Be Mining Geology - 1 Notes

ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,
BENGALURU 560107
MODULE - 1
INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE

1.1Introduction
Geology is a branch of science dealing with the study of the Earth (from Greek, Geo = Earth,
Logos = Science). So Geology is the science of the earth. The word was first used in 1778 in
the work of Jean Andrea de Luc (a Swiss-born scientist). The study of the earth comprises of
the whole earth, its origin, structure, composition and history (including the development of
life) and the nature of the processes. Much of the knowledge discovered about the earth
comes from the study of minerals, rocks, and fossils found in the layers of the earth’s crust.
Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth, as it provides the primary evidence
for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life, and past climates. In modern times,
geology is commercially important for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation
and for evaluating water resources. It is publicly important for the prediction and
understanding of natural hazards, the remediations of environmental problems and for
providing insights into past climate change. Geology plays a role in geotechnical engineering
and is a major academic discipline.
1.2 Different Branches of Geology
For studying the earth in detail, the subject of Geology has been divided into various branches
as follows:
Civil Engineering Geology Mining Geology
Crystallography Paleontology
Economic Geology Petrology
Historical Geology Photo geology
Hydrogeology Physical Geology
Indian Geology Stratigraphy
NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING, AIT.
BENGALURU 560107
Mineralogy Structural Geology
Civil Engineering Geology
It is rather a new field of applied sciences that has developed due to interaction between the
geological sciences and civil engineering practice. It is a branch of geology deals with "all the
geological problems. Those arise in the field of civil engineering along with suitable
treatments”. Thus; it includes the construction of dams, tunnels, mountain roads, building
stones and road metals.
Crystallography
Crystallography is a branch of science that deals with the geometric forms of crystals. How to
describe, classify and measure such forms are the first questions of crystallography. Revealing
the forces that made them and the activities within them are the modern directions of the
field. Crystallography is essential to progress in the applied sciences and technology and
developments in all materials areas, including metals and alloys, ceramics, glasses, and
polymers, as well as drug design.
Economic Geology
As a branch of Geology, it deals with the study of those minerals, rocks and materials
occurring in the earth which can be exploited for the benefit of the man. These include a wide
variety of ores of all the metals, non-ores like building stones, rock salt, economic importance
minerals like coal and petroleum and atomic minerals. Mode of occurrence, principles of
formation, properties, structural and other controls that help in the extraction of these
materials at economical costs are important field of study under economic geology .
Historical Geology
As a branch of geology, it includes the past history of the earth as deciphered from the rocks.
Rocks may be treated as pages of the earth history. They contain within them evidence in the
form of nature of their formation, composition, constitution, magnetism and in some cases
the study of both Stratigraphy and paleontology, which when interpreted properly can reveal
a lot about the past history of the planet. Its use in civil engineering is to know about the
land and seas, the climates, biological and environmental conditions prevailing during the
formation of these rocks in and around the areas of their occurrence.
BENGALURU 560107
Hydrogeology
As a branch of geology, it deals with the study of water in the ground, can also be grouped
under economic geology. This branch essentially deals with the occurrence of groundwater,
the factors governing its availability or scarcity and so on. Hydrogeological parameters play
an important role in the occurrence and movement of groundwater. Groundwater is the major
problem in the majority of civil engineering works. The engineering geologist duties in detail
the occurrence, movement, structural controls and hydrogeological properties of the rocks.
Hydrogeological maps are prepared for civil engineering purposes.
Indian geology
As a branch of geology, it deals with the study of our motherland in connection with the
coal/petroleum, physiographic, Stratigraphy and economic mineral of India.
Mineralogy
As a branch of Geology, it deals with formation, occurrence, aggregation, properties and

uses of minerals. The study of mineralogy is most important.
 For a civil engineering student to identify the rocks.

