Unit Hydrograph

The Unit Hydrograph (UH) of a watershed is defined as the direct runoff hydrograph
resulting from a unit volume of excess rainfall of constant intensity and uniformly distributed
over the drain.
The duration of the unit volume of excess or effective rainfall, sometimes referred to as the
effective duration, defines and labels the particular unit hydrograph.
The unit volume is usually considered to be associated with 1 cm (1 inch) of effective rainfall
distributed uniformly over the basin area. age area.
 Traditionally the UH is expressed in:

 where Qn is the nth ordinate of the DRH, Pm is the volume of the mth rainfall pulse
expressed in units of equivalent depth (e.g., cm or in), and Un-m+1 is the (n-
m+1)th ordinate of the UH, expressed in units of m3/s/cm or ft3/s/in.

Ex. The ordinates of a 6-h unit hydrograph are given. A storm had 3 successive 6-h
intervals of rainfall magnitude of 3,5,4 cm respectivley. Assuming a Ø-index of 0.2cm/hr
and a baseflow of 30m3/s. determine the resulting hydrograph flow.

Time h Ordinate of 6hr

UH m3/s

0 0

6 250

12 600

18 800

24 700
 30 600

36 450

42 320

48 200

54 100

60 50

66 0

Time Rainfall losses

0-6hr 3cm 0.2x6=1.8cm

minus

6h-12h 5cm 0.2x6=3.8cm

12-18h 4cm 0.2x6=2.8cm

Time h Ordinate UH X UHx3.8 UH x Drh Base Total

of 6hr 1.8 2.8 cm flow
UH m3/s
0 0 0 0 30 30

6 250 450 0 450 30 480

12 600 1080 950 0 2030 30 2060

18 800 1440 2280 700 4420 30 4450

24 700 1260 3040 1680 5980 30 6010

30 600 1080 2660 2240 5980 30 6010

36 450 810 2280 1960 5050 30 5080

42 320 576 1710 1680 3966 30 3996

48 200 360 1216 1260 2836 30 2866

54 100 180 760 896 1836 30 1866

60 50 90 380 560 1030 30 1060

66 0 0 190 280 470 30 500

7000
6000
5000 Q
4000 UH x 1.8
3000 UH x 3.8
2000 UH x 2.8
1000 total
0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66

Ex. Given below are observed flows a storm of 6h duration on a stream with catchment area
of 500 km2. Assuming the baseflow to be zero. Derive the ordinates of the 6h unit
hydrograph.
Time h Discharge baseflow DRO UH
M3/s M3/s/cm

0 0 0 0 0

6 100 0 100 23.15

12 250 0 250 57.87

18 200 0 200 46.3

24 150 0 150 34.72

30 100 0 100 23.15

36 70 0 70 16.20

42 50 0 50 11.57

48 35 0 35 8.10

54 25 0 25 5.79
60 15 0 15 3.47

66 5 0 5 1.16

72 0 0 0 0

S-Hydrograph Method

The S-hydrograph method overcomes the restriction imposed by the lagging method and allows
of any duration unit hydrograph.
Example. Given the following 2-hr unit hydrograph, construct S-hydrograph

Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q (cfs) 0 100 250 200 100 50 0

Time(hr) 1st 2-hr 2nd 2-hr 3rd 2-hr 4th S-Hydrograph

0 0 0

1 100 100

2 250 0 250

3 200 100 300

4 100 250 0 350

5 50 200 100 350

6 0 100 250 0 350

7 50 200 100 350

8 0 100 250 350

INSTANTANEOUS UNIT HYDROGRAPH

The Instantaneous Unit Hydrograph (IUH) is the hydrograph of runoff that would result if 1
in. of water were spread uniformly over an area in an instant and then allowed to run off.

To develop an IUH, any I in./hr S-hydrograph must first be obtained. The resulting S-curve is
lagged by the interval ∆t to develop a ∆t –hour unit hydrograph. The resulting ∆t –hour unit
hydrograph becomes IUH when ∆t is set to 0.0 in the limit.
If a continuing I in./hr excess storm produces the original and lagged S-hydrographs, the ∆t –
hour unit hydrograph is the difference between the two curves, divided by the amount of excess
rain depth in ∆t hours, or
𝑄𝐴 −𝑄𝐵
𝑄𝑡 (∆t –hr UH) = (Eq. 1)
𝐼 ∆t

The 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝐵 differences are divided by I ∆t to convert from a storm with I ∆t inches in ∆t

hours to one with 1.0 in. in ∆t hours, which is the definition of a ∆t –hour unit graph.
As ∆t approaches zero, Eq. 1 becomes
1 𝑑𝑄
𝑄𝑡 (IUH) = (Eq. 2)
𝐼 𝑑𝑡

a. Unit Hydrograph

b. A sequence of 1-min storms

 c. Superposition runoff hydrographs for each of the 1-min storms. (After Schaake.)

