers who are better
trained, more highly educated, and more seasoned are more likely to
engage in unethical behaviors than those who are less educated and less
experienced.

Toor and Ofori (2009) have done some investigation on ethical lead-
ership and found that ethical leadership is directly related to transfor-
mational leadership, a transformational culture within the organization,
effectiveness of the leader, employees’ willingness to perform more
intensively, and employee satisfaction with the leader. These researchers
also found that ethical leadership has no correlation with transactional
leadership and that it has the ability to change transactional or laissez-
faire cultures in organizations. This could be explained as follows: when
an ethical leader steps into the picture, employees start experiencing hon-
esty and straightforwardness, and gradually lower their guards, become
more motivated, and re-adopt the mindset of being interconnected with
one another.
Organizational Ethics
Though led by individuals, organizations hold a moral task to consider the
well-being of the societies in which they operate. This brings an interest-
ing complication to the surface: culture. The dual question that arises is
(a) to which ethical standards, exactly, should a corporation adhere, and,
(b) when operating in multiple countries, which country’s ethical stan-
dards should be followed? Patel and Shaefer (2009) identify three com-
mon problems when bringing the culture aspect into the ethical decision
scope. (1) There may be a mismatch between national ethical standards
and the business system and regulations. (2) There are more considerations
at play when making ethical decisions in the workplace than the national
culture. There is also a peer culture, consisting of co-workers, the imme-
diate environment, family, and others, and those factors should not be
underestimated as inf luencing factors. They may very well contradict
the national culture. National culture is, according to Patel and Shaefer,
too narrow to base all ethical decisions on. (3) Companies that perform
in multiple countries face multiple ethical standards. Should they adhere
to these local standards, even if they contradict the standards from their
home base? Patel and Shaefer rightfully stress that the business ethics field
has not allotted sufficient attention to these complicating factors thus far.
They conclude that it is unlikely that ethical codes created in the context
of one culture will be accepted by employees in a different culture, and
that “only those codes of conduct that ref lect the dynamic ethical prefer-
ences of the people who make up a corporation, will be meaningful and
effective in the long term” (Patel & Shaefer, 2009, p. 183).
Emotional Intelligence: Definitions
The aspect of emotions was long perceived as an unwanted obstacle in

business performance and professional decision making, but opinions

have drastically changed in the past two decades. Mechanical behavior
lost significant ground over the course of a century of profit-focused,
feelings-disregarding management, which resulted in increased dissat-
isfaction among workers. The awareness of greater emotional involve-
ment in decision making increased. Emotional Intelligence entered the
picture.
Goleman (1995), Mayer and Salovey (1995) define Emotional
Intelligence (EI) as the capacity for recognizing and managing the feel-
ings of ourselves and others. In a later work, Mayer and Salovey (1997)
refer to EI as a multidimensional construct that links emotion and cog-
nition with the aim of improving human interactions. These brief defi-
nitions harbor a world of human experience, feelings, ref lections, and
understanding, thus self-awareness and awareness of others. Though
there have been various EI constructs developed in the course of the past
decade, they all share the common perspective of having a focus on emo-
tional awareness and emotional management as core abilities. Goleman,
along with other authors and researchers on the topic of EI, stresses
that self-awareness can help us to better manage our feelings and emo-
tions. In his most recent version of his book on Emotional Intelligence,
Goleman cites Salovey and Mayer, who developed an extensive defini-
tion of EI, entailing
1. Knowing one’s emotions, which entails the self-awareness of recog-

nizing an emotion as one that exists.
2. Managing emotions: handling feelings in a proper way.
3. Motivating oneself, which entails marshaling emotions in the ser-
vice of a goal.
4. Recognizing emotions in others, which includes empathy as the
fundamental people skill.
5. Handling relationships: the skill of managing emotions in others.
So, why has emotional intelligence become so important in organizations?

Goleman (1998) answers this question as follows: “From the perspective of
work, feelings matter to the extent that they facilitate or interfere with the
shared goal” (p. 287). Archer (2009) brings up the increasing complexity
of contemporary organizational cultures in scope and explains that we
work more in team settings nowadays than ever before. Team settings
require greater people skills, thus greater sensitivity in our interactions
with colleagues in the workplace, states Archer (2009). But Archer doesn’t
leave it at that. She also considers the turbulence in today’s corporate envi-
ronment, which has elevated people’s defense systems, increased anxiety
about job loss, and taken a heavy toll on self-esteem. All of these issues call
for enhanced emotional intelligence from managers toward employees, as
well as employees toward one another.
Carmeli, Yitzhak-Halevy, and Weisberg (2009) present an overarch-
ing reason for all of us to work at elevating our emotional intelligence.

They stress that highly emotionally intelligent individuals are likely to
experience greater psychological well-being and more success in work-
related and nonwork aspects of life, than individuals who are low in
emotional intelligence. Their research found that there is a “positive
association between emotional intelligence and psychological wellbeing
components—self-esteem, life satisfaction, and self-acceptance” (p. 66),
even though there may be a slight relationship between EI and somatic
complaints.
Emotional Intelligence versus Intellectual Intelligence in Leadership

There is always a risk in making decisions, because all the details are
seldom available. CEOs therefore often use their intuition to make deci-
sions, because time is of the essence and actions need to be undertaken.
Reid (2008) claims that her research findings have shown that leaders use
a combination of emotional and intellectual intelligence to make their
decisions in as responsible a way as possible. Leaders, according to Reid
(2008), have learned by now that not only intellectual knowledge that
will make them successful in their leadership, but that a proper application
of EI in addition to intellectual skills can tremendously improve employee
dedication, client loyalty, and the corporation’s profitability. This has to
do with the fact that EI leads to reduced intellectual and emotional tur-
bulence among workers, which causes them to focus more easily on their
priorities.
Stressing the inf luence of a leader’s morale and behavior on the work-
force, Momeni (2009) asserts that a manager’s morale and emotional
behavior will highly affect the organization’s climate. Momeni’s research
has found that more than 70% of employees’ ideas about their workplace
are immediately derived from how they perceive their managers and the
behavior these managers display.
Dotlich, Cairo, and Rhinesmith (2008) claim that leaders in this new
world of ours will need three intelligences to be successful among their
employees, the community, and the bottom line. They will need to have
intellectual, emotional, and moral intelligence. Intellectual intelligence
involves the head, emotional intelligence the heart, and moral intelligence
bravery and values (Dotlich, Cairo, & Rhinesmith, 2008).
Aside from the fact that emotional intelligence powerfully comple-
ments the other intelligences a leader needs to perform well, the point
could be made that it only grows as maturity increases, while intellec-
tual intelligence, as many older people will admit, starts decreasing as the
aging process advances.
The Connection: Ethics and EI

There is a clear link between ethical behavior and emotional intelligence.
One could say that they are mutually supportive. In a research investi-
gating 180 hospital employees, Deshpande (2009) found that the ethical
manifestation of peers and successful managers, along with their emotional
intelligence, positively inf luenced the ethical behavior of the respondent.
Deshpande (2009) cites several other studies, which also underscore the
positive effects of EI and its relationship to ethical behavior. Specifically,
these studies found that emotional intelligence helps people understand
their emotions and subsequently control their actions; that it can forecast
performance in various settings; that it can impact the care toward others;
reduce one’s own stress levels; and inf luence ethical behavior. Looking
at the other side of the coin, Deshpande (2009) notes that recent history
has proven that unethical behavior within organizations will not only
harm public trust and the organization’s reputation, but also its long-term
financial performance. Combining ethical behavior and emotional intel-
ligence, Robinson and Goudy (2009) describe individuals who exude
“leadership presence” as having some common characteristics, “including
emotional intelligence, core honesty, and a genuine passion for seeing
people thrive” (p. 26).
In a study involving 198 undergraduate students, Mesmer-Magnus,
Viswesvaran, Joseph, and Deshpande (2008) positively linked EI to
ethical behavior of the self and peers. Utilizing one of the most com-
prehensive instruments in their examination of students’ ethical and
emotionally intelligent behavior, Joseph, Berry, and Deshpande (2009)
subsequently confirmed that students who had greater awareness of the
emotions of others and could empathize with those, were also often-
times more likely to be aware of unethical behavior among their peers.
Joseph, Berry, and Deshpande (2009) further assert that in work set-
tings, EI positively inf luences job performance, leadership effectiveness,
and job satisfaction.
Even without the above studies as supporting material, it could be eas-
ily reasoned that emotional intelligence and ethical behavior are mutually
supportive: when a person is emotionally intelligent, he or she relates to
his or her emotions and those of others, and tries to avoid creating situ-
ations that can be harmful to the immediate, the intermediate, and the
distant environment. Therefore, they will consider their actions and deci-
sions, and ensure that they meet responsible, ethical standards.
The exercises following this chapter will help you to develop and nur-
ture ethical behavior and emotional intelligence in both personal and
professional environments. Many of the exercises, though categorized in
this section, may also apply to the other chapters of the book, due to the
interdependent nature of the topics.

E X E RC I S E
Personal Values Ref lection

By Ga r y Bo elhower, Ph .D. , St . Scholast i ca Univer sity
a n d Ju di Nea l, Ph .D., U niver si t y of Arkansas
Activity’s Purpose and Goals:
Most people have such busy lives these days that they don’t take the
time to stop and ref lect on the core values that guide their lives. The
purpose of this exercise is to help you identify your most important
values and then to evaluate for yourself how much these values are
integrated into your life. A values-centered life is more rewarding
and fulfilling, and an awareness of your values can guide you in mak-
ing important career and life decisions.