 In industries such as cement, iron and steel, fertilizers, glass industry and so on.
 In the production of atomic energy.
Mining Geology
As a branch of geology, it deals with the study of application of geology to mining

engineering in such a way that the selection of suitable sites for quarrying and mines can be
determined".
Paleontology
As a branch of geology, it deals with the study of fossils and the ancient remains of plants
and animals are referred to as fossils. Fossils are useful in the study of evolution and
migration of animals and plants through ages, ancient geography and climate of an area.

BENGALURU 560107
Petrology
As a branch of Geology it deals with the study of rocks. A rock is defined as the aggregation
of minerals found in the earth’s crust. The study of petrology is most important for a civil
engineer, in the selection of suitable rocks for building stones, road metals, etc.
Physical geology
As a branch of geology, it deals with the study of various processes of physical agents such
as wind, water, glaciers and sea waves, run on these agents go on modifying the surface of
the earth continuously. Physical geology includes the study of Erosion, Transportation and
Deposition (ETD). The Study of physical geology plays a vital role in civil engineering thus:
 It reveals constructive and destructive processes of physical agents at a particular site.

 It helps in selecting a suitable site for different types of project to be under taken after
studying the effects of physical agents which go on modifying the surface of the earth
physically, chemically and mechanically.
Stratigraphy
As a branch of geology it deals with the study of stratified rocks and their correlation.
Structural Geology
As a branch of geology, it deals with the geometrical relationships of rocks and geologic
features in general. Most geological features have an aspect that pertains to their geometrical
or spatial relationships and are therefore properly included in the domain of structural
geology. Structural geology is an arrangement of rocks and plays an important role in civil
engineering in the selection of suitable sites for all types of projects such as dams, tunnels,
multistoried buildings, etc.
1.3 Relationship of Geology with other Branches of Science and

Engineering
In order to carry out civil engineering projects safely and successfully, geology should be
related to the other branches of bordering sciences as described below
Geochemistry

BENGALURU 560107
It is a branch of science deals with chemical constitution of the earth as a whole and also
parts. It studies specifically the distribution and relative abundance of different elements and
compounds on and within the earth.
Geophysics
As a branch of science, it is related with geology in such a way. That it concerns with the
constitution of the earth and the nature of the physical forces operating on within the earth.
The important subjects of the study in geophysics include geomagnetism, geoelectricity,
geothermometry, geocosmogony and seismology. Identification of water and oil bearing
strata below the surface of the earth falls almost entirely in geophysics.
Geohydrology
As a branch of science, it is related with geology in setting of ground water. In other words,
geohydrology is an interaction between Geology and Hydrology.
Rock Mechanics
As a branch of science, it is related with geology in dealing with the behaviour of rocks. That
is subjected to static and dynamic loads (force fields).
Mining Engineering
Geology is related to mining engineering in dealing with the formation and distribution of
economic minerals and response to fracturing processes. With out the knowledge of structural
features of rock masses and mode of occurrence and mineral deposits, a mining engineer
cannot determine the method of mining.
Civil Engineering
Before constructing roads, bridges, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs and buildings, selection of site
is important from the viewpoint of stability of foundation and availability of construction
materials. Geology of area is important and rock-forming region, their physical nature,
permeability, faults, joints, etc. Thus, geology is related to civil engineering in construction
jobs with economy and success.

BENGALURU 560107
1.4 Scope of Engineering Geology
It may be defined as that branch of applied sciences which deals with the application of
geology for a safe, stable and economical design and contraction of a civil engineering project.
It is now recognized as a well established interdisciplinary subject. In qualifying for a career
as a civil engineer, grasp of fundamentals of engineering geology is now almost universally
regard as basic and important as that of soil mechanics, strength of material or theory of
structures. A well established interdisciplinary branch of Applied Science and Engineering has
a scope in different fields as outlined below.
Civil Engineering
Geology provides necessary information about the site of construction materials used in the
construction of buildings, dams, tunnels, tanks, reservoirs, highways and bridges. Geological
information is most important in planning phase (stage), design phase and construction phase
of an engineering project.
Mining Engineering
Geology is useful to know the method of mining of rock and mineral deposits on earth’s
surface and subsurface.
Groundwater
Groundwater is the major problem in the majority of engineering works. The engineering
geologist studies in detail in various aspects of resources and supply, storage, filling up of
reservoirs, pollution disposal and contaminated water disposal.
Land pollution
Land pollution is the contamination of the land through the dumping of waste and garbage
and the introduction of toxins into the environment. Acid rain, the spreading of water
pollution to surrounding beaches and river banks, litter and even new construction sites can
all be sources of land pollution.
Oceanography