If an IUH is supplied, the above process can be reversed, and any X-hour unit can be found by
averaging IUH flows at X-hr intervals, or

̃ 1 (IUH𝑡 + IUH𝑡−𝑋 )
𝑄𝑡 (X − hr UH) = (Eq. 3)
2

Example. Given the following 1.0in/hr S-hydrograph, determine the IUH, and then use it to estimate a 1-
hr UH.

Time(hr) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

S-curve 0 50 200 450 500 650 700 750 800

(cfs)

Solution. The IUH found from Eq. 2. The slope at time t

is approximated by (𝑄𝑡+0.5 − 𝑄𝑡−0.5 )/△ 𝑡
 Time S-Curve △𝑄
IUH =
̃ △t

0 0 0

0.5 50 200

1.0 200 400

1.5 450 300

2 500 200

2.5 650 200

3 700 100

3.5 750 100

4 800 50
4.5 800 0

5.0 800 0

The 1-hr UH is obtained from Eq 3. using readings 1-hr intervals:

Time IUH𝑡 IUHt−1 1-hr UH

0 0 0 0

1 400 0 200
2 200 400 300

3 100 200 150

4 50 100 75

5 0 50 25

6 0 0 0
 Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

A synthetic unit hydrograph retains all the features of the unit hydrograph, but does not require
rainfall-runoff data. A synthetic unit hydrograph is derived from theory and experience, and its
purpose is to simulate basin diffusion by estimating the basin lag based on a certain formula or
procedure.

The first synthetic unit hydrograph was developed by Snyder in 1938. 1 In order to provide
sufficient flexibility for simulating a wide range of diffusion amounts, Snyder devised two
parameters: (1) a time parameter Ct, and (2) a peak parameter Cp. A larger Ct meant a greater
basin lag and, consequently, greater diffusion. A larger Cp meant a greater peak flow and,
consequently, less diffusion.

Snyder’s Synthetic Unit Hydrograph

The synthetic unit hydrograph of Snyder (1938) is based on relationships found between three
characteristics of a standard unit hydrograph and descriptors of basin morphology. These
relationships are based on a study of 20 watersheds located in the Appalachian Highlands and
varying in size from 10 to 10,000 square miles. The hydrograph characteristics are the effective
rainfall duration, tr, the peak direct runoff rate, qp, and the basin lag time, tl. From these
relationships, five characteristics of a required unit hydrograph for a given effective rainfall
duration may be calculated (e.g., Chow et al., 1988; Bras, 1990): the peak discharge per unit of
watershed area, qpR, the basin lag, tlR, the base time, tb, and the widths, W (in time units) of the
unit hydrograph at 50 and 75 percent of the peak discharge.
1. Basin lag: tl = Ct (LLc )0.3

where tl = basin lag time (hr.)

Ct = coefficient for types and location of streams ranging
from 1.8 to 2.2
L = length of basin outlet to the basin divide (mile or km)
Lc = length along the mainstream to a point nearest to a
basin centroid (mile or km)

𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝒑 𝑨
2. Peak Discharge: Qp = 𝒕𝒍
where Qp = peak discharge (m3/s or ft3/s)
 A = drainage area (mi2 or km2)
Cp = storage coefficient ranging from 0.56 to 0.69
C2 = 2.78 if metric system and 640 if English system

𝒕
3. Time base: tb = 3 + ( 𝟖𝒍)

where tb = time base (days)

𝒕
4. Duration of excess rainfall: tr = 𝟓.𝟓𝒍
where tr = standard duration of excess rainfall (hr.)

𝒕 −𝒕
5. Adjusted lag time: tla = tl + ( 𝑹𝟒 𝒓 )
𝟐𝟏 𝒕𝑹
tla = 𝟐𝟐 𝒕𝒍 + 𝟒

where tla = adjusted lag time (hr.)

tR = desired duration (hr.)

𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝒑 𝑨
6. Adjusted peak flow: Qpa = 𝒕𝒍𝒂

𝑸𝒑
7. Width at 50% of peak discharge : W50 = Cw ( 𝑨 )-1.08
where Cw = 2.14 in metric system and 770 English system

𝑸𝒑
Width at 75% of peak discharge : W75 = Cw ( 𝑨 )-1.08
where Cw = 1.22 in metric system and 440 in English system
Usually, 1/3 of its width is distributed before the peak time and 2/3 after the peak time

𝒕𝑹
8. Time to peak: Tp = + tla
𝟐
where Tp = time to peak (hr.)
Sample Problem:

Characteristics of two catchments M and N measured from a map are given below.

For the 6-h unit hydrograph in catchment M, the peak discharge is at 200 m3/s and occurs at 37 h
from the start of the rainfall excess. Assuming the catchments M and N are meteorologically
similar; determine the elements of the 6-h synthetic unit hydrograph for catchment N by using
Snyder’s method.

Item Catchment M Catchment N

Lca 76 km 52 km

L 148 km 106 km

A 2718 km2 1400 km2

For catchment M
Qp = 200 m3/s
Tp =37h
tR = 6h

Solution:
𝑡𝑅 21 𝑡𝑅 C2 Cp A
TP = + tla tla = 22 tl + tl = Ct (LLc )0.3 Qp =
2 4 tl
6 21 6 0.3 2.78 Cp (2718)
37 = 2 + tla 34 = 22 tl + 4 34.048 = Ct (76×148) 200 = 34.048

tla = 34h tl = 34.048h Ct =2.074 Cp = 0.901

For catchment N
Qpa -1.08
tl = Ct (LLc )0.3 W50 = Cw ( )
A

126.367 -1.08
tl = (2.074) (106× 52)0.3 W50 = 2.14 ( )
1400
tl = 27.5h W50 = 28.739h

t Qpa -1.08
tr = 5.5l W75 = Cw ( )
A

27.5 126.367 -1.08

tr = W75 = 1.22( )
5.5 1400

tr = 5h W75 = 16.384h

𝑡𝑅 −𝑡𝑟 t
tla = tl + ( ) tb = 3 + ( 8la)
4

6−5 27.75
tla = 27.5 + ( ) tb = 3 + ( )
4 8

24hr
tla = 27.75h tb = 6.5 days × = 156h
1 day

C2 Cp A 𝑡𝑅
Qpa = Tp = + tla
tla 2

2.78(0.901)(1400) 6
Qpa = Tp = 2 + 27.75
27.75

Qpa = 126.367 m3/s Tp = 30.75h

Point Time(hr.) Flow(m3/s)

O 0 0

A 21.2 63.2

B 25.3 94.8

C 30.75 126.367

D 41.7 94.8

E 49.9 63.2

F 156 0
SCS Synthetic Unit hydrograph

The SCS synthetic unit hydrograph is the dimensionless unit hydrograph developed by
Victor Mockus in the 1950’s. This hydrograph was developed based on the analysis of a large
number of natural unit hydrographs from a wide range of catchment sizes and geographic
locations. The method has come to be recognized as the SCS synthetic unit hydrograph and has
been applied to midsize catchments throughout the world. It uses a constant ratio of actual time
base to time-to-peak, tb/tp=5. The method requires only the determination of the time peak and
the peak discharge.

To calculate catchment lag, SCS method uses the following two methods: (1) the curve
number method and (2) the velocity method. The curve number method is limited to catchments
of areas less than 16 km2.

In the curve number method, the lag is expressed by the following formula:

𝐿0.8 (2540−22.86𝐶𝑁)0.7
tl = (Metric system) ………. (eqtn.1)
14104𝐶𝑁 0.7 𝑌 0.5

𝐿0.8 (1000−9𝐶𝑁)0.7
tl = (English system) ………. (eqtn.2)
1900𝐶𝑁 0.7 𝑌 0.5

in which tl = catchment lag in hours; L = hydraulic length (m or ft); CN = runoff curve number;
and Y = average catchment slope.

The velocity method is used for catchments larger than 16km2, or for curve numbers
outside the range of 50-95. The lag is estimated as:

tl = 0.6 tc …………………. (eqtn.3)

in which tl = lag and tc = concentration time.

