PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY

Inst. Chelsy Annica Villanueva

Most biologically and Located between the
culturally diverse equator and tropic of
country in the world cancer

Bounded on the east

An archipelago
by the Pacific Ocean,
consisting of 7, 100
on South by Celebes
islands
Sea

Land area: 300,000

km2 Highest mountain:
Coastline: 18, 000 Mt. Apo (3,ooo m)
km
• Endemics are species
restricted to a defined place,
such as a single mountain,
island, or country.
• Biodiversity is constructed
from the Latin bios, which
refers to all kinds of living
things, both in the present
and in the past and
“diversity” means variety or
differences.
Definitions of Biological Diversity
• “The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of
ecosystems (UNEP, 1992).”
• “The wealth of life on earth, the millions of plants, animals, and microorganisms,
the genes they contain, and the intricate ecosystems they help build into the living
environment (WWF for Nature, 1989).”
• “The totality of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region (WRI/IUCN/UNEP,
1992).”
Wildlife – any plant or animal living in a natural state, be it beneficial or non-
beneficial.
This includes all wild vertebrate animals in the naturally associated
environment.
In forestry, the study that deals with wildlife is known as wildlife
management.
Wildlife management – a branch of forest ecology which deals with the
application of business methods and technical principles to the handling of
wildlife and its habitat (Rabor).
Wildlife management – the conscious application of ecological principles to
increase the long range of wildlife to man (Balangue).
Objectives of Wildlife Management
1. To preserve those species that we already have
2. To maintain a high population of desirable species
3. To reduce those harmful and abundant wildlife species
4. To limit utilization to the carrying capacity of land not to over-use or under-use.
5. To estimate optimum wildlife production for a given forested area of known
cover type and ecological composition
6. To promote effectual planning, development, conservation, and maintenance
of wildlife resources
7. To determine the species and the number present in the forested area
8. To understand the history of the forest and the wildlife so as to determine what
practices that disturb it.
Division of Wildlife Management
1. Wildlife biology – a branch of wildlife management which deals with the
biological needs and requirements of wildlife species.
2. Wildlife ecology – a branch of wildlife management which deals with the study of
wildlife and their relationship to their environment.
3. Wild plant management – an art of handling wild flowering plants and other
economic plants found in the forest.
4. Game animal management – an art of handling game animals living in the
forest.
5. Migratory species management – an art of handling migratory
species inside and outside of their territory.
6. Captive wildlife management – an art of handling wildlife species in
a man-made habitat.
Importance of Wildlife
1. Ecological balance – maintains balance of nature by a)
regulating the population of different species, b) food-chains or
passage of food and energy through series of populations, and c)
natural cycles or circulation of inorganic nutrients between biotic
and abiotic environments, prevention of leaching and run-off.
2. Gene bank – gene banks for breeding programs in agriculture,
animal husbandry, and fishery.
3. Plant propagation – through pollination
Importance of Wildlife
4. Cleaning of environment – by scavengers and
decomposers.
5. Scientific importance – for research purposes in saving
human life.
6. Soil erosion – prevented by plant cover, litter, mixing
of litter by movement of wild animals and conversion to
spongy humus by micro-organisms.
Importance of Wildlife
7. Control of pollution
8. Maintenance of climate
9. Recreation
10. Experimental animals
11. Economic importance
Wildlife as a Resource
Values of wildlife can be either positive or negative
1. Commercial value – production of meat in commercial
quantity.
2. Recreational value – hunting, fishing, camping, etc.
3. Aesthetic value – the attractiveness of wildlife to people.
4. Ethical value – human beings are bound to think that there is
no right on our part to kill or destroy the other living creatures of
the nature including wildlife.
Wildlife as a Resource
5. Ecological value – part of the biological community that kept
the soils productive and water flowing on undisturbed land. They
serve as predators to harmful organisms.
6. Scientific method – used in biological and medical research.
Studies of monkeys reveal new facts about human blood
chemistry and the prevention of disease.
7. Cultural value – wildlife consists a part of our national heritage
in glorious varied forms as a natural gift.
Classes of Wildlife
1. Fishes – the backboned animals that are able to live in the water
throughout their lives. More than 3,000 fish species 2,819 marine and 308
fresh water and 70-80 are endemic. Nearly 80 species are endemic, most
of which live in freshwater. Ex. The Sardinella tawilis (Cyprinidae) endemic
in Taal lake.
Major groups of fish
a. Agnathans – a fish without jaw or jawless fish.
b. Gnathosthomes – a fish with jaw.