BENGALURU 560107
Oceanography may be aptly described as the youngest of sciences dealing with exclusive by
the oceans. The important aspects which have to be studied with regards to the ocean are
their geological history physical behavior and their life content, chemical composition of the
waters and of their economic potential. In each of the below mentioned fields Geology has to
deal with an integral part of the earth.
 Nuclear explosion
 Space exploration.
1.5Earth as a Planet
The earth is a planet belonging to the Solar system of the Milky Way Galaxy, with a natural
satellite and the moon. The nine planets revolving the sun have been named as Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto in the order of their increasing
distance from the sun. Based on their distance from the sun and other broad similarities, the
planets are classified in to two groups namely:
1. The inner or terrestrial planets: the earth or a planet that resembles the earth in its physical
characteristics. The terrestrial planets in the solar system are the earth, Mercury, Venus,
and Mars. These planets are approximately the same size, with the earth the largest. They
are considerably denser than the Jovian planets, ranging from a specific gravity of 4 for Mars
to 5.5 for the earth. Because they spin less rapidly than the Jovian planets, the terrestrial
planets are less flattened at their poles and less number of satellites.
2. The outer planets: Except for Pluto, the outer planets are alike in a lot of ways. They are
much bigger than the inner planets. They are made mostly of hydrogen and helium. The
hydrogen and helium are in the form of gas in the planets' atmospheres. The outer planets
have a lot of atmosphere. The outermost part of these planets may be slushy. Below the
surface, hydrogen and helium are in a liquid form. At the center is a rocky core. Each of these
huge planets has its own system of moons. Rings around Saturn have been seen for many
years. They are probably made mostly of water, ice, and other icy particles. Recently, rings
have been discovered around two more giant planets Jupiter and Uranus. Scientists expect to
find rings around Neptune too.

BENGALURU 560107
The mean distance of the earth from the Sun is computed as 149.6 million kilometers. It has
one moon. This commonly referred as one astronomical unit (1 AU). Earth is the third planet
from the Sun (fig.1.1). The planet on which we live is called the earth (table 1.1). There is a
lot of disagreement between the scientists regarding the shape of the earth. In recent times
a new phrase being used is that the earth is like a GEOID (Greek, Geo=earth, Oid= like) i.e.
our planet is like the earth. They believe that the interior of the earth is shrinking day by day.
This shrinkage may be either due to loss of heat or reorganization of molecules under
enormous pressure and high temperature. It is thus obvious that the outer portion must
shorten its circumference to adjust the shrunken interior. In fact, when we consider that the
oldest rocks so far discovered in the earth’s crust are 4000 million years old and the first fossil
of living organisms are about 3900 million years old.
Fig. 1.1 Structure of the Solar system.

BENGALURU 560107
1.5 Structures and Composition of Earth

The outer envelopes of the gaseous material surrounding the earth is called atmosphere.
Under the atmosphere is our earth on which we live. That part of the earth, which is in the
form of a land, is known as the earth's crust. It also includes the highest peaks of mountains
and floors of the oceans. Part of the land, which is visible on the Globe, is called the
Lithosphere (Greek, Litho = Stone).
We know that nearly 75% of the whole surface of the earth is covered with natural waters
like oceans, seas, Lakes Rivers, and etc. Which is in the form of, more or less; a continuous
envelope around the earth? This cover of water is called Hydrosphere (Greek,
Hudous=Water). Thus, Lithosphere and Hydrosphere in a combined form is known as the
Earth's crust. Under the Earth's crust is the interior of the Earth. It is further sub-divided in
to three shells: the crust, the mantle and the core. At the surface is the crust, ranging from
6 km thick in the oceans to 90 km in major mountain ranges. Depending up on the nature,
the material is made up as shown in the fig. 1.2.
Table 1.1 Earth statistics.
Mass (kg) 5.976e+24
Mass (Earth = 1) 1.0000e+00
Equatorial radius (km) 6,378.14
Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 1.0000e+00
Mean density (gm/cm^3) 5.515
Floor area of the sea (70.8%) (million sq kms) 381
Area of land (million sq kms) 149
Mean distance from the Sun (km) 149,600,000
Mean distance from the Sun (Earth = 1) 1.0000
Rotational period (days) 0.99727