 In the SCS method the ratio of time-to-peak to unit hydrograph duration is fixed at

𝑡𝑝
=5 …………………. (eqtn.4)
𝑡𝑟

Assuming uniform effective rainfall for simplicity, the time-to-peak is by definition equal
to
𝑡𝑟
tp = + tl …………………. (eqtn.5)
2

eliminating tr from eqtns. 4 and 5, lead to

𝑡𝑝 10
= ………………. (eqtn.6)
𝑡𝑙 9

Therefore:

𝑡𝑟 2
=9 …………………. (eqtn.7)
𝑡𝑙

and

𝑡𝑟 2
= 15 ………………….. (eqtn.8)
𝑡𝑐

given eqtns. 3and 5 the time-to-peak can be calculated as:

tp = 0.5tr + 0.6tc …………………. (eqtn.9)

 The peak flow
formula is given
as:

2.08𝐴
Qp = 𝑡𝑝
(metric system)
………………
(eqtn.10)

484𝐴
Qp = 𝑡𝑝
(English system)
………….
(eqtn.11)

in which Qp = unit hydrograph peak flow(m3/s or ft3/s); A = catchment area(km2 or mi2); and tp =
time-to-peak(hr.).
Example:

Calculate the SCS synthetic unit hydrograph for a 6.42 km2 catchment with the following data:
Hydraulic length L = 2204m; runoff curve number CN = 62; average land slope Y = 0.02.

Solution:

𝐿0.8 (2540−22.86𝐶𝑁)0.7 𝑡𝑏
tl = =5
14104𝐶𝑁0.7 𝑌 0.5 𝑡𝑝
22040.8 (2540−22.86×62)0.7
tl = tb = 5(2)
14104(62)0.7 (0.02)0.5

tb = 10h

tl = 1.8h

𝑡𝑝 10 2.08𝐴
= Qp =
𝑡𝑙 9 𝑡𝑝
10 2.08(6.42)
tp = (1.8) Qp =
9 2

tp = 2h Qp = 6.68 m3/s
 FLOOD ROUTING TECHNIQUES
Flow Routing
Flood routing is the technique of determining the flood hydrograph at a section of a
river by utilizing the data of flood flow at one or more upstream sections. The hydrologic
analysis of problems such as flood forecasting, flood protection, reservoir design and
spillway design invariably include flood routing.
Flow routing is a procedure to estimate downstream hydrograph from upstream
hydrograph. Since flow routing has been widely used in flood estimations, flow routing is
usually called flood routing. The routed hydrograph is delayed by a time lag (translation)
and is attenuated. Flow routing is divided into river flow routing and reservoir flow
routing.

Basic Equations

From the conservation of mass, water balance for a system in Figure 2 can be expressed as

𝑑𝑆
𝐼−𝑂 = . . . . . . 𝑒𝑞. (1)
𝑑𝑡
where I is upstream inflow, O is downstream outflow, S is the storage (reservoir or a river
reach). In practical calculation, it is more convenient to use a finite difference form of eq(1)
for a ∆t duration. The mean values for the inflow and outflow are used instead of the
instantaneous value.
 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝑂1 + 𝑂2 𝑆2 + 𝑆1
− =
2 2 ∆𝑡

To estimate the downstream outflow, it is also necessary to get the storage function that
links the input and output
𝑆 = 𝑓(𝐼, 𝑂)
It is then possible to solve the outflow.

2 Types of flow routing

1. Lumped/hydrologic

 Flow is calculated as a function of time alone at a particular location

 Governed by continuity equation and flow/storage relationship
2. Distributed/hydraulic

 Flow is calculated as a function of space and time throughout the system

 Governed by continuity and momentum equations
Applications of hydrologic routing techniques to problems of flood prediction, evaluations
of flood control measures, and assessments of the effects of urbanizations are numerous.

Most flood warning system instituted by NOAA and the Corps of engineers incorporate this
technique to predict flood stages in advance of a severe storm. It is the method most
frequently used to size spillways for small, intermediate, and large dams.