Pandaka pygmea – the smallest fish in the world whose mature adults are 7.5 to
11 mm in length. It is found in the Malabon river.
Mistichthyes luzonensis – locally called sinarapan in Lake Buhi, Camarines Sur is
the smallest commercial fish about 11 mm in length when fully grown.
14
Classification of Fresh Water Fish

1. Primary fresh water fishes – exclusively found in fresh water.

2. Secondary fresh water fishes – predominantly marine origin
but now confined to freshwater and usually tolerant in
brackish water.
3. Freshwater representatives of marine families –
predominantly marine in origin and permanently inhabiting
freshwater habitats.
4. Migratory fishes – regular migrates between sea and
freshwater.
5. Sporadic visitors – irregular but periodic visitors of freshwater
habitats.
2. Amphibians – animals that spend part of their life on
land and part in the water. A total of 101 species (3 caecilians
and 98 frogs) of the Philippine amphibians are currently recognized
and 78 species are endemic.

Classification of amphibians
a. Frog/toad
b. Salamanders
c. Caecilians
Characteristics of Amphibians

a. Skeleton mostly bony

b. Distinct head, necks and tail fused to head and trunk with no intervening neck.
c. Skin smooth and moist with many glands.
d. Ectothermal
Ectothermic – an animal that maintains its body temperature by absorbing heat from its
environment.
Class anura – a class of animals that lack tail when become adult.
Difference between frog and toad
Frog Toad
a. Skin is smooth a. Skin is rough and dry
b. Usually moist b. Usually covered with warts, give-
off poison from their skins,
broader, flatter than frog
Frog and Toad

Frog Toad
Salamanders

Red salamander Mud puppy

Caecilian
Yellow-striped caecilian
Reptiles

3. Reptiles – a large of air breathing scaly vertebrates including snakes,

crocodiles, and turtles. Current estimate of Philippine reptiles is about 258 species, of which
170 species are endemic.

Characteristics of class reptilia

a. Body covered with an exoskeleton of horny epidermal scales.
b. Limbs paired, usually with five toes.
c. Skeleton well ossified (harden into bone)
d. Respiration by lungs
e. Three chambered heart
f. Metanespheric kidney (paired)
g. Sexes separate, fertilization internal
h. Eggs covered with calcareous or leathery shields
Classification of Reptiles

a. Crocodiles – belongs to the order crocodylia. In the

Phils. they are represented by 1 family, 1 genus, and 3
species.
b. Turtles – belong to the order chelonia. There are 4
families, 7 genera, and 8 species.
c. Lizard – a four-legged scaly reptile with a longer
tapering tail. They belong to the order squamata
specifically the suborder lacertilia. Lizards composed
of 5 families, 23 genera, and about 110 species and
subspecies.
Phil. Turtles

Hawksbill turtle Green sea turtle

Phil. Reptiles

Philippine crocodile Monitor lizard

Phil. Reptiles

Common Flying Lizard Phil. Sailfin Water Lizard

25
d. Snakes – entirely limbless and lack both the pectoral
and pelvic girdles. The cornea of the snakes eye is
permanently protected with transparent membrane
called spectacle, reduced eyeball mobility, gives snake
the cold and unblinking stare. Eyes are relatively poor
vision. No external ears that led to totally deaf but
have internal ears. Jacobson’s organ a pair of pitlike
organs in the roof of the mouth. They belong to the
suborder ophidia of the order squamata. Snakes
composed of 7 families, 25 genera, and about 130
species and subspecies.
Snakes
Snakes
Pit viper King cobra
Birds
4. Birds – warm-blooded egg laying vertebrate with two legs and wings, and
their body are usually covered with feathers. Listing of Philippine birds in the
year 1986 consisted of 940-975 species, representing 28 genera and 17
families, which is 195-396 species are endemic. In the year 2000 Philippine
birds consisted of 577 species and 195 out of 396 species are endemic.