BENGALURU 560107
Rotational period (hours) 23.9345
Orbital period (days) 365.256
Mean orbital velocity (km/sec) 29.79
Orbital eccentricity 0.0167
Tilt of axis (degrees) 23.45
Orbital inclination (degrees) 0.000
Equatorial escape velocity (km/sec) 11.18
Equatorial surface gravity (m/sec^2) 9.78
Visual geometricalbedo 0.37
Mean surface temperature 15°C
Atmospheric pressure (bars) 1.013
Atmospheric composition
77%
Nitrogen
Oxygen 21%
2%
Other
Crust
Earth is approximately 6,370 km in radius and geologists have access only to the outer few
kilometers, it is remarkable that they can claim to identify the structure and composition of
the interior. Although natural processes have brought up material (including diamonds) from
several hundred kilometers deep and scattered meteorites over the surface, the main means
of knowing what is at the centre rest on an understanding of seismology. Fortunately,
observation and inference yield a consistent picture, and one which implies how the present
structure has come about.
The earth is composed of different rocks. In an ordinary sense the term rock means something
hard and resistant but the meaning of the word has been extended so as to include all natural
substances of the Earth's crust, which may be hard like Granite or soft like clay and sand. It
has been estimated that 95% of the Earth's crust is made up of primary i.e., first formed
(Igneous) rocks which is mostly composed of Granite having Quartz, Feldspar, Biotite mica

BENGALURU 560107
and Hornblende in varying proportions. The remaining 5% of the crust is made up of

Secondary (Sedimentary or Metamorphic) rocks. The Earth's crust is in the form of a very
thin layer of solidified rocks and is heterogeneous in nature.
Fig. 1.2 Generalized structure of the Earth
Fig. 1.3 A cross-sectional view of Interior of the earth.

BENGALURU 560107
These rocks may be classified on the basis of their density in to the following two groups.
1. Sial- (Si = silicon and Al = Aluminum) having density 2.75 to 2.90).
2. Sima (Si = Silicon and Ma= Magnesium) having density 2.90 to 4.75.
It has been estimated that the Sial rocks are about 70% of the Earth’s crust, which include
chiefly Granite and silica. These rocks are generally on the upper regions of the crust.
Sima rocks include heavy and dark coloured rocks like Basalts. In these rocks, the percentage
of Silica is reduced and Magnesium attains the next importance in place of Aluminum of Sial
rocks. These rocks are generally found on the floors of the Oceans and beneath Sial rocks.
Mantle
It is the part of the earth below the crust and surrounding the core. The Imaginary line that
separates the lithosphere from the mantle is known as Moho (Mohorovicic discontinuity).
Because of high temperature and great pressure, the mineral matter in this part is the molten
condition.
Core
It is the innermost layer of the earth; it extends from below the mantle (Gutenberg
discontinuity) to the central part of the earth. On the basis of earthquake waves, the core has
been further divided into two cores
a) Outer core
b) Inner core
The outer core is 2,250 km. thick and surrounds the core. It is believed that outer core still
in molten condition.
The inner core is also called ‘Nife' because it consists of Nickel and iron. Its thickness is about
1,228 km. and very hard in nature.
Table 1.2 Thickness and composition of different layers of the earth