HYDROLOGIC RESERVOIR FLOW ROUTING (Level Pool Routing Method)

Reservoir storage is closely related to the outflow rate. In reservoir routing methods, the storage-
discharge relation is used for repeatedly solving the continuity equation, each solution being a
step in delineating the outflow hydrograph. A reservoir routing method is suited for channel
routings if the channel has certain reservoir-like characteristics. Suitable channels are those with
wetlands or other flat areas in the routing reach with a constriction or similar control at the foot
of the reach. Reservoir routing methods are also suitable for routing through any stream reach if
the inflow hydrograph rises and falls so slowly that nearly steady flow occurs and makes storage
in the reach closely related to the outflow rate.
The equation of continuity used in all hydrologic routing as the primary equation states that the
difference between the inflow and outflow rate is equal to the rate of change of storage, i.e.
When a reservoir has a horizontal water surface elevation, the storage function is a function of its
water surface elevation or depth in the pool. The outflow is also a function of the water surface
elevation, or head on the outlet works.
S=f (Q)
where S= storage and Q= Outflow
The peak or the maximum outflow occurs when the outflow hydrograph intersects the inflow
hydrograph which is shown below.

Lag

ATTENUATION. The peak of the outflow hydrograph will be smaller than of the inflow
hydrograph. This reduction in the peak value is called attenuation.
TIME LAG. The peak of the outflow occurs after the peak of the inflow; the time difference
between the two peaks is known as lag. The attenuation and lag of a flood hydrograph at a
reservoir are two very important aspects of a reservoir operating under a flood-control criteria.

The continuity equation used in reservoir routing methods is that for the conservation of mass:
for a given time interval, the volume of inflow minus the volume of outflow equals the change in
volume of storage. The principal assumption is that the water in the reservoir is level (Level Pool
Routing). The equation is often written in the simple form:

Δt (Ī - Ō) = ΔS

Where:
 ∆t = time interval, t 2 − t1

t1 = time at the beginning of the time interval

t 2 = time at the end of the time interval

Ī = average rate of inflow during the time interval

Ō = average rate of outflow during the time interval

∆S = change in volume of storage during the time interval

In most applications of the continuity equation, the flow and storage variables are expanded as
follows:

I1 +I2
Ī =
2

O1 +O2
Ō=
2

ΔS = S2 − S1

The Storage-Indication method is a level pool routing procedure for calculating the outflow
hydrograph of a system with horizontal water surface, given its inflow hydrograph, and storage
outflow characteristics. The solution involves integrating the continuity equation as indicated
below, and rearranging terms such that all the unknown quantities are on the left-hand side of the
equation.
 dS
 I (t )  Q(t )
dt
S j 1 ( j 1) t ( j 1) t
 dS   Idt   Qdt
Sj jt jt

S j 1  S j I j 1  I j Q j 1  Q j
 
t 2 2
2S j 1 2S j
 Q j 1  I j 1  I j  Qj
t t
Unknown Known

Storage-Indication Routing Equation:

2 S j 1 2S j
 Q j 1  I j 1  I j  Qj
t t
For a level pool reservoir, the storage is a unique function of elevation; and the outflow is a
unique function of elevation. Thus, the left-hand side of the equation above is a unique function
of elevation in the system, only. Usually, the storage-elevation relationship is available from
topographic surveys, and the outflow-elevation relationship is available from hydraulic
considerations with respect to the outlet structures (e.g. spillways, etc.)

Q/H Relationships

Program for Routing Flow through an NRCS Reservoir

In reservoir routing, the following data are known:

(i) Elevation vs Storage

 (ii) Elevation vs Outflow discharge and hence storage vs outflow
discharge
(iii) Inflow hydrograph, and
(iv) Initial values of inflow, outflow O, and storage S at time t = 0.

Level Pool Routing - Example

Use the Storage-Indication Method to route the Input hydrograph tabulated below.
This hydrograph flows into a reservoir whose storage and discharge characteristics are as
presented in the following table. The initial storage in the system is 1,000,000 m3, and the initial
outflow is 20 m3/s.
The solution involves the development of the function 2S/ Δt + O = f (O) and then solving it
sequentially for every time step. These steps are illustrated below.
A. Develop the function 2S/ Δt + O vs. O. Use a Δt of 6 hours, as suggested by the time interval of
the inflow hydrograph.
In the table above, Columns 1-3 are given. Columns 2 and 5 correspond to the desired
function, 2S/ Δt + O vs. O, which has been graphed above.

B. Proceed with the routing of the inflow hydrograph by using the Storage-Indication routing
equation sequentially for every time step.