90 minutes
Pre-work Needed:
None

This exercise works for both undergraduate and graduate students.
However, graduate students and part-time working students are
likely to get more out of it.
Minimum: 1
Maximum Recommended: 50
Specific Steps:
1. The facilitator will hand out the Personal Values Ref lection
Form and review the steps with participants.
2. Participants are then sent out to work on the form for 30 min-
utes. Ideally they should have access to the outdoors or to
other places that support inner ref lection. Ask them not to talk
to anyone until they return.
3. After 30 minutes, participants return to the room and are
put in triads. Each person shares their top five values, and the
details about at least two of the values from the ref lection por-

tion of the form.
4. After all three people have shared, they help each other to
identify specific actions that can help with living a chosen
value in a more integrated way. The facilitator may wish to
give an example of one of his or her core values and an action
he or she could take to integrate that value more. Most people
are uncomfortable committing to concrete actions, yet this
can be the most valuable part of the exercise. It helps if the
facilitator walks around to the triads and coaches people on
concrete actions they might take.
5. The participants reconvene into a large group for the debrief-
ing questions.
1. How important is it to be aware of one’s personal values?
2. In what ways might this be important to business? To
leadership?
3. What role does one’s faith or spirituality play in values forma-
tion and values clarification?
4. Can values change?
5. What happens if we don’t live by our values, or don’t pay
attention to them?
7. Are there any changes you are going to make as a result of
your personal values ref lection?
* * *
PERSONAL VALUES REFLECTION FORM
This Personal Values Ref lection will take you through four impor-
tant steps.
STEP ONE: Through a brainstorming process, identify your five
most important values, the values that are at the core of who you
are, and put them in a prioritized order (with one being the most
important).
STEP TWO: Define each core value in a sentence or two. In your
definition process, it may help to think of an experience in your
life when you fully lived out this value or an experience when
you deeply felt the absence of this value. Describe this experi-
ence brief ly.
STEP THREE: Ref lect on where you are in the process of incor-
porating or integrating this value in your life using the values

integration scale below.
1. I live this value every day. It has become a seamless part of my

consciousness and everyday life. I feel great about how deeply
this value has become an integral part of my everyday life.
2. I live this value consistently, it is more present than absent
in my daily life. I feel like I am making significant prog-
ress toward the full integration of this value in my thoughts,
actions, balance of time, and priorities. However, I am still
challenged to live it more fully, especially in times of tension
or stress.
3. I live this value in an on-again, off-again way. Sometimes I am
able to really bring it alive in my life and other times it seems
that I am far from making it a reality in how I live every day. I
really want to incorporate it more fully into my life, but I need
to explore its practical applications more closely.
4. I live this value only occasionally. Although I believe in my
heart that it is really important, I have only begun to translate
this belief into everyday action. When I do act on this value,
I feel like I am on the right track and living out of my true
character.
5. I have intellectually recognized this value as very important
to my life but I haven’t really begun to put it into practice. I
know that living out this value would bring greater meaning
and satisfaction to my life. Now I need to find the ways to
begin to incorporate it.
STEP FOUR: Focusing on one or two values, create a set of action
steps that will enable you to more fully incorporate the chosen
core value into your everyday life.
STEP ONE: Identifying your values
On this page, brainstorm at least 20 values that are core to who you
are. Don’t worry about whether or not something is technically a
value or not. What is important is if it is core to who you are and
to how you want to live your life. When you have the complete list
of your values, then choose the top five that are most important to
you. Finally, prioritize these values, with number one being the value
that is most important to you. Notice any feelings or thoughts that
you have as you make your choices in narrowing the list and setting
priorities.
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
STEPS TWO AND THREE: Defining your
values and rating them on the Integration Scale
Value Priority ONE:______________
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5

Value Priority TWO: ______________
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5
Value Priority THREE: ______________
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5
Value Priority FOUR: ______________
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5
Value Priority FIVE: ______________
Definition:
Integration Scale:
1 2 3 4 5

STEP FOUR: Action steps for values integration
Choose one or two of your core values that you would like to more
fully integrate into your everyday life. Ref lecting on the following
questions, create three to five action steps to incorporate this value
into your daily existence. Questions: What situations are most chal-
lenging for me in living out this value? What people in my life seem
to draw me away from this value? What people help me to stay on
track with this value? What are the implications of this value for my
everyday schedule? What kind of ref lective processes might help me
to live this value more fully? The one thing that I could do to really
move me along in putting this value into practice would be . . .
VALUE______________
Action Steps:
VALUE______________
Action Steps:
E X E RC I S E
Perspective is Everything!
Sa tin der Dh im an , Ed.D. , Woodbur y Univer sity
Purpose and Goals:

To garner awareness on the fact that similar situations may seem
entirely different, depending on the angle from which we observe
them. This exercise, though extremely simple in execution, has
proven to prompt an immediate “aha!” awareness among the audi-
ences that engage in it. This exercise can foster greater common
understanding on the part of the leaders as well as the employees
regarding each other’s point of view. For leaders, this exercise is par-
ticularly useful, as it can help them understand why they encounter
resistance to change even when the need for change seems so obvi-
ous, viewed from their perspective. This exercise can also foster bet-
ter understanding on the part of those that are being led regarding
their leaders’ standpoint.

The length of time required to do the exercise per se is very short.
It generally takes only a couple of minutes to actually do the exer-
cise; however, the discussion that follows the “aha” moment can take
somewhere between 20 and 30 minutes. It has been our experience
that not all participants “get” it during the first go around. And that
is okay. The facilitator has to make sure that each participant actually
“sees” the point of the exercise.
Pre-work Needed:
There is no pre-work needed for this exercise. This exercise makes
a better fit for such topics as change management, leadership devel-
opment, barriers to organizational communication, and emotional
intelligence.

We have found this exercise useful for both undergraduate business
majors as well as for MBA students.
Any number of participants will work.
Specific Steps:
None.
● What has this exercise done for my perspectives?
● How can I implement the insights obtained from this exercise
in my daily activities?
● What different perspectives should I consider in the challenges
I currently face?
Exercise:
1. Take a pen or pencil in your hand.
2. Stretch your arm up straight all the way along your ear and
point the pen/pencil as high as possible toward the ceiling or
the sky (if you are outdoors).
3. While pointing toward the ceiling (or the sky), rotate it in
circles in a clockwise fashion.
4. Looking up, keep watching its clockwise rotation.
5. Now start bringing it down slowly by lowering your elbow
straight down rather than swinging your arm down, carefully

maintaining its clockwise rotation.
6. Bring it to a level below yourchin and then notice the direc-
tion of its rotation, looking down.
7. Is it still in clockwise fashion?
8. Looking down, you notice that now the rotation is in coun-
terclockwise fashion.
9. But you have not changed the direction of its rotation.
10. So why when now you look at, is it rotating in a counter-
clockwise fashion?
11. Because you have changed your perspective! Wow!
12. When you were looking at it from below, the rotation of the
pen/pencil was in clockwise fashion.
13. When you are looking at it now from above (because the
pen/pencil is at a level below your chin), the rotation is seen
as counterclockwise.
14. The rotation of the pen/pencil has not changed, but your
perspective has.
Reflections
The moral of the exercise is very clear: By changing our perspec-
tive, we can change our perception of reality. This exercise has a
great message for leaders in all positions. When we view things at the
leadership level—i.e., looking down at the rotating pen/pencil—our
vision, our goals, our policies may look a certain way to us (counter-
clockwise fashion). And to those in the rank and file—i.e., employees
looking at the rotating pen/pencil from below—our vision, goals etc.
may appear entirely in the opposite light (clockwise fashion). So, it
behooves leaders to be mindful of employees’ perspective and not
assume things on their behalf. It also means they should keep an
open-minded approach to employees’ opinions and not get struck
on the inherent superiority of their perspective. As Ellen Langer, a
Harvard psychologist, put it: “Behavior makes sense from the actor’s
standpoint otherwise the actor won’t do it.”
E X E RC I S E
Guided Visualizations
Ma r ga ret B enef iel , Ph. D. , Andover Newton
T heo log i cal School
Purpose
This exercise will help participants identify and explore their most

rewarding personal and professional activities, those activities they
consider least desirable in their life, and their best actions given the
challenges they currently face. By engaging in this ref lective exercise,
participants can gain greater focus on the path they want to pursue, in
order to live a fuller life from here onward.
Time Required
The length of the exercise may vary, depending on the number of
participants involved. It can usually be completed in about an hour.
This includes the various ref lective subsections, the group interac-
tions, clarifying questions, and ref lections on results.
Pre-Work Needed
This exercise is self-contained, yet you might prepare participants by
telling them that it will require mutual trust in the team one of which
they become a part, and sharing of important personal insights. It is
therefore advised that participants in one team do not hold grudges
or feel reservations toward one another, and don’t maintain a profes-
sional dependency relationship.
When practicing this exercise in diverse sessions, where the topic
of religion may be a sensitive issue, the exercise narrator may choose
to replace terms such as “God” and “prayer” with more neutral terms,
such as “nature,” “existence,” “meditation,” etc.

This instrument can be used successfully in both educational (higher
education) and professional settings. This exercise has been done
many times with great success in corporate training sessions and
major management conferences. The exercise works best when par-
ticipants have had some organizational experience and can relate to
the challenges in that area.
This exercise can be used with any widely f lexible number of par-
ticipants (4 to 60), as long as there can be smaller teams varying from
4 to 8 people, for the interactive and ref lective parts. Due to its f lexible
set-up, this exercise is useful for small, mid-sized, or larger audiences.
Specific Steps
To execute this exercise successfully, the following measures should
be taken:
For the facilitator/narrator:
● One board or f lipchart and writing material to make notes for

the groups after each ref lective section of the exercise.
For the participants:
● Willingness to participate without reservations, as these may

obstruct the quality of the outcomes.
● Willingness to focus positively and entirely on the person
who shares information, and ask questions with a supportive
mindset.
● Willingness to give and receive vulnerable information.
Debriefing Questions
Given the ref lective nature of this exercise, the debriefing questions
should also be ref lective. Examples:
1. I invite you to explain how this exercise was helpful to you.