BENGALURU 560107
Layers of the earth Thickness Composition
1. Crust: Sial Sima 0 - 60 k.m. Silicon, Aluminum
Moho Mohorovicic Discontinuity Silicon, Magnesium
2. Mantle or Pyrosphere 60 - 2900 k.m. Silicon, Magnesium,
Lower Mantle Upper Gutenberg Discontinuity Iron and Nickel
Mantle
Core or Barysphere 2900 k.m. to 5150 k.m Nickel and Iron
Outer core or Mesosphere 5150 k.m. to 6378 k.m.
Inner core or Nife.
1.7 Highlights
 Geology as a branch of Natural Science is concerned with the Earth's surface as well as
sub-surface.
 Geology as a wide tree has the several branches such as Physical Geology,
Crystallography, Mineralogy, Petrology, Structural Geology, Stratigraphy, Paleontology,
Indian Geology, Civil Engineering Geology and Mining Geology.
 Geology plays a vital role in the field of civil engineering and choosing suitable sites for
reservoirs and in the construction of dams, tunnels and mountain roads, etc.
Question Bank
 How is Geology related to engineering? Discuss the scope and application of the
geological Knowledge in planning and execution of civil engineering works.
 Give different branches of Geology and their application to engineering.
 Discuss the importance of geology in the field of civil engineering.
 With a neat sketch explain the structure and composition of the earth?
 Write Short notes on
BENGALURU 560107
a) Crust b) Mantle c) Core d) Sial and Sima
MODULE-2
MINERALOGY
2.1 Introduction
Mineralogy is a branch of Geology deals with the study of minerals. The subject of mineralogy
attempts to study the various aspects of minerals. Mineralogy is a subset of geology
specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including
optical) properties of minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of
mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well
as their utilization.
The study of mineralogy includes the study of Physical characters (Physical Mineralogy),
Chemical characters (Chemical Mineralogy), Optical properties (Optical Mineralogy), Mode of
occurrence and the formation of minerals (X-Ray Mineralogy). Due to the advancement of
knowledge and improvement in techniques, Mineralogy also includes applied aspects.
A mineral can be defined as a naturally occurring, homogeneous solid, inorganically formed

having a definite chemical composition and ordered atomic arrangement.
According to this definition, a mineral will have the following characters: It must have formed
naturally; Minerals prepared in the laboratory by artificial method cannot be called minerals
in the true sense. Every mineral will be uniform or homogenous in composition. It must be a
solid, but the recent (latest) trend is to include coal and petroleum under minerals. But
majority of the minerals are solids. Inorganic processes form the minerals. Very rarely
formation of certain minerals like Quartz, calcite etc. has been observed in certain parts of
the human body, Eventhough such substances in the body possesses the characters of
minerals they cannot be called minerals. Every mineral will have a definite chemical
composition. For example - Quartz (SiO2), Graphite (C) Calcite (CaCO3) every mineral is
characterized by a definite internal atomic arrangement of an atom.

BENGALURU 560107
2.2 Physical Properties of Minerals or External Characters of Minerals
Minerals are characterized by a number of properties that can be observed externally. There
are approximately 4000 different minerals and each of those minerals has a unique set of
physical properties. Such characters are called physical properties. These include: color,
streak, hardness, luster, diaphaneity, specific gravity, cleavage, fracture, magnetism,
solubility and many more. The various physical properties can be studied under the
following different headings
1. Physical properties of minerals depending on Light, Crystal habit, Colour, Streak,

Diaphaneity, Luster.
2. Physical properties of minerals depending on state of aggregation, such as Cleavage,

Fracture, Hardness.
3. Physical properties of minerals depending on the specific gravity of the mineral.
4. Physical properties of minerals depending on certain senses, such as Taste, Feel and Odour
(Smell).
5. Special properties such as Dil. Hcl. test, Magnetism.
2. 1. Physical properties of minerals depending on Light
Crystal habit
In nature perfect crystals are rare. The faces that develop on a crystal depend on the space
available for the crystals to grow. If crystals grow into one another or in a restricted
environment, it is possible that no well-formed crystal faces will be developed. However,
crystals sometimes develop certain forms more commonly than others, although the
symmetry may not be readily apparent from these common forms. The term used to describe
general shape of a crystal is habit. Different terms have been used to describe the forms of
different minerals.
The important terms that are commonly used are:
a) Fibrous: when the mineral has a thread- like structure. Example: Asbestos.