Characteristics of class aves

a. Body with four division: head, neck, trunk and tail.
b. Forelimbs usually modified for flying.
c. Cover with feathers and leg limbs.
d. Endothermic – having body temperature determine by heat derived from
animal’s own oxidative metabolism.
Endangered Philippine Birds
Koch’s pitta Giant scops owl
Endangered Philippine Birds
Rofous hornbill Blue-naped parrot
Endangered Philippine Birds
Eastern sarus crane Philippine eagle
Endangered Philippine Birds
Palawan peacock pheasant Cebu black shama
Endangered Philippine Birds
Mindoro imperial pigeon Ashy ground thrush
Mammals

5. Mammals – a class of warm-blooded vertebrate animals that have, in the

female, milk-secreting organs for feeding the young. They comprise of 10
orders, 29 families, 71 genera, and about 240 species and subspecies.
Listing of Philippine terrestrial mammals 172 native species (1998).
Marine mammals
1. Dugong
2. Spinner dolphin
3. Spotted dolphin
Mammals

Tamaraw Philippine deer

Mammals

Mouse deer Philippine tarsier

Categories of Wildlife

1. Rare species – those species , although not threaten with

extinction, are small or few in number throughout its range and
reproduction are in immediate jeopardy.
2. Endangered species – those species whose prospect of
survival and reproduction are in the immediate jeopardy.
3. Vulnerable species – a species of animals or plants which are
likely to become endangered unless something changes.
4. Resistant species – a species that are resistance to the kind of
hunting to which they are subjected.
Economically Important Wildlife Species

1. Monkey – source of serum called salk vaccine

that is used to treat polio disease.
2. Flying lemurs
3. Gekko – source of medicine for curing asthma.
4. Lorises
5. Shrews (any small, slender, mouse-like mammals
with soft, brown fur and a long, pointed shout)
6. Tarsiers
7. Squirrels
8. Cobra
9. Python
10. Box turtles and sea turtles
11. Freshwater fish (like eels, catfish, etc.)
12. Marine tropical fish (like batfish, lion fish,
butterfish, etc.)
Economically important species
Monkey Flying lemur
Economically Important Species
Gecko Loris
Economically Important Species
Shrew Tarsier
Economically Important Species
Squirrel Cobra
Economically Important Species
Box turtle Sea turtle
Economically Important Species
Eel Catfish
Wildlife habitat

Habitat – a place where plants and animals live. To manage

wildlife, we must first manage habitat.
Factor influencing carrying capacity
Carrying capacity – the maximum population size that the
environment can support without deterioration.
1. Food – an organic substance that sustain the physiological
needs of living organisms.
a. Nutritional requirements
b. Effects on plants
c. Dietary needs
d. Seasonal changes in food values
e. Disturbance of vegetation and food production
f. Improvement of food supplies
2. Cover
3. Water
4. Quantity versus interspersion
Most frequently it is not the quantity of any one of the components of
habitat that limits the numbers and distribution of animals, but rather
its degree of interspersion or spatial relationship to other
requirements. Within Law of interspersion states that the density of
wildlife species is directly proportional to the amount of edge for all
species of low mobility that require more than one vegetative type.
5. Limiting factors
Justus Liebig devised the concept of the Law of
the Minimum. He stated that the growth of a plant is
dependent on the amount of foodstuff which is
presented to it in minimum quantity. In other words,
in proportion to the needs of an organism, the
requirement that is present in minimum amounts is a
limiting factor. Thus if all other requirements are
present in adequate amounts but water is scarce,
water will be the limiting factor. To improve the living
conditions of the organisms, water should be
supplied.
Population Growth Curves
• Exponential Growth (J-shaped curve)
• Logistic Growth (S-shaped curve)
Population Ecology
• Population ecology is the study of populations.
• Population = group of individuals of the same species occupying a common
geographical area
• Habitat = where a species normally lives
• Density = The number of individuals in a population per unit area.
Effects of population density on growth in open
systems:

• Density-independent growth - size of population is

not a factor in determining the resulting population
size overall;
• population size, however, stays about the same as
when it began.
• Most density-independent factors are abiotic.
• Examples: temperature, storms, floods, drought,
habitat destruction
Effects of population density on growth in
open systems:
• Density dependent growth - size of the population is a factor in
determining the resulting population size overall;
• exponential growth can occur if adequate resources are available
and range expansion can occur as in an open system.
• Disease is spread more quickly
• Stress can lead to aggression
Population growth

Populations grow, shrink, or remain stable,

depending on rates of birth, death, immigration,
and emigration.