Using the relationship (2S/ Δt + O) vs. O developed in Part A, obtain the outflow
O1 corresponding to the value of (2S1 / Δt + O1) obtained above. This is done by entering the
graph with the value of (2S1 /Δt + O1) and exiting with the value of O1. Use interpolation as
indicated below.

Using the relationship (2S/ Δt + O) vs. O developed in Part A, obtain the outflow
O2 corresponding to the value of (2S2 / Δt + O2) obtained above. This is done by entering the
graph with the value of (2S2 /Δt + O2) and exiting with the value of O2. Use interpolation as
indicated below.
Proceed as above for every time step. Results are tabulated below.
Outflow hydrograph using level pool method
River Flow Routing (The Muskingum Method)

The storage function in a river reach is linked with both inflow and outflow.

where K is the storage time constant for the reach, X is a weighing factor ( between 0~
0.5, usually around 0.2).
Estimation K of and X

Example.

The following inflow and outflow hydrographs were observed in a river reach.
Estimate the values of K and x applicable to this reach for use in the muskingnum equation

Time 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66

Inflow 5 20 50 50 32 22 15 10 7 5 5 5

(m3/s)

Outflow 5 6 12 29 38 35 29 23 17 13 9 7

(m3/s)
 Solution: using the increment Δt=6h, the calculations are performed in a tabular manner.
The incremental storage ΔS and S are calculated in columns 6 and 7 respectively. It is
advantageous to use the units [(m3/s)] for storage terms

Time I O(m3/s) (I-O) Average ΔS= S=Δs X=0.35 X=0.30 X=0.25

(m3/s) age (average
(h) age x
(I-O) t

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10

0 5 5 0 0 5.0 5.0 5.0

7.0 42

6 20 6 14 42 10.9 10.2 9.5

26.0 156

12 50 12 38 198 25.3 23.4 21.5

29.5 177

18 50 29 21 375 36.4 35.3 34.3

7.5 45

24 32 38 -6 420 35.9 36.2 36.5

-9.5 -57

30 22 35 -13 363 30.5 31.1 31.8

-13.5 -81

36 15 29 -14 282 24.1 24.8 25.5

-13.5 -81

42 10 23 -13 201 18.5 19.1 19.8

-11.5 -69
48 7 17 -10 132 13.5 14.0 14.5

-9.0 -54

54 5 13 -8 78 10.2 10.6 11

-6.0 -36

60 5 9 -4 42 7.6 7.8 8.0

-.3.0 -18

66 5 7 -2 24 6.3 6.4 6.5

SAINT VENANT EQUATIONS
\Saint Venant Equations
- The Saint Venant Equations were formulated in the 19th century by two
mathematicians, de Saint Venant and Bousinnesque.
- The solution of the St. Venant equations is known as dynamic routing, which is
generally the standard to which other methods are measured or compared.
Continuity Equation

Q A
 0
x t
Momentum Equation

1 Q 1   Q 2  y
    g  g ( So  S f )  0
A t A x  A  x
Where:
Q = Discharge through the channel
A = Area of cross-section of flow
y = Depth of flow
S0 = Channel bottom slope
Sf = Friction slope
Assumptions for St. Venant Equation
• Flow is one-dimensional
• Hydrostatic pressure prevails and vertical accelerations are negligible
• Streamline curvature is small.
• Bottom slope of the channel is small.
• Manning’s equation is used to describe resistance effects
• The fluid is incompressible
• Channel boundaries are considered fixed and therefore
not susceptible to erosion or deposition.
Elevation View
Elevation View
CONTINUITY EQUATION
1-D Open channel flow
Q = inflow to the control volume
q = lateral inflow
Q
x Rate of change of flow with distance.

Q
Q dx
x Outflow from the C.V. Plan View
 ( Adx)
t Change in mass

In 1-D open channel flow continuity equation becomes,

Q A
 0 Conservation form
x t
 (Vy) y
 0 Non-conservation form
x t (velocity is dependent
variable)

y V y
V y  0
x x t
Example:
Calculate the inlet velocity Vin from the diagram shown.

MOMENTUM EQUATION
• The change in momentum of a body of water in a flowing channel is equal to the
resultant of all the external forces acting on that body.
Conservation of Momentum
• This law states that the rate of change of momentum in the control volume is equal to the
net forces acting on the control volume.
• Since the water under consideration is moving, it is acted upon by external forces which
will lead to the Newton’s second law.