BENGALURU 560107
b) Columnar: When the mineral has a thick or thin columnar structure. Example-
Hornblende.
c) Granular: When the mineral has numerous grains, coarse or fine Example: Calcite,
Chromite.
d) Crystalline: when the mineral has fine crystals packed together. Example: Galena,
Pyrite.
e) Massive: when the mineral has an irregular structure. Example- Feldspar.
f) Bladed: When a mineral appears to be composed of a blade- like structure. Example:
Kyanite.
g) Acicular: When the mineral consists of thin, sharp and slender needles as shown in the
figure. Example: Natrolite.
h) Botryoidal: Rounded aggregates of minerals like a bunch of grapes. Example:
Chalcedony.
i) Foliated: When the mineral consists of thin separable sheets. Example: Mica.
j) Radiating: When the fibers or needles are arranged around a central point. Example:
Iron Pyrite.
k) Tabular: The mineral is flat rather than elongated as shown in the figure. Example:
Calcite, Orthoclase.
l) Reniform: When the mineral possesses rounded prominences like those of a Kidney as
shown in the figure Example: Hematite.
Colour
Colour is an important physical property of minerals, which depends upon light. The colour of
any mineral depends up on the absorption of some and reflection of others of the colour of
white light. If the mineral absorbs all the colour of white light, it appears Black. If the mineral
reflects all the Colours of white light it appears, White. A mineral appears red when it can
absorb all the Colours of white light except red colour. Similarly, a mineral appears Green
when it can absorb all the Colours of white light except green colour.

BENGALURU 560107
Streak
Streak is nothing but the colour of the mineral in its powdery form. Rubbing the mineral
against the streak plates can get streak. Some minerals will have the same colour from their
massive form also in their powdery form. For example, Natural gold is Yellow in both in its
colour and powder form. There are some other minerals, which have different colour from
their massive form to their powdery form. For example, the mineral pyrite which is commonly
called as "Fool's Gold" is yellow in colour in its massive form but it gives a Black streak.
Similarly Hematite, the ore of Iron will give Red or Brown Grayish brown in colour but it
gives Cherry red Streak.
Table: 2.1 Colour of Streak of Some Minerals
Mineral Streak
Barite White
Biotite Colourless
Chalcopyrite Brass-yellow
Chromite Brown
Galena Lead-grey
Gold Natural yellow
Graphite Black
Gypsum White
Haematite Cherry-red
Limonite Yellowish-brown

BENGALURU 560107
Pyrite Black
Quartz Colourless
Siderite White
Diaphaneity
Diaphaneity means ability to transmit light. The terms used are:
a) Transparent: when the mineral allows the light to pass through it. In the case of
transparent minerals the objects can be clearly seen through such minerals. Example:
Quartz and Calcite (Coloured varieties).
b) Translucent: When the minerals allow only a part of the light to pass through. The outlines
of any object cannot be seen clearly through such lines of translucent mineral. Example:
Quartz and Calcite (Milky white varieties).
c) Opaque: When a mineral does not allow any light to pass through. The Objects are not
seen through opaque mineral. Example: Bauxite, Hematite, and Magnetite.
Lustre
The Lustre of a mineral is its appearance in a reflected light, which is independent of its colour.
It is one of the most easily observable properties of a mineral. The terms used are:
a) Adamantine: when a mineral has lustre like Diamond. Example: Zircon, Diamond, Sulphur
etc.
b) Resinous: when a mineral has lustre like Grease. Example: Opal amber and a variety of
Zincblende.
c) Vitreous: When a mineral has lustre like Glass. Example: Quartz, Calcite, and in many
other Silicate Minerals.
d) Pearly: when a mineral has lustre like Pearls. Example: Talc. Brucite, Micas etc.,
e) Metallic: When a mineral has lustre like metals. Example: Galena, Pyrite, and Chalcopyrite.