2. I invite you to share what you considered problematic in this exercise.
3. How do you think you can use this exercise from now on in your life?
E X E RC I S E
Guided Visualizations
Ma rga ret B enefi el, Ph. D.
1. Best self
I invite you to get into a comfortable position

• Sit quietly
• Do whatever helps you be open, aware, relaxed—close your
eyes, gaze softly at the f loor, look out the window, or some-
thing else.
• Take a couple of deep breaths. Notice if there’s any tension in
your body, and if so, relax it.
As you sit quietly, recall a time at work, in your family, or in your

community when you felt like you were your best self, felt that you
were being the person you were born to be, felt that your heart and
soul were thriving, felt in tune with God and the universe, however
you would describe it. Sit quietly and let a memory rise up.
As you sit recalling this memory, recall sights, sounds, and smells
associated with the situation.

Recall who the other people were, if there were other people
And recall how you were feeling, both physically and
emotionally.
Take a moment now to return to the present, to the group.
Pair up to share as much as you are comfortable sharing about
your experience with someone. Each person will have 2 1/2
minutes.
What were the characteristics of your experience, described in one
word or a brief phrase? (facilitator writes on board or f lipchart)
2. Not best self

Get into a comfortable position again.
• Sit quietly.
• Close your eyes, or gaze softly at the f loor.
• Do whatever helps you be open, aware, relaxed.
As you sit quietly, recall a time at work, in your family, or in your

community when you did not feel that you were your best self, did
not feel that you were being the person you were born to be, did not
feel that your heart and soul were thriving, did not feel in tune with
God and the universe, however you would describe it. Sit quietly and
let a memory rise up.
As you sit recalling this memory, recall sights, sounds, and smells
associated with the situation.
Recall who the other people were who were involved.
And recall how you were feeling, both physically and
emotionally.
Take a moment now to return to the present, to the group.
Pair up to share as much as you are comfortable sharing of your
experience with someone, a different person from the first time. Each
person will have 2 1/2 minutes.
What were the characteristics of your experience, described in one
word or a brief phrase? (facilitator writes on board or f lipchart)
3. Best Self for a Current Challenge
Let’s get comfortable again.
• Sit quietly.
• Close your eyes, or gaze softly at the f loor.
• Do whatever helps you be open, aware, relaxed.
As you sit in the quiet, let rise up a current challenge you are fac-
ing in your workplace, at home, in your community, or somewhere

else.
What are the sights and sounds and smells associated with the cur-
rent challenge?
Picture the faces of the other people involved in this situation.
How do you feel when in the situation, both physically and
emotionally?
Now, as you continue to sit with the current situation in the quiet,
recall the first memory that come up for you in this series of visu-
alizations, the time you felt like your best self. You know what that
experience of being your best self is like.
Sit with the current challenge in the quiet for a few moments,
with the intention of being in the current challenge in a way similar
to how you were in that first situation, bringing your best self to the
challenge.
And now take a few moments to return to the present.
Pair up to share as much as you are comfortable sharing of your
experience with someone you haven’t been with. Each person will
have 3 minutes.
What happened when you sat with your current challenge in the
quiet, with the intention of being in the current challenge in a way
similar to how you were in that first situation, bringing your best self
to the challenge? (facilitator writes on board or f lipchart)
Learnings
Facilitator may then invite the group into ref lection on this process,
noting how each visualization and sharing went deeper than the pre-
vious one, noting the interplay of individual visualization, sharing
in pairs, and ref lection in entire group. These visualizations can be
used as a foundation for further exercises and teaching on decision
making and discernment, or for teaching on how to be your best self
and draw on the strength of your connections with others in stressful
situations.
E X E RC I S E
What Motivates Me?1

Pa u l M iesi ng, Ph .D. , St at e U niver sity of
New York at Albany
Edwa rd J. Pavu r, J r., Ph .D., Managem ent Ser vice and State
Un iver si ty of New York at Albany
Purpose and Goals:

• To understand that motivation is not something that is “done”
to someone but refers to the unique psychological needs that
determine a person’s behavior.
• To appreciate that the sources of motivation comes from
within (e.g., personal reactions to the nature of the task).
• To link motivation from the person to the situation in clear
and specific terms.
• To help you identify the conditions that motivate you, espe-
cially job design.

45 minutes.
Pre-work Needed:
None.

Students in higher education/ workforce members
Any number of groups of 4–7 members each
Specific Steps:
See exercise schedule and description below.
Included at the end of the exercise.
Related Topics:
Satisfying needs; Intrinsic stimulation; Personal fulfillment
Exercise Schedule:
Unit Time Total Time
1. Self-Assessment 15 min 15 min

2. Scoring and Interpretation 10 min 25 min
3. “Through the Looking Glass” 15 min 40 min
4. Debriefing/Class Discussion 5 min 45 min

1. Self-Assessment 15 min 15 min
Read the list below of what is personally important to you and rate
each statement on the 1–4 scale. As you do so, please keep in mind
that there are no “best answers.” Though individuals will feel differ-
ently about these statements, each of us instinctively tends to have a
natural bias toward some of them. Moreover, these are your self-per-
ceptions and might not ref lect reality. They are only for understand-
ing your motivation and provide an opportunity for self-assessment
and group comparison and discussion.
4=Very 3=A little 2=Not 1=Don’t care

important important important at all
to me to me to me
1. Having fun at work 4 3 2 1

2. Feeling you have a stake in the 4 3 2 1
organization’s success
3. Feeling in control of your own destiny 4 3 2 1
4. Having opportunities to socialize 4 3 2 1
5. Feeling competent at your job 4 3 2 1
6. Succeeding at your work 4 3 2 1
7. Receiving encouragement 4 3 2 1
8. Being shown the significance of your work 4 3 2 1
9. Being asked for your input 4 3 2 1
10. Being able to make choices at work 4 3 2 1
11. Being given responsibility for your work 4 3 2 1
12. Working in a team with a powerful identity 4 3 2 1
13. Using your hidden strengths 4 3 2 1
14. Being allowed to set goals for yourself 4 3 2 1
15. Being shown appreciation 4 3 2 1
16. Knowing that what you do makes a 4 3 2 1
difference
17. Having a variety at work 4 3 2 1
18. Owning the work you do 4 3 2 1
19. Being given leadership opportunities 4 3 2 1
20. Being a valued member of a team 4 3 2 1
21. Being given learning opportunities 4 3 2 1
22. Being encouraged to improve 4 3 2 1
23. Being recognized for your effort 4 3 2 1
Continued
4=Very 3=A little 2=Not 1=Don’t care
important important important at all
to me to me to me
24. Being able to relate your objectives to the 4 3 2 1

bigger picture
25. Feeling active and involved 4 3 2 1
26. Feeling responsible for what you do 4 3 2 1
27. Feeling empowered to make decisions 4 3 2 1
28. Feeling you belong 4 3 2 1
29. Being able to learn through mistakes 4 3 2 1

30. Being challenged to stretch your limits 4 3 2 1
31. Feeling rewarded for success 4 3 2 1
32. Having meaning from your job 4 3 2 1
Transfer your scores to the table below. Then, add the total of each
category, working across the page (for example, for Category A total
the sum of your scores for questions 1, 9, 17, and 25).
Question # Question # Question # Question # Category

Total
1= 9= 17 = 25 = A=
2= 10 = 18 = 26 = B=
3= 11 = 19 = 27 = C=
4= 12 = 20 = 28 = D=
5= 13 = 21 = 29 = E=
6= 14 = 22 = 30 = F=
7= 15 = 23 = 31 = G=
8= 16 = 24 = 32 = H=
2. Scoring and Interpretation 15 min 40 min
Other people cannot motivate us. However, they can contribute to a

motivating environment by satisfying our needs. In the table below,
write down your totals for the eight categories.
Category Description Category Total
A Activity—being active and involved at work

B Ownership—being able to own one’s work
C Empowerment—being empowered, taking control
D Belonging—feeling part of a group
E Competency—feeling able to use and develop your skills
F Achievement—feeling that goals are reached
G Recognition—being recognized for effort and success
H Meaning—feeling that what you do has significance
Look at the two categories in which you scored the highest, and then
answer the following questions in your group:
1. What do the results of this assessment tell you about the needs
you have that, if satisfied, will help you feel self-motivated?
2. How well are these needs currently being met? What addi-
tional needs do you have?
3. How can a climate be created that better encourages self-
motivation?

3. “Through the Looking Glass” 15 min 40 min
In your group, share your self-assessed motivation needs. Determine

what similarities and differences exist among your group members
and what might explain them. Now read aloud the six questions listed
below. Each person should complete each statement, but take turns
going first. The purpose of your completing the statements aloud is
to help you articulate aspects of your self-awareness and to receive
reactions to them from others.
Interpretive questions:
1. What specifically did you learn? What new insights did you
gain?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. Why is that important? What is its value? What difference will

this make?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. What will be the impact of this new knowledge? (e.g., How will
this change your work?)
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Decisional questions:
4. What will you do with this knowledge? What specific steps will
you take?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
5. Where might you use this knowledge?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
6. Where do we go from here? (e.g., How do you intend to follow

up next week?)
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
4. Debriefing/Class Discussion 5 min 45 min
In your group, please discuss your answers to the following
questions:
1. Based on the self-assessments, are there patterns in the needs
of the members of your group; for instance, are there differ-
ences by age, gender, culture, ethnicity, etc.?
2. Do your group members’ motivators tend to be more intrinsic
or extrinsic?
3. How might the changing nature of work affect motiva-
tion, especially as jobs become more rich, complex, and

challenging?
4. Based on the answers, what might motivate you and your
classmates? (Remember that the instructor should not be the sole
authority on motivation!)
Learning Points:
• Managers are responsible for directing employee behavior
toward tasks that further the organization’s objectives.
• Motivating jobs contain skill variety, task identity, task sig-
nificance, autonomy, and feedback.
• Managers can create an environment that fosters motivation by
setting clear performance standards and ensuring fits between
employee needs, job requirements, and fair rewards.
• Ask if there are patterns in the description categories. For
example, are some needs more social in nature (Belonging,
Recognition) than others (Ownership, Competency)? What
other patterns could there be? Can you identify categories of
motives that we left out?
E X E RC I S E
Life Game
Mal a Ka pa dia , Ph . D. Adju nc t professor, S. P. Jain Institute of
Ma n a gemen t an d Research, Mumbai,
I n dia a n d S. P. Ja in C ent er of Management,
D uba i and Si ngapore
Introduction
Perception is a cognitive process that allows us to interpret and under-

stand our surroundings. Social cognition is the study of how people
perceive one another. The four stages include: selective attention/
comprehension, encoding and simplification, storage and retention,
and retrieval and response. Because we do not have the mental capac-
ity to fully comprehend all of the stimuli within the environment, we
selectively perceive portions of environmental stimuli. Attention is
the process of becoming consciously aware of something or someone.
We tend to pay attention to salient stimuli. Encoding and simplifica-
tion involves interpreting or translating raw information into mental
representations. These mental representations are then assigned to
cognitive categories.