(birth rate + immigration rate) – (death rate + emigration rate) =

population growth rate
Exponential growth in a growth curve
•Population
growth curves
show change in
population size
over time.

•Scots pine shows

exponential
growth

Figure 5.10
Limits on Growth

•Limiting factors restrain exponential population growth, slowing the

growth rate down.

•Population growth levels off at a carrying capacity—the maximum

population size of a given species an environment can sustain.

•Initial exponential growth, slowing, and stabilizing at carrying

capacity is shown by a logistic growth curve.
Logistic growth curve

Figure 5.11
Habitat Improvement

1. Planting of economic and palatable plant

species
2. Windbreak establishment
3. Regulation of population based on the carrying
capacity
4. Maintenance of specific forest cover types
5. Application of various cultural practices
Ethological Characteristics of Wildlife
Ethology – the scientific study of animal behavior. The different animal
behavior where each species differs from the others are:
A. Maintenance behavior
1. Feeding – includes grazing, browsing, sucking, boring, siphoning,
etc.
2. Bathing – includes swimming in the watery places and submerging
into the muddy places.
3. Sleeping – some animals lie down on the ground or creep on flat
surfaces when they sleep.
4. Walking, running or flying – applies to those animals that have a
daily requirement of traveling or required travel radius.
B. Social Behavior (Gregariousness)
1. Playing
Majority of animal species play with individuals belonging to the
same species. However, some species have that attitude to extend
their gregariousness to individuals of different species.
2. Imitating
Principally animals, especially young individuals, are fond of
imitation. Imitation on the position while sleeping , standing, etc.,
the manner of eating, sexual contact and others.
C. Sexual behavior (breeding habit)
1. Courtship – involves hugging, kissing, eating and walking together.
2. Mating habit (basic system of mating)
a. Monogamy – a persistent pair bond formed
between one male and one female.
b. Polygamy – involves a bond between a single
member of one sex and several individuals of the
other sex. This practice is further described as:
b.1. Polygyny – a mating habit in which one male
has a harem of sexual partners.
b.2. Polyandry – a mating habit in which one
female has several male consorts.
C. Promiscuity – a mating system wherein both
individuals meet for copulation but no continuity on their
relationship is established. This is the usual condition among
smaller mammals and also occurs in some birds.
D. Agonistic behavior – includes fleeing, fighting and other
related acts just to defend himself or the territory under attack.
E. Care-giving behavior – includes individual and parental care to
their offsprings and/or to their mate partners.
Wildlife Population

Population – a group of organisms occupying a particular

space living together and exchange genetic information.
Every animal belongs to a population, and each individual is
influence by the size and characteristics and the social
groupings within that population.
a. Characteristics of wildlife population
The conservation, destruction and management of
wild animals demands that we be interested in wildlife
populations and the ways in which these respond to
changes in the environment. Therefore, population is the
basic unit of management.
Characteristics of wildlife populations can be measured through:
Density and biomass
Density – expressed as individuals per unit area.
Density is difficult to measure in two ways:
1. Difficult to count wild animals
2. Difficult to determine the area occupied
Biomass is usually substitute for density. To determine
this we calculate the weight of animal life supported
per unit of area. The biomass of animals supported at
a particular time is sometimes known as the standing
crop.
Population Structure

1. Natality – the number of new individuals produced per unit of

time per breeding individual in the population.
Factors affecting natality includes:
a. Clutch size a litter size
b. Number of litters or clutches per year
c. Breeding age
d. Set ratio and mating habit
e. density and breeding
f. Maximum natality
2. Mortality – the death rate.
Factors affecting mortality includes:
a. Predation e. Starvation
b. Diseases & parasite f. Stress
c. Accidents g. Hunting
d. Weather h. Overall effects of mortality