BENGALURU 560107
f) Silky luster: Mineral with a Silky shine. Example: Asbestos.

g) Dull- when a mineral has no lustre. Example: Bauxite.
2. Physical Properties of Minerals depending on state of aggregation
Cleavage:
Cleavage of the mineral is its tendency to Split along certain parallel planes producing more
or less Smooth surface. Cleavage lines are the weak lines or Divisional planes in a mineral.
The terms used are:
a) Perfect, good or distinct - When a mineral can split up with great ease and give a Smooth
surface. Example: Mica, Feldspar
b) Imperfect, Poor, Imperfect or None - When a mineral does not split up with an average
force. Example: Quartz.
Fracture
Fracture of the mineral may be defined as the appearance of its broken surface, when the
mineral is hammered and broken.
The terms used are:
a) Even fracture: Appearance of a mineral in its broken surface is Smooth. Mineral

examples: Chert, Mica.
b) Uneven fracture: when the mineral breaks with very rough and coarse surfaces. Mineral
examples: Chromite and various other minerals.
c) Conchoidal fracture: when a mineral breaks with curved Surfaces or concentric Rings or
half moon shape. Mineral example: Quartz
d) Hackly fracture: when a mineral breaks with irregular Surfaces having sharp edges.
Mineral example: Native copper.
e) Earthy fracture: when the broken surface is soft and almost smooth. Mineral example:
Chalk.

BENGALURU 560107
Hardness
The hardness of a mineral is the resistance it offers to abrasion, which is determined by

observing the comparative ease or difficulty in scratching it with another mineral of known
hardness. Moh’s Scale of Hardness given below- always expresses it
Table-2.2 Moh’s Scale of Hardness
Standard Mineral composition Hardness Remarks

Mineral scale
Talc Mg3 (Si4O10) (OH) 2 1 Can be scratched by a

finger nail
Gypsum CaSO4 2 Can be scratched by a

finger nail
Calcite CaCO3 3 Can be scratched by a

copper coin
Fluorite CaF2 4 Can be scratched by an

iron nail
Apatite Ca3 (F, CL, OH) (PO4) 5 Can be scratched by

window glass
Orthoclase KALSi3O8 6 Steel pocket knife
Quartz SiO2 7 Penknife
Topaz Al2 (SiO4) (SOH) 2 8 Cannot be scratched by

a Pen knife
Corundum Al2O3 9 Cannot be scratched by

a Pen knife
Diamond C 10 Cannot be scratched by

a Pen knife
A mineral with lowest hardness is talc and the mineral with the maximum hardness is
Diamond. It has been observed that a soft mineral like Talc and Gypsum can be scratched

BENGALURU 560107
with a Fingernail. A steel knife can cut Apatite and Orthoclase but not Quartz. The average
hardness of a normal finger nail may be up to 2.5 whereas the hardness of penknife is 6.5
2 Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Specific Gravity

The Specific gravity of a mineral is the ratio of its weight to the Weight of equal volume of
water.
Mass (M)
Density
Volume (V)
Specific gravity is depending on the weight of the specimen -Palm is the Judge
Low - Light minerals (less weight)
Medium - Intermediate minerals (medium weight)
High - Heavy minerals (much weight)
4. Physical Properties of Minerals Depending on Certain Senses Such as

Taste, Feel and Odor.
Taste: The terms used are:
 Alkaline-taste of soda
 Bitter-taste of Epsom salt
 Cooling- taste of Saltpeter
 Saline- taste of common salt
 Sour- taste of Sulphuric acid
Feel: Feel is the sensation upon touching or handling minerals. The terms used are: Greasy,
Soapy, Rough and Harsh.
Odour
Some characteristic smell when rubbed breathed upon or heated. The terms used are:
 Arsenical- Like the Odor of Garlic. Example-Orpiment.