Categories are defined as a group of objects that are considered
equivalent. As part of the categorization process, people, events, and
objects are compared with schemata. A schema represents a person’s
mental picture or summary of a particular event or type of stimulus.
The third phase involves storage of information in long-term
memory. Long-term memory consists of separate but connected
categories. The final stage requires drawing on, interpreting, and
integrating categorical information to form judgments and decisions
(Kreitner & Kinicki, 2008).
Perception colors how we look at life, relationships, and events.
Unfortunately, we are generally not aware of how this process works.
The stored memory becomes a perception filter and distorts our sense
of reality. This exercise helps us to become aware and then work on
clearing up perception filters. Working on clearing up of perception
filters is a transformational process, not just informational. Body and
mind both have to be included to clear up the filters.
Vipassana meditation is one of the methods I have found very
effective in becoming aware of perception and clearing up the fil-
ters. What is Vipassana? Vipassana literally means an “insight.” It
is India’s most ancient technique of meditation, rediscovered by
Siddharta Gautama, the Buddha, more than 2500 years ago. It is a
way of self-transformation through self-observation. It focuses on the
deep interconnection between mind and body, which can be expe-
rienced directly by disciplined attention to the physical sensations
that form the life of the body. In modern language, Vipassana means
Mindfulness. The technique of Vipassana is to note every detail of
our mental and physical experience from moment –to moment, with
an unbiased attitude. There is awareness and acceptance of whatever
is occurring in the immediate now, without judging or adding to it.
We see things as they actually are, free of subjective associations. The
scientific laws that govern one’s thoughts, feelings, judgments, and
sensations become clear.
The tradition restarted by the Buddha continued through a chain
of teachers, and in modern times was revisited by Sayagyi U Ba Khin
in Burma/ Myanmar. An Indian entrepreneur, S. N. Goenka, learned
it and made it available through Vipassana centers all over India and
internationally. Vipassana is taught by a chain of teachers as a 10-day
retreat courses for beginners. It is not a religious, sectarian, or com-
mercial activity.
The Course—Three steps to the training:
1. Code of Conduct called Sila- moral precepts.

2. Second, for the first three–and–a half days, students practice
Anapana meditation, focusing attention on the breath. This
practice helps to develop control over the unruly mind. By the
fourth day the mind is calmer and more focused, better able to

undertake the practice of Vipassana itself: observing sensations
throughout the body, understanding their nature, and devel-
oping equanimity by learning not to react to them.
3. The third step, undertaken for the last six–and–a half days, is
the practice of Vipassana: one penetrates one’s entire physical
and mental structure with the clarity of insight. You are able
to observe sensations, belief systems, thought processes, chains
of reactions like a film being screened. A sense of detachment
gets cultivated when observing rather than getting caught in
the habitual pattern of automatic reactions. This helps clear
our perception filters, called Sankharas or samskaras or stored
memory patterns in modern language.
4. For all ten days, complete silence is practiced.
5. For the exercise here, only the focused breathing called
Anapana is included as pedagogy.
Purpose and Expected Outcomes of the Exercise:

This session has two main objectives: obtaining an Ant’s View and a
Bird’s View.
Ant’s View—The Immediate, Ground Reality Perspective

This view provides answers to the following questions:
● How does my perception work?

● What processes take place?
● How are they interlinked?
● What are perception filters and how do they distort my sense
of reality?
● Where can I create impact to clear perception?
● How do I include it as pedagogy in my teaching OB?
● What are OB benefits to participant? Her/his future role as
manager?
● How will it create an engaging workplace, retain employees,
develop high-energy relationships?
Bird’s View—The Long-term, Big Picture Perspective
This view provides answers to the following questions:
● Long term or higher gain: How will it help humans to become

a better “human”?
● How will it impact humanity at various levels—can it be
taught to the emotionally disturbed or criminals?
● Will it help bring about a change of mind?
● Will it create compassionate and harmonious relationships?

Expected Outcomes:
Right Effort, entailing:
● Code of Conduct
● Anapana Sati—Remain Focused
● Resist Distraction—Silence and withdrawal of senses
Right Awareness, entailing:
● Present Moment
● Experience reality—superficial to subtle
● Craving, aversion, and ignorance
● Object of attention is wholesome breathing—clears the mind
Right Concentration, entailing:
● Maintaining Awareness
● Relaxed, happy, and full of energy
● Mitta Bhavana (Compassion)
Benefits to OB Learning
● Understand perceptual process
● Take responsibility for reactions
● De–clutter perception filters—Purify Mind disc
● Understand link between mind/body and be stress free
● Understand self as vibration process that is ever changing
● Improve interpersonal relationships
● Experience positive emotions
● equanimity in crisis or conf lict
● Impact of Buddhism on Modern Management—A study by
Dr. D. Gopalkrishna narrates quantitative results of Vipassana
meditation on personal, interpersonal, and professional effec-
tiveness. I recommend this book to all OB Facilitators
Best Setting for the Exercise, and Why:
This exercise can be conducted indoors and/or outdoors. Just make
sure all clearly listen to the instructions given. If it is outdoors, facili-
tator should clearly define boundaries so that participants come back
when called to end the activity.
Ask them to wear loose clothes that enable them to sit down com-
fortably and practice focused breathing. You may need carpet or rug
on which they can sit.

Points of Attention or Caution to the Facilitator:
● Learn Vipassana only from a trained teacher and authentic
center.
● Do not teach it yourself, invite a teacher or take students to a
center.
● Once learned, it can then be included as pedagogy in each ses-
sion for the first and last 5 minutes.
● Encourage students to practice for half an hour to one hour
every day and to keep a learning journal or diary and note
their experiences.
The exercise
The entire exercise has three activities and a debrief for all three. The
first exercise is Life Game. Second and third are breathing and guided
meditation.
Activity 1: 10 minutes plus 20 minutes debrief
Ask all participants to stand and then listen to instructions. Keep
the instructions focused and brief. Do not answer any questions apart
from what is given in the instructions. If any participant wants to
know more, just ask them to do what they feel right or think right.
If they become too disruptive, only then you intervene. Otherwise
observe what they are doing/saying. Pay attention to who starts first
move. Observe if some people are not participating. Allow about 10
minutes for them to play around.
Before they begin, tell them:
● Take out your handkerchief and hang it from your back pocket.
If you do not have a handkerchief, use a tissue or any paper
that is extra.
● This handkerchief denotes your life. It has everything you
need for your survival.
● If it is taken away you, you are dead; you are out of the game
and stand near the door/ end of the room, which is the secluded
area.
● START
Exercise time 10 minutes. Observe what they do without com-
ments or reactions. After 10 minutes, call them to end the activity
and sit down. Ask “dead” people to sit separately.
Debrief
A. ASK
● What happened?
● Who started first?
● Why?

● What were different reactions?
● What does it mean?
● What associations in the mind were created by words?
● Where is the origin of this association?
● Ask dead people how do they feel?
● Ask anyone who did not participate in taking away other’s
life as to why s/he did not participate?
Typical answers include:
Those who killed others:
1. It is a game, survival of the fittest. So I started taking away
other’s life.
2. Game means competition, competition means I win only
when someone else loses.
3. It is fun to kill.
4. Thrill.
5. Attack is the best way of defense; I did not want to get
killed.
6. If I have more handkerchiefs, when someone steals mine, I
still survive.
7. I enjoy getting others out of my way.
8. Survival means killing others.
Those who were killed:

1. It is ok, now I have nothing to lose.
2. I trusted him/her to be my friend.
3. I was not cautious.
Those who did not participate:

1. Why kill? I have enough to survive.
2. Game means fun, not killing.
3. There is enough for everyone, why are they doing this?
4. I am peace-loving person, why get into violence?
Debrief Expansion Note:
B. TELL
Share with participants how word association in the brain works:

game-fun-competition-survival-kill. The human brain is hardwired
through evolution. We have a longer association of animal and early
human history, of Stone Age conditioning and survival/scarcity, in
our brains than of the human experience of compassion, collabo-
ration, abundance and peace. As Nigel Nicholson, Prof of OB at

London Business School, in his article in HBR ( July-August 1998),
puts it, “You can take the person out of the Stone Age, but you can’t
take the Stone Age out of the person.” This branch of Psychology is
now called Evolutionary Psychology. It studies our brain’s condition-
ing from an evolutionary perspective.
● If we want to be aware of how our hard-wired brain works, we
need to observe its processes. Focused breathing and guided
meditations are some of the ways to do it.
● Ask participants to sit in a comfortable position to practice
Anapana, the first step of Vipassana meditation.
● Instruct: Let us sit comfortably and close our eyes. Focus your
full attention on the process of breathing, keeping your atten-
tion on your nostrils so that you may watch every breath that
comes in and every breath that leaves the body.
● The mind may wander and you may catch yourself talking to
your thoughts, which is normal. The moment you catch yourself
talking to your thoughts, bring your attention back to your nos-
tril and keep your mind focused on the process of breathing.
● Time: 10 minutes—Slowly repeat instructions about com-
ing back to breath watching and getting the mind away from
talking.
Debrief
● What was happening?
● Were you able to concentrate?
● Were you able to catch yourself talking to your thoughts?
● Could you catch the monkey mind from jumping around and
bring it back?
● Why is it difficult to concentrate?
Process of Perception
● Body and mind both participate in creating perception.
● Body has senses, organs of perception.
● Mind is storage of old perceptions and it becomes filter in
selection, labels as per like/dislike and gives meaning to
perception.
● This meaning creates sensation in the body.
● We react to sensation, which creates more associations in the
memories.
Vipassana—4 steps of Perceptual Process
● Consciousness—Vinnana—Registration
● Perception—Sanna—Recognition

● Sensation—Vedana-Pleasant/unpleasant
● Reaction—Sankhara-Behavioral Pattern
Why Focus on Sensation?