Density dependent – the amount of mortality increases in direct

proportion to the population density, so that at a higher density not only will
more individuals die, but a higher percentage of the population will die.
Density independent – mortality is not related in its effects to the
number of individuals in the population.
 Interaction of Population Characteristics
1. Biotic potential – represents the maximum sustained rate of natality and a
maximum rate of mortality.
2. Environmental factor
a. Turnover
When environmental resistance balances biotic potential, a population
is stable.
Turnover – the rate at which a replacement of old individuals by new
individuals takes place.
Environmental resistance – it represents the resistance of only environment
to the unlimited increase of a species population.
b. Productivity and yield
Productivity is usually measured as the rate at which animal populations
produce new individual of breeding age.
 Wildlife Territory and Travels
Movements Internal to the Population Range
1. Migration – a two-way movement within the area normally occupied
by a species population.
2. Home range
a. Center of activity – any activities that frequently take in a
center around some favored ground, an area in which it
rests or sleeps and perhaps a patch of cover in which it
feels secure from enemies and with small area.
b. Home range – an area in which individual animal spends
all or most of its time.
Movements External to the Population Range
a. Emmigration – movement of individual out of
the area.
b. Immigration – movement of individual into the
area.
Group size and spacing
Territory – exclusive occupancy of an area.
 Methods for Studying Wildlife
Basic considerations in studying wildlife:
1. Field notes
2. Maps
3. Taxonomy
4. Statistical considerations
Most field studies involve sampling. This include
the parameters – definite size, number of animals and a
mean density – average number of animals per square
mile occupied.
Definition of Terms

The Protected Areas – areas with legally defined boundaries,

established to afford protection and conservation to significant
natural and cultural features. It embodies the different habitat types
and wildlife as an Integral illustration of biological diversity.
The National Areas – areas of the public domain essentially of primitive
or wilderness character which has been withdrawn from settlement
or occupancy and set aside as such exclusively to preserve the
scenery, the natural historic objects, the wild animals or plants
therein and to provide enjoyment of these features in such a
manner as will leave them unimpaired for future generations.
Protected Areas
Protected Areas
National Areas
National Areas
National Areas
Definition of Terms