● Crossroad where body & mind meet
● They happen all the time
● Universal
● No language barrier
● Experiential
● They create electromagnetic reactions, hormonal changes
even before cognition.
● Sensations become our bridge to paying attention to the four-
step process of perception.
● When we cultivate the discipline of not reacting to sensa-
tions, we also cultivate a shift to responding to a situation as is
appropriate rather than reacting out of habitual labeling.
● This shift creates a calm mind with equanimity and we are
able to perceive situations with clarity.
● Equanimity leads to acceptance of life situations and finding
an appropriate response.
● As one practices equanimity, one develops expanded con-
sciousness and starts developing Mitta Bhavna or compassion
in heart for every living and non-living being.
● One develops mindfulness as one focuses on the present
moment.
● Now with the scientific understanding of how the brain works
in the perception process, let us practice breathing again.
● Ask participants to sit in a comfortable position to practice
Anapana, the first step of Vipassana meditation.
● Instruct: Let us sit comfortably and close our eyes. Focus your
full attention on the process of breathing, keeping your atten-
tion on your nostrils so that you may watch every breath that
comes in and every breath that leaves the body.
● The mind may wander and you may catch yourself talking to
your thoughts, which is normal. The moment you catch your-
self talking to your thoughts, bring your attention back to your
nostril and keep your mind focused on process of breathing.
● Time: 10 minutes—Slowly repeat instructions about com-
ing back to breath watching and getting the mind away from
talking.
Debrief:
How was it now?

●
● Were you able to focus better?

● If no, what were the reasons?
● If yes, what sensations did you feel?
Final comments
Request participants to practice this every day so that they are able to
cultivate mindfulness in perception.
Note
1. This exercise was based on a PersonalityPathways test available at http://www.personalitypath-

ways.com/type_inventory.html
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LIS T OF CON T R I BU TOR S

Joan Marques, Ed.D., Woodbury University (co-editor)
Satinder Dhiman, Ed.D., Woodbury University (co-editor)
Jerry Biberman, Ph.D., University of Scranton, Pennsylvania (co-editor)
Jann Freed, Ph.D., Central College
Eileen Higgins, D.M., Frostburg State University
Marion Leonard, Ph.D., Frostburg State University
Martha Mattare Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Frostburg State University
Jim Clawson, Ph. D., Darden University
Kenneth Levitt, Ph.D., East Stroudsburg University
Howard C. Fero, Albertus Magnus College
Kathi J. Lovelace, Ph. D., University of Idaho
Jane D. Parent, Ph. D., Merrimack College
Marjo Lips-Wiersma, Ph.D., University of Canterbury, New Zealand
Lani Morris, Ph. D., Independent Leadership, Motivation and Sustainability
Consultant New Zealand
Gary Boelhower, Ph.D., The College of St. Scholastica
Judi Neal, Ph.D., University of Arkansas
Donald W. McCormick, Ph.D., California State University Northridge
Michael Y. Moon, Ph.D., California State University, East Bay
Ray K. Haynes, Ph.D., Indiana University Bloomington
Rajashi Ghosh, Ph.D., Drexel University
Thomas A. Conklin, Ph.D., Gannon University
Margaret Benefiel, Ph.D., Andover Newton Theological School
Paul Miesing, Ph.D., State University of New York at Albany
Edward J. Pavur, Jr., Ph.D., Management Service and State University of
New York at Albany
Mala Kapadia, Ph. D. Adjunct professor, S. P. Jain Institute of Management &
Research, Mumbai, India & S. P. Jain Center of Management, Dubai &
Singapore.
Bios
Joan Marques, Ed.D., is Director of the BBA Program and Assistant

Professor at Woodbury university. She has (co-)authored 8 books, among
212 Contributors
which “Joy at Work, Work at Joy, Living and Working Mindfully Every
Day” (Personhood Press, 2010), and “The Workplace and Spirituality: New
Perspectives in Research and Practice” (Skylight Paths, 2009). Joan regularly
co-organizes and presents workshops for business and non-profit entities in
the Los Angeles area, through the Business Renaissance Institute and the
Academy of Spirituality and Professional Excellence, ASPEX, of which she
is a co-founder. She is the founding editor of four scholarly journals, and
has been published in a wide variety of scholarly journals such as Journal
of Management Development, Corporate Governance, International Journal oí
Organizational Analysis, international Journal of Leadership Studies, Human

Resource Development Quarterly, Leadership in Action, Performance Improvement,
and Journal of Business Ethics. Dr. Marques holds a Bachelors degree in
Business Economics, a Master’s degree in Business Administration, and a
Doctorate in Organizational Leadership.
Satinder Dhiman, Ed.D., serves as the Associate Dean, School of
Business, and as Professor of Management at Woodbury University,
Burbank, California. He has led business leaders successfully for the last
30 years in- and outside the U.S., through courses, seminars, articles, and
books on enhancing the quality of life at work. Dr. Dhiman regularly
co-organizes and presents workshops for business and non-profit entitles
In the Los Angeles area, through the Business Renaissance Institute, and
the Academy of Spirituality and Professional Excellence, ASPEX, both of
which he co-founded. Dr. Dhiman Is the recipient of the 2004 ACBSP
International Teacher of the Year Award and 2006 Steve Allen Excellence
in Education Award. His research interests include transformational lead-
ership, spirituality in the workplace, and mindfulness in life and leader-
ship. Dr. Dhiman, is the co-editor of “Spirituality in the Workplace: What
it Means; Why it Matters; How to Make it Work for You” (Personhood Press,
2008), and the co-author of “The Workplace and Spirituality: New Perspectives
in Research and Practice” (Skylight Paths, 2009). He holds a doctorate in
Organizational Leadership from Pepperdine University and has com-
pleted advanced Executive Leadership Programs at Harvard, Wharton,
and Stanford.
Jerry Biberman, Ph. D., is Professor of Management at the University of
Scranton. For over twelve years he served as Chair of the Management/
Marketing Department at the University of Scranton. He obtained his MS,
MA and PhD from Temple University. He writes, teaches, consults, speaks,
and conducts workshops in the areas of work and spirituality, workplace
diversity, and organization transformation. Dr. Biberman served as co-
editor of the Journal of Management, Spirituality and Religion, and has
co-edited several special editions on work and spirituality for the Journal
of Organizational Change Management. Dr. Biberman is co-editor of
“At Work: Spirituality Matters” (University of Scranton Press, 2007) and
of “Spirituality in Business: Theory, Practice and Future Directions” (Palgrave
MacMillan, 2008). Dr. Biberman was a founder and first chair of the
Contributors 213
Management, Spirituality and Religion interest group of the Academy of
Management. He twice received the University of Scranton Kania School
of Management Scholarly achievement award.
James G. S. Clawson is the Johnson and Higgins Professor of Business
Administration at the Darden Graduate School of Business Administration
at the University of Virginia. His most recent books are Balancing Your
Life: Executive Lessons for Work, Family and Self, Powered by Feel: How indi-
viduals, teams, and companies excel (with Doug Newburg) and Level Three
Leadership: Getting Below the Surface (4th edition). He has also written Teaching
Business Management: A field guide for professors, consultants and corporate train-

ers (with Mark Haskins), Creating a Learning Culture (with Marcia Conner)
and Practical Problems in Organizations. He has consulted with dozens of
large and very large corporations in various parts of the globe on issues of
leadership, career management, leadership development, human resource
management, organizational development, and related topics. Professor
Clawson received degrees from Stanford University, Brigham Young
University, and Harvard University Graduate School of Business (DBA
Organizational Behavior).
Judi Neal received her Ph.D. in Organizational Behavior from Yale
University. She has worked 8 years full-time in industry, including 5 years
as a manager for Honeywell. She has consulted to organizations for 24
years, and taught management at the University of New Haven and other
universities for over 17 years. She has served on the Boards of Directors
of several professional, community, and academic organizations. In 1992
she made spirituality in the workplace a central focus of her research and
presentations, and has gained a reputation in the national and interna-
tional media for stressing the importance and value of spirituality into
the workplace. As Founder and Executive Director of the Association for
Spirit at Work, Judi helped to provide resources, information and com-
munity to those who are seeking greater integration of spirituality and
work. One of her major contributions to the field was the creation of the
International Spirit at Work Awards, which honors organizations that are
explicit about nurturing the human spirit. Judith is currently the found-
ing Director of the Tyson Center for Faith and Spirituality at the Sam
M. Walton College of Business, University of Arkansas. She is the author
of Edgewalkers: People and Organizations that Take Risks, Build Bridges, and
Break New Ground (Praeger 2006).
Marty Mattare, MBA, MA, PhD, is an Assistant Professor at Frostburg
State University, Frostburg, MD. Dr. Mattare is the author of two books
and has authored articles on change management, entrepreneurship, com-
munication, and organization development. She has conducted numerous
workshops and presented various papers at a number of conferences. Dr.
Mattare has held senior management positions in business and founded sev-
eral of her own. She also consults for small business startups, concentrating
214 Contributors
on building teams and human resources for small ventures. She is active
in a number of professional organizations, including: SCORE, USASBE,
SHRM, and serves as the Chair of the Small Business Special Interest
Group for USASBE. Dr. Mattare’s research interests include the charac-
teristics of entrepreneurs, micro entrepreneurship, entrepreneurship edu-
cation, strategy development, and organizational change management.
Donald W. McCormick, Ph.D., teaches at the Department of
Management in the College of Business and Economics of California
State University Northridge. He received his AB in psychology from the
University of California Santa Cruz and his PhD in organizational behav-

ior from case Western Reserve University. He is the author of many articles
on management, spirituality, and religion; management education; and
organization development, and had his work published in journals such
as Organization and Management Journal, Journal of Organizational Change
Management, The Organization Development Journal, Journal of Managerial
Psychology, and Journal of Management Inquiry. His research focuses on
mindfulness in the workplace and classroom, the use of e-learning to
teach empathic listening, and evidence-based approaches to management
education. He can be reached at don.mccormick@csun.edu
Thomas A. Conklin is an assistant professor in Management, and the
Organizational Learning and Leadership Ph.D. program at Gannon
University. His research interests are in leadership, appreciative inquiry,
phenomenology, pedagogy, and careers. He has published articles in Journal
of Management Inquiry, Advanced Management Journal, Advances in
Developing Human Resources, Organization Management Journal, and
Journal of Management Education. He has served as a consultant to many
fortune 500 companies in areas of organizational development and change
including Eaton Corporation; Coca-Cola; Ameritech; AT&T; University
Hospitals, Cleveland; Cleveland Public Schools; Cablevision; Delta Dental
Plan of Massachusetts; and the Idaho Post Register. He holds a Ph.D.
in Organizational Behavior from Case Western Reserve University, an
MBA in Finance and an MS in Counselor Education from Illinois State
University, and a BA in Psychology from Eastern Illinois University.
Paul Miesing is Associate Professor of Management in the School of
Business at the State University of New York at Albany. He conducts
research and training in the areas of strategic management, international
business, and corporate social responsibility. He has published dozens of
articles and papers in academic and practitioner journals as well as deliv-
ered lectures, seminars, and scholarly presentations in many countries.
He has also received recognitions and funding from numerous organiza-
tions, including a Fulbright Award to Fudan University in Shanghai and a
Distinguished Research Award. He has served on several peer review boards,
including the Council for International Exchange of Scholars (CIES) and
the National Science Foundation, and has held administrative and joint
Contributors 215
academic appointments. His innovative teaching has always included exer-
cises, cases, simulations, and field projects, and he is a recipient of the
Outstanding Graduate Teaching Award in the School of Business.
Edward J. Pavur, Jr. has a doctorate from the University of Missouri in
Experimental Psychology and a post-doctorate from Purdue in Industrial
Psychology. He has consulted for over 20 years on leadership assessment
and development, job analysis, and team productivity. He has served as
an Adjunct Professor in the Schools of Business at the State University of
New York at Albany and at Tulane University, where he has taught topics
such as Organizational Behavior and Human Resources Techniques. His

consulting practice includes projects in several sectors, including utilities,
transportation, manufacturing, and government. Edward has published
articles and book reviews in journals, such as The Psychologist-Manager
Journal, and Personnel Psychology. He has presented papers at national confer-
ences, including the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Conferences. He has also been on the editorial staff of several journals.
Dr. Pavur has conducted job analyses, assessment and development cen-
ters, and training programs. He has also developed a number of selection
systems for specialized positions.
Gary Boelhower, PhD is professor of theology and religious studies at
The College of St. Scholastica in Duluth, Minn. where he teaches courses
in ethics, spirituality and resilience, death and dying, servant leadership,
and global leadership and ethics. He has been an educator for over 40 years
as a high school teacher, college professor, chair of humanities, dean of
graduate studies and vice president for academic affairs. He was co-founder
and executive director of the Center for Spirituality and Leadership at
Marian University in Fond du Lac, Wis. He has consulted with a broad
range of organizations on values integration, conf lict resolution, team
spirit, mission and strategy, and the respectful workplace. He has facili-
tated executive development programs on dialogue, authentic leadership,
values and vision, appreciative inquiry, and professional development. He
has published scholarly articles on servant leadership, practical wisdom,
quality processes, values integration, educational assessment, religious
pluralism and process theology.
Dr. Mala Kapadia is the founder of Tame The Monkey. With a back-
ground in Journalism at The Times of India Group of Publications, and in
Human Resources at Otis Elevators (India) and Voltas; McCann-Erickson
(India), the world’s largest Advertising Agency, and the 24-hour Hindi
channel SAB TV, where she was Vice President- Human Resources, Dr.
Kapadia currently serves as Adjunct Professor at S. P. Jain Institute of
Management & Research, and International faculty at S. P. Jain Center of
Management in Singapore and Dubai. She teaches Emotional Intelligence,
Leadership, Coaching and Mentoring. Mala is MBTI Step 1 & 2 certified,
has designed her own psychometric based on ancient wisdom of Ayurveda,
216 Contributors
and has done pioneering research on Emotional Intelligence in ancient and
modern Indian context. Her book ‘Heart Skills- Emotional Intelligence for
work and life’ was nominated for the ISTD Book Award 2008–2009. Mala
is founder member of the Forum for Emotional Intelligence- FEIL. She
studies Integral Intelligence and Indian psychology based on Patanjali’s
Yoga Sutras, and is a certified facilitator in Emotional Intelligence. She
currently works on designing an instrument for measuring & counseling
in Quarter Life Crisis. Dr. Kapadia is an internationally known speaker
on Management, Well being and Yoga. She can be contacted at tamethe-
monkey@rediffmail.com

Dr. Ray K. Haynes is an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Instructional Systems Technology at Indiana University-Bloomington.
His scholarly and research interests focus on mentoring, diversity, and
inclusion processes for women and people of color in organizational set-
tings. An additional strand of his research involves the evaluation of per-
formance improvement and organizational effectiveness interventions
aimed at program and/or process improvement. Dr. Haynes holds degrees
from Syracuse University and the University of Louisville. His profes-
sional experience as a management consultant includes leading project
design and implementation teams for numerous Fortune 500 corpora-
tions. Dr. Haynes has consulted nationally and internationally and his
consulting work is guided by his fundamental belief that, human rela-
tionships form the core of enterprise. When organizations and the people
within them loose sight of this fundamental truth things go awry.
Dr. Jane D. Parent is an Assistant Professor in the Department of
Management at Merrimack College. She holds a B.S. in Business
Administration from the State University of New York at Albany, an
M.B.A. from the University of Southern Maine and a Ph.D. in Organization
Studies from the University of Massachusetts Amherst. Dr. Parent has
several years of industry experience in the fields of cost analysis, mar-
keting and finance working for such companies as Northrop-Grumman,
United Technologies, National Semiconductor and Siemens, AG. She
is the author of articles published in the Journal of Management, Business
Renaissance Quarterly, The Journal of the Academy of Business Education and
Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the Workplace. She is a member of the National
Academy of Management and the Organizational Behavior Teaching
Society. She is currently doing research in the area of individual adap-
tation to organization changes, management education and experiential
learning initiatives.
Michael Y. Moon, Ph.D., M.B.A., is an Assistant Professor in the
Department of Public Affairs and Administration at California State
University, East Bay. He has consulted to public sector and arts organi-
zations on community engagement and organizational values. He is the
primary advisor and instructor for the Organizational Change Option
in the MPA Program at CSUEB. Dr. Moon’s research interests include
Contributors 217
bottom-up change, organizational values in arts and service organiza-
tions, common sense, and organizational role analysis. Dr. Moon’s article
titled, “Making sense of common sense for change management buy-in”, pub-
lished in Management Decision (2009, vol. 47, issue 3), received a 2009
Highly Commended Award from the journal’s editors.
Marjolein Lips-Wiersma, Ph.D., works in the department of
Management Studies at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand. She
has spent the last fifteen years understanding the theme of meaningful
work in practical and empirical ways. She has been board director, chair

of the Management, Spirituality and Religion group of the Academy of
Management, and regularly works with individuals, groups and organi-
sations to diagnose and action how to create more meaningful work
and work practices. Her academic work has won several awards. She
has integrated the theme of meaningful work to a wide range of teach-
ing including undergraduate business ethics, post graduate responsible
leadership and executive MBA organisational behaviour. For more infor-
mation on her academic work see her website: www.mang.canterbury.
ac.nz/people/lips_wiersma.shtml
Lani Morris is an independent, organisational behaviour practitioner,
and contract lecturer at a number of universities and tertiary institutions.
The key focus of her work is to share profound and practical ways to help
people take responsibility for and reclaim power over themselves, their
lives and at work. She has over twenty years experience of working with
organisations and individuals in New Zealand, Australia and the United
Kingdom and has worked with the Holistic Development Model since
2000 in a wide range of contexts. Lani is a life-long artist with a passion
for nature, beauty, creativity, simplicity and transformation.
Kenneth Levitt, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor of Business Management
at East Stroudsburg University. He has worked as a management con-
sultant for The Gallup Organization, The WorkPlace Group, and The
Renoir Group. He received his B.S. in Business Economics from the State
University of New York at Oneonta, his Masters in Industrial Psychology
from Fairleigh Dickinson University, and his Ph.D. in Industrial and
Organizational Psychology from Stevens Institute of Technology. Prior to
his current teaching position, he taught at The College of Saint Elizabeth
(2003–2008) and for University of Maryland’s overseas program (1994–
2001). During his time with the University of Maryland, Dr. Levitt
taught at more than 20 different education centers in Korea, Okinawa,
and mainland Japan.
Dr. Howard Fero is an associate professor of business and leadership
and the Director of the Master of Arts in Leadership program at Albertus
Magnus College in New Haven, Connecticut. Howard’s research and
consulting interests focus on the development of leadership and the
encouragement of motivation in employees at all levels of organizations.
218 Contributors
Dr. Fero consultants with large and small organizations facilitating work-
shops, designing programs, and coaching individuals and teams in the
areas of leadership, employee engagement, team building, career devel-
opment, and overall organizational effectiveness. Dr. Fero is involved in
numerous professional organizations and is a past president of the Institute
of Behavioral and Applied Management (IBAM), an international associa-
tion of management scholars and practitioners.
For more information please go to www.theleadershipdoc.net.
Rajashi Ghosh, Ph. D., is an Assistant Professor in the Human Resource