The Wilderness Areas – land of the public domain

which have been reserved as such by law to
preserve its natural condition, maintain its
hydrologic quality and restrict public use in the
interest of national welfare and security. This
includes protection forest, mossy forest, critical
watershed, proclaimed watershed reservation
and special forests which are the exclusive
habitats of rare and endangered Philippine flora
and fauna.
Wildlife Refuges and Sanctuaries
Forest land designated for the protection of game
animals, birds and fish, and closed to hunting and
fishing in order that excess population may flock and
restock the surrounding areas.
a. Wildlife refuge – a place that provides protection to
fauna species from their enemies and from distress.
b. Wildlife sanctuary – an area upon which hunting and
collecting of wildlife species are forbidden.
Other Reserves:
a. Forest reserves – those lands which have been
reserved by the President of the Philippines for
any specific purpose.
b. Civil military reservation – those lands which are
utilized for civil and military purposes.
Wildlife Laws
A. THE CONSTITUTIONAL MANDATE
The 1987 constitution adopts the Regalian Doctrine
on natural resources by mandating the state ownership of
all natural resources which includes fisheries, forest or
timber, wildlife, flora and fauna and other natural
resources. Furthermore, it has ordained that the boundaries
of forest and national parks must be marked clearly on the
ground and thereafter they shall be conserved and will not
be increased or decreased except by act of congress.
B. Laws Wildlife Resources Conservation:
a. Act No. 2590
An act for the protection of game animals and
fish. (February 4, 1916)
b. Act No. 3915
An act providing for the establishment of
National Parks, declaring such parks as game refuges
and other purposes. (February 1, 1931)
c. Act No. 3983
An act to protect wild flowers and plants in the
Philippine Islands and to prescribe conditions under which
they may be collected, kept, sold, exported and for other
purposes. (December 3, 1932).
d. Commonwealth Act No. 73
An act prohibiting the killing, hunting, wounding or
taking of Tamaraw. (October 23, 1936).
e. Republic Act No. 6147
An act declaring the Pithecophaga jefferyi commonly
known as Monkey-Eating Eagle as a protected bird in the
Philippines, providing for the preservation of the same and
authorizing the appropriation of funds for the purpose.
(November 9, 1970).
f. Presidential Proclamation No. 1732
Changing Monkey Eating Eagle to Philippine Eagle.
g. Presidential Proclamation No. 615
Declaring Philippine Eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi)
as Philippine National Bird. (July 4, 1995)
h. Presidential Decree No. 634
Reserving and declaring the Sta. Cruz Island in
Zamboanga City as National Park and for tourism
developments. (February 4, 1975)
i. Letter of Instructions No. 917
Wilderness Areas (August 22, 1979)
j. Letter of Instructions No. 1258
Re-examination of all National Parks, Wilderness
Areas, Tourism Areas, Resettlement Areas, and other
existing reservations. (July 28,1982).
k. Letter of Instruction No 1312 (April 23, 1983)
Mandating the establishment and development of
local government forest or tree parks all over the
Philippines.
l. DAO No. 36, Series 1991
Guidelines governing the confiscation, seizure and
disposition of wild flora and fauna illegally collected,
gathered acquired, transported and imported, including
paraphernalia. (July 26, 1991).
m. DAO No. 05, series of 1991
Regulating and prescribing fees for the use of
facilities inside National Parks and other protected areas.
(March 15, 1991)
n. Executive Order No. 542
Creating the Task Force Pawikan. (June 26, 1979)
o. MNR Administrative Order No. 12
Regulations concerning the conservation of marine
turtles in the Philippines and prohibiting the trade of
marine turtles or any of its by-products. (November 15,
1979)
p. MNR Memorandum Order No. 6
Suspending permits on marine turtle exploitation.
(April 29, 1982).
q. MNR Administrative Order No. 10
Establishing certain islands in the provinces of Tawi-
tawi, Palawan and Antique as marine turtle sanctuaries.
(June 14, 1982).
r. MNR Administrative Order No. 34
Declaring the Municipality of Caluya, Antique as a
marine turtle sanctuary. (June 21, 1982).
s. MNR Administrative Order No. 33
Regulating the collection of marine turtles eggs in the
province of Tawi-tawi and reiterating the duties and responsibilities
of Deputy Conservation Officers and Deputy Game Wardens.
(August 11,1982).
t. MNR Memorandum Order No. 1
Deputizing the provincial Governors and Vice-Governors ,
Municipal Mayors, Vice-Mayors, and Barangay Captains as
Conservation Officers in areas critical for the protection of marine
turtle throughout the Philippines. (January 21, 1983).
 90

Principles and Practice of Philippine Biodiversity

Biodiversity – the the variety of life in an area that is
determined by the total number of different species.
A lot of different species means a lot of biodiversity.
Biodiversity is good for the environment
An ecosystem with biodiversity is a healthy one
because it means that it is in balance and can support a lot
of different organism
The two areas with the greatest biodiversity are the
rainforest & coral reefs.
Biodiversity is good for humans because we get many different
products from many different organisms.
Food: meat, eggs, milk, veggies
Medicine: penicillin
Clothing: cotton & hemp
Wood: lumber & paper
Oxygen: from plants
• Protection: erosion, floods, good soil
• Balanced ecosystems with biodiversity looks nice!
Extinction (when a species is eliminated)  causes a decrease in
biodiversity.
Organisms have always naturally gone extinct BUT humans are
causing them to go extinct MUCH faster by destroying the
habitats organism live in…
• Bulldozing land to make houses, roads & buildings
• Polluting the land, water and air
• Chopping down forests for wood & paper
• Poaching animals
LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY:

• EXTINCT = the disappearance of a species when the last

member dies

• ENDANGERED = when numbers of a species become so low that

extinction is possible.
• THREATENED = when a species is likely to become endangered

• threatened  endangered  extinct

Threats to Biodiversity

• Habitat destruction / loss 

• One of the biggest threats!
• Ex. clearing the Amazonian rainforest for farming and for firewood

• Habitat fragmentation 
• The separation of wilderness areas from other wilderness areas
• This creates “islands” of habitat
Habitat degradation 

• Damage to a habitat caused by air, water, or land pollution

• Ex. Air pollution causes acid rain
• Ex. Air pollution has damaged the ozone
layer, which blocks UV radiation
• leads to more skin cancer
 Ex. Air pollution causes the Greenhouse
Effect, which leads to global warming