Development program in Goodwin School of Education at Drexel
University. Her primary research interests include mentoring and work-
place incivility. Specifically, she is interested to study how mentoring can
facilitate leader development and how instances of workplace incivility
can be reduced in organizations to facilitate workplace learning. Prior to
joining academics, Rajashi worked in the corporate sector in the areas of
employee development and performance management. She completed her
doctorate in Educational Leadership and Organizational Development
with specialization in Human Resource Development (HRD) from
University of Louisville.
Jann Freed, Ph. D., is a professor of business management and the
Mark and Kay De Cook Endowed Chair in Leadership and Character
Development at Central College in Pella, Iowa. In addition, she is a
Registered Corporate Coach and certified as a Sage-ing Leader through
the Sage-ing Guild. In 1990, Jann began extensive research aimed at
understanding the implications of continuous improvement principles
and practices in higher education. This work resulted in two books.
Since 2000, she has focused on learning; specifically individual, organi-
zational, and lifelong learning. This interest resulted in a book: Learner-
Centered Assessment on College Campuses: Shifting the Focus from Teaching
to Learning published by Pearson. Jann’s latest book was the outcome of
teaching in Yucatan, Mexico where she interviewed and photographed
women leaders. This was published in 2010 by McFarland Publishing
titled: Women of Yucatan: Thirty Who Dare To Change Their World. Jann
is currently working on a book based on more than 75 interviews with
thought leaders and senior leaders—“Sages” about how to lead in these
uncertain times.
Kathi J. Lovelace is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Business
at University of Idaho. She holds a B.A. in Organizational Psychology
and an M.B.A. from Western Washington University and a Ph.D. in
Organization Studies from the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Dr. Lovelace enjoys teaching and her research focuses on work stress
and employee well-being and also management development. She is
the author of articles published in the Journal of Management Education,
Journal of Managerial Psychology, Human Resource Management Review and
Contributors 219
The Journal of the Academy of Business Education. She is a member of the
National Academy of Management and the Organizational Behavior
Teaching Society.
Jane D. Parent is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Management
at Merrimack College. She holds a B.S. in Business Administration from the
State University of New York at Albany, an M.B.A. from the University of
Southern Maine and a Ph.D. in Organization Studies from the University
of Massachusetts Amherst. Dr. Parent has several years of industry expe-
rience in the fields of cost analysis, marketing and finance working for
such companies as Northrop-Grumman, United Technologies, National

Semiconductor and Siemens, AG. She is the author of articles published
in the Journal of Management, Business Renaissance Quarterly, The Journal
of the Academy of Business Education and Gender, Race, and Ethnicity in the
Workplace. She is a member of the National Academy of Management
and the Organizational Behavior Teaching Society. She is currently doing
research in the area of individual adaptation to organization changes,
management education and experiential learning initiatives.
Margaret Benefiel, Ph.D., teaches at Andover Newton Theological
School in Boston and at the Millltown Institute in Dublin, Ireland.
Executive Officer of Executive Soul, Dr. Benefiel also has served as
Chair of the Academy of Management’s Management, Spirituality, and
Religion Group. Over 500 executives, managers, and other leaders have
participated in her seminars and courses. She is the author of Soul At
Work and The Soul of a Leader and has also written for The Leadership
Quarterly, Management Communication Quarterly, Managerial Finance, Journal
of Organizational Change Management, Organization, and Personal Excellence.
Dr. M. Eileen Higgins has been teaching at Frostburg State University,
Frostburg, Maryland, for the past 21 years. She teaches MBA classes in
Organizational Behavior; Strategic Human Resource Management;
The Leadership Process; Business Ethics and Social Responsibility; and
Strategic Change Management and undergraduate classes in International
Management; Leadership and Human Behavior; Business, Government,
and Society; Human Resources Management; Management of
Organizations; and Professional Development. Dr. Higgins has presented
papers at numerous conferences and has had papers published in various
scholarly journals. Recently she was an invited member of the Oxford
Round Table on “Ethics: A Convolution of Contemporary Values” and
presented a paper at this conference. Her research interests and publica-
tions are in the area of Spirituality at Work and Moral Leadership.
Marion Leonard, Professor Emeritus, MBA department of Frostburg
State University, MD, believes that real change and knowing takes place
with experiential learning and embodied insight. Prior to her teaching
career, she was successful in both retail management and as a financial
planner. Marion is a Certified Yoga Teacher, and Mindfulness-Based
220 Contributors
Stress Reduction Program instructor. She integrates her academic back-
ground in management, psychology, yoga and meditation with her
business experience to facilitate leadership training, personal growth
workshops and stress reduction classes. Marion serves as Board Chair
of the Allegany Arts Council, Board Vice President of the Community
Trust Foundation, Board President of the Community Wellness Coalition
and Chair of the Steering Committee for the Imagination Library of
Allegany County, MD.
I N DE X

abundance mentality, 81, 85, 156 Biberman, J., 80, 82, 101
Albom, M., 13 Bodrova, E., 26, 28
Altman, Y., 82 Boelhower, G., 96, 183
Appreciative Inquiry (AI), xiv, 94 Boorstein, S., 102
4-D model, 126, 136, 146, 157, 160–166, Bowling, C. J., 158
169–174 Boyatzis, R., 28
defined, 119–120 Brahm, B. A., 158
implications for management, 127 breathing, 19–21, 23, 55, 62, 103–104,
Maslow and, 120–123 202–204, 206–208
motivations behind, 123–125 Brooks-Harris, J. E., 29
principles of, 125, 135–136 Bruckman, J. C., 44
problem-based vs. strength-based Burr, V., 29
approach, 126 Bushe, G. R., 135, 157
appreciative pedagogy, 158
Archer, M., 180–181 Cairo, P., 181–182
Arenberg, 102 Calacanis, J., 13
Argyris, C., 21 Caldwell, D. B., 45
Armstrong, T., 28 Callister, R., 28
At the Speed of Life (Hendricks), 21 Cameron, K. S., 53, 112
Athos, T., 30 Campbell, B., 28
Auger, 102 Campbell, L., 28
authentic leadership: Cannon, W. B., 50
advantages of, 6 Carmeli, A., 181
defining, 1–3 Change the World (Quinn), 120
development of, 3–4, 6–7 Chun, D. M., 129, 175
dimensions of, 3 Clawson, J., 29, 54, 74n3
platform for, 3–4 collaboration, 21, 53, 57, 59, 81, 111, 128,
in practice, 3–5 130, 134, 136, 206
authenticity, 2 Collective Conversations About
Avital, M., 157 Meaningful Work exercise, 90–95
Avolio, B., 2 Collins, J., 170
commitment, 29–30, 32, 36–39, 44–45,
Barrett, F., 157 61, 165–166
Bass, B. M., 2 Conklin, T., 157–158
being-values (B-values), 119–122 Contemplating Meaningful Work
Benefiel, M., 83–84, 191–192 exercise, 86–95
Berger, P. L., 157 continuous change, 21, 168
Berry, K., 182 Cooper, R. K., 28–29
222 Index
Cooperrider, D. L., 119, 123–127, 135–6, Dialogue Circle, An Exercise in
157–158 Gendered Introspection and
Courage to Teach, The(Palmer), 18–19 Ref lection, 135–145
Covey, S., 67 Dialogue Circle: An Exercise in
Cross, K., 129, 174 Embracing Racial/Ethnic Diversity
and Supporting Inclusion, 146–154
Dalai Lama, 79–80 Free Rider and the Messy Roommate,
Danby, P., 102 110–116
Death Awareness exercise, 12–18 Guided Visualizations, 191–194
Deconstructing Silos exercise, 128–134 Leadership and Changing Work
Delbeqc, A., 12 Environments: Using Role-Play

DePree, M., 102 Exercises to Illustrate the Impact of
Deshpande, S., 182 Strong Leadership, 44–49
Developing Management Skills (Whetten Life Game, 200–208
and Cameron), 113 Meditation on Work as a Calling,
Dhiman, S., 79, 154, 188 101–105
Dialogue Circle, An Exercise in My Inner CV (Making Meaning
Gendered Introspection and Visible to Oneself ), 87–90
Ref lection, 135–145 Organizational Values Integration
Dialogue Circle: An Exercise in Ref lection, 95–101
Embracing Racial/Ethnic Diversity Personal Values Ref lection, 183–188
and Supporting Inclusion, 146–154 Perspective is Everything? 188–190
Dickinson, D., 28 The Preferred Classroom, 157–168
diversity, racial/ethnic, 146–154 A Self-Ref lection Exercise: Finding
Dotlich, D., 181–182 Meaning, 7–11
Down, J., 28 Spiritual Lifeline: An Integrative
Drucker, P., 4–5 Exercise, 105–107
Dulewicz, V., 28 Stepping Outside the Comfort Zone,
Durkheim, E., 21 168–174
Survey of Managerial Style, 29–43
emotional intelligence (EI), 28, 54, 177 Time Management, 66–73
defined, 180–182 Traffic Light, 154–156
ethics and, 182–183 Understanding Stress and Developing
intellectual intelligence and, 181–182 Resiliency to Stress through Time
leadership and, 181–182 Management and Life Balance,
Englerth, Quentin, 74n3 49–74
ethics: Use Creative Drawings to Visualize
defined, 177–180 Leadership, 25–29
emotional intelligence and, 182–183 What Motivates Me? 195–200
leadership, 178–179 Whole-Body Learning, 18–25
organizational, 179–180
workplace, 87 Farhi, A., 21–22
See also morality Fedor, D. B., 45
exercises: Fero, H. C., 44
Collective Conversations About Fierros, E., 28
Meaningful Work, 90–95 fight or f light response, 50
Contemplating Meaningful Work, Fink, L. D., 21
86–95 FIT acronym, Surgeon General’s, 54, 61
Death Awareness, 12–18 Folkman, S., 49, 56
Deconstructing Silos, 128–134 Forbes.com, 1–2
Index 223
Frankl, V. E., 21 Hollowitz, J., 102
Free Rider and the Messy Roommate Hosking, D. M., 157
exercise, 110–116 Hunt, D. E., 167
Freed, J., 12
Friedman, R., 12 integrity, 3, 18–19, 21
Fry, R., 157 Iyengar, B., 21
Gandhi, M., 8, 150, 152 James, J. W., 12

Gardner, H., 26, 28 Jellison, J. M., 44
Garger, J., 2 Jensen, S. M., 6
gender awareness, 135–145 Job Characteristic Model, 54

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), 50, Jobs, S., 13
52–53 Johnson, D. W., 159
George, B., 3–4, 6 Johnson, F. P., 159
Gergen, K., 29 Jones, D., 12
Ghosh, R., 135, 146 Jones, G., 2
Giacalone, R. A., 79 Joseph, J., 182
Goffee, R., 2 Jurkiewicz, C. L., 79
Goldhaber, D. E., 29
Goldstein, J., 21 Kabat-Zinn, J., 19
Goleman, D., 28, 180 Kapadia, M., 200
Good to Great (Collins), 170 Kassam, A., 135
Gopalkrishna, D., 203 Kayser, T. A., 21
Gordon, T., 112 Kegan, R., 29
Goudy, K., 182 Kelly, S., 77
grief, 12–14 Kimberly-Clark, 170
Griffin, T. J., 157 King, J., 28
grounded, staying, 4–6 King, Jr., Martin Luther, 151
Groves, K. S., 45 King, R., 79
Guided Visualization exercises, 191–194 Kinicki, A., 201
Gutek, G. L., 26, 28 Knight, A. B., 21
Kolb, D. A., 29
Hackman, J., 54 Kornhaber, M., 28
Hahn, T. N., 102 Kotter, J., 30, 44
Hakel, M., 111, 117 Kreitner, R., 201
Halpern, D., 111
Hardiness Self-Assessment, 62–64 Latane, B., 161
Harkins, S., 161 Lazarus, R., 49, 56
Hart, W., 158 Leader Effectiveness Training (Gordon), 112
Havel, V., 127–128 Leadership and Changing Work
Haynes, R. K., 135 Environments: Using Role-Play
Hazen, M. A., 12–13, 130 Exercises to Illustrate the Impact of
Hendricks, G., 18–19, 21–22, 26, 28 Strong Leadership, 44–49
Hendricks, K., 18–19, 21–22, 28 leadership ethics, 178–179
Herold, D. M., 45 Leiter, M., 54
Higgins, M. E., 18, 26, 28, 74n3 Leonard, M., 18, 26, 28
Higgs, M., 28, 44–45 Leutner, D., 129, 175
Hoffman, F. L., xii Levitt, K., 44
Holistic Development Model, 86–87, Liedtka, J., 2
94–95, 117n1 life balance, 49–51, 54, 66, 72–73
224 Index
Life Game exercise, 200–208 Neal, J., 95, 105, 108, 183
life-long learning, 21 near death experiences (NDEs), 13
Lillard, P. P., 26, 28 Neilsen, E. H., 158
Lips-Wiersma, M., 86 Neville, M. G., 158
Liu, Y., 45 Nicholson, N., 206
Livingston, L. S., 157
Lovelace, K. J., 49 O’Connor, D., 158
Luckmann, T., 157 Oldham, G., 54
Ludema, J. L., 157 organizational ethics, 179–180
Luthans, F., 2, 6 Organizational Values Integration
Ref lection, 95–101

Mandela, N., 156 Overell, S., 86, 117
Mann, A. J., 157
Marcic, D., 102 Palmer, P., 18–19
Marques, J., 7, 79, 168 Parent, J. E., 49
Maslach, C., 54 Park, N., 135, 157
Maslow, A., 119–123, 156 Patel, T., 179–180
Mattare, M., 25 Paterniti, A. P., 26, 28
Mayer, D., 3, 6 Pavur, E. J., 195
Mayer, J. D., 180 Pearl, S. G., 74n3
Mayer, R. E., 129, 175 Personal Values Ref lection, 183–188
McCormick, D. W., 110 Perspective is Everything? exercise, 188–190
McDonald, K., 102 Pert, C., 19, 21
McGregor, 80 Peterson, C., 135, 157
McKee, A., 28 Pine, V. R., 13
McKinnon, P. D., 74n3 Pinker, S., 129, 175
McLean, A. N., 3, 6 Plass, J. L., 129, 175
Meditation on Work as a Calling positive psychology, 135, 157
exercise, 101–105 The Preferred Classroom exercise, 157–168
Merriam, S. B., 29
Mesmer-Magnus, J., 182 quadrant planning, 67
Meyer, G., xii Quinn, R. E., 120
Michaelson, L. K., 21
Miesing, P., 195 Reid, J., 181
Miller, C. R., 158 resiliency, 49–51, 53–56, 60–61
mindfulness, 55, 62, 201, 207–208 Rhinesmith, S., 181–182
Mohr, B. J., 124, 157–158 Rice, P., 58, 71, 73
Momeni, N., 181 Ricketts, M., 157
Montessori, M., 26, 28 Riding, R. J., 129, 175
Moon, M. Y., 128 Riggio, R. E., 44
moral intelligence, 182 Robbins, A., 13
morale, 47, 181 Robin, D., 178
morality, 2, 4, 9, 18–25, 94, 179, 202 Robinson, C., 182
See also ethics Robinson, P., 29
Morris, L. 86 role playing, 44–49, 110–113
Morris, T., 102 Rothberg, D., 77
motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic, 4, 7 Rowland, D., 45
mutual responsibility, 21
My Inner CV exercise (Making Meaning Saatcioglu, A., 158
Visible to Oneself ), 87–90 Sackman, 128–129
Index 225
Sadler-Smith, E., 129, 175 Taber, T., 128–129
Salovey, P., 180 Thomas, K. W., 111
Sawaf, A., 28–29 time management, 49–51, 53–54, 57–58,
Schwartz, J., 13 64–67, 71, 73, 85
Scorcher, M., 112 Time Management Survey, 64–65
Seashore, C., 29 Tischler, L., 82
Seashore, E. W., 29 Tom’s of Maine, 83–84
Secretan, L., 102 Traffic Light exercise, 154–156
Seiling, J., 157 True North (George), 3
self-actualization, 119–123 Tuesdays with Morrie(Albom), 13
self-awareness, 2–4, 7, 18–19, 22, Type-A behavior patterns, 50, 53, 56, 73

180, 198
self-esteem, 121–122, 181 Understanding Stress and Developing
self-managing teams, 21 Resiliency to Stress through Time
A Self-Ref lection Exercise: Finding Management and Life Balance
Meaning, 7–11 exercise, 49–74
Seligman, M., 135, 157 Use Creative Drawings to Visualize
Selye, H., 49–50, 77 Leadership exercise, 25–29
Senge, P., 21, 134
Shaefer, 179–180 Vaill, P. B., 21
Shambu, G., xii van der Haar, D., 157
Shellenbarger, S., 12 Vardin, P. A., 26, 28
Shotter, J., 29 Veenema, S., 28
Sims, P., 3–4, 6 Vipassana meditation, 201–207
Sims, R., 178 vision, 29–30, 36–39, 93, 127, 190
Smith, D., 170 Viswesvaran, C., 182
Smith, J., 102
Sorensen, P., 158 Wallace, R., 28
spiritual evolution at work, 108–110 Walumbwa, F. O., 2
Spiritual Lifeline: An Integrative Watkins, J. M., 124, 158
Exercise, 105–107 Weinberg, G. M., 29
Srivastva, S., 123, 157 Weisberg, J., 181
Stake, J. E., xii What Motivates Me? exercise, 195–200
Steen, T., 135, 157 Whetten, D., 53, 112
Stein, M., 102 Whitney, D., 124–126, 135–136, 157–158
Stepping Outside the Comfort Zone Whitty, M., 80
exercise, 168–174 Whole-Body Learning exercise, 18–25
Stetson, N. E., 158 Williams, K., 161
Stock-Ward, S. R., 29 Willis, J., 157
stress, 22, 49–62, 65, 71–74, 85, 98, 105, Winter, M., 158
156, 169, 182, 185, 194, 203 win-win approach, 5, 81, 167
stress management plan, 52, 55–56, workplace spirituality defined, 79–80
73–74
stressors, 49–53, 56–57, 65, 71, 73–74 Yaeger, T., 158
support teams, 4–5, 7 Yballe, L., 158
Survey of Managerial Style exercise, Yerkes-Dodson Law, 50
29–43 Yitzhak-Halevy, M., 181
Suzuki, S., 102 Yoga, 20

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Managing in the Twenty-first Century

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

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The purpose of this work is to enhance personal growth and

1. As change happens faster, layoffs occur more frequently, and

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This is a unique, non-traditional, OB-oriented book geared toward f lex-

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Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - licensed to ETH Zuerich - PalgraveConnect - 2011-05-06

Joan Marques, Satinder Dhiman, and Jerry Biberman

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Brief History and Definitions

Authentic leadership, as a phenomenon, impressively moved to the forefront

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Dimensions of Authentic Leaders

● Purpose is important to prevent becoming victims of our egos.

Platform for Authentic Leader

1. Knowing your authentic self. The importance of self-awareness lies

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Becoming an Authentic Leader

One cannot become an authentic leader merely by taking a course,

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The Self-Ref lection Exercise: Finding Meaning

Purpose and Goals:

Best Type of Participants:

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Introduction to the Exercise

In our efforts to maintain our authenticity as leaders of our own

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The Self-Ref lection Exercise

This exercise is an important step on your way to wakefulness. It is not a

Step 1—Ask yourself: What is my purpose here?

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As a consequence to this probing analysis you should wonder: Is there

This six-step self-ref lection exercise (see figure below) can be

Point of attention: Even if you achieve level A meaning today, you

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Death Awareness Exercise

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Purpose and Goals:

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Death Awareness Exercise

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How is Everyone Reacting?

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This section explores and demonstrates the concept of Whole-Body

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I mean whatever wholeness I am able to find within that nexus

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