 Sulphurous- Like the Odor of burning Sulphur. Example-Pyrite.
 Argillaceous-Like the Odor of clay.
BENGALURU 560107
Special Properties of Minerals

(i) Magnetism
(ii) Reaction with Dil, HCl acid
Magnetism
Only few minerals are attracted by a Bar magnet or Horseshoe magnet. Such minerals are
called Ferromagnetic. The most common minerals that are attracted by a magnet are
Magnetite, Pyrrhotite, etc. Based on the strength of the magnetism, Minerals can be grouped
under the following headings.
 Highly Magnetic - Examples: Magnetite, Pyrrhotite.

 Moderate Magnetic - Example: Siderite, Iron Garnet, ilmenite, and hematite.
 Weakly Magnetic - Example: Tourmaline, spinel, and monazite
 Non magnetic - Example: Calcite, quartz, and feldspars
Reaction with Acid

Acid Test- Scratch a fresh even surface of the given mineral until grooved and powdered.
Certain carbonate minerals react with Hydrochloric acid. Example: Calcite CaCO3 is got. Add
one or two drops of Dilute HCl carefully to it. Immediate effervescence (fizzing) confirms
Carbonate especially CaCo3.
2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
Native minerals Gold, Silver, Copper,
Graphite, Sulphur Diamond
Silicate minerals Quartz group
Feldspar group
Feldspathoid group
Zeolite group
Mica group

BENGALURU 560107
Amphibole group
Garnet group
Non-silicate minerals (Rock forming Carbonate group:

minerals)
Calcite, Dolomite, Magnesite
Non-silicate minerals (Ore forming Sulphide group:

minerals)
Galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite
Oxide Group:
Hematite, Magnetite, Bauxite, Corundum
Sulphate group:
Gypsum, Barytes
Phosphate group:
Apatite, Monazite, Wavellite
2.4 DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS:
Table 2.3: Native Minerals
Name of the Gold Silver Copper

Mineral
Chemical Au Ag Cu
composition
System Cubic Cubic Cubic
Form Crystals are Crystal commonly in Usually twinned,

commonly reticulated groups. massive thin sheets
octahedral. or dendritic.

BENGALURU 560107
colour Various shades of Silver white Copper red, usually

yellow. dark because of
tarnish.
Streak Gold yellow Silver white Copper red
Luster Metallic Metallic Metallic
Diaphaneity Opaque Opaque Opaque
Cleavage None None None
Fracture Hackly Hackly Hackly
Hardness 2.5-3 2.5-3 2.5-3
Specific gravity 19.3 10.5 8.8
Occurrence Is a rare element, Occurs principally in Hydrothermal or

occurring in siliceous oxidized zones of metasomatic
Igneous rocks. The ore deposits. Large deposits. In cavities
chief source of Gold deposits of native of basic igneous
is the so called silver are probably rocks and also
hydrothermal gold the results of oxidation of copper
quartz veins. primary depositions veins.
Common of silver from
associations are hydrothermal
pyrite and other solutions.
sulphides.
Diagnostic By its colour and By its colour and By its colour, habit
features high specific gravity. high specific gravity. and high specific
gravity.
Uses Used as a monetary Used for ornamental Used specially in

standard, in purpose. electrical industries
jewellary and in and an alloy.
scientific
equipments.

BENGALURU 560107
Name of the Graphite Sulpur Diamond

Mineral
Chemical C S C
composition
System Hexagonal Orthorhombic Isometric
Form In tabular crystals of Orthorhombic crystal Crystals usually

hexagonal outline commonly acute octahedral in
with prominent basa pyramidal appearance, flattened
plane, usually it will ad elongated crystals
be in foliated or are common.
scaly masses.
colour Black to steel grey yellow Colourless, pale

shades of red and
brown.
Streak Black White Colourless
Luster Metallic Resinous Adamantine to

greasy
Diaphaneity opaque Transparent to Usually transparent

translucent
Cleavage Basal perfect Imperfect highly perfect (111)
Fracture none Conchoidal to Conchoidal

uneven
Hardness 1-2 1.5 – 2.5 10
Specific gravity 2.2 2.05 – 2.09 3.5
Occurrence Most commonly Occur near the Occurs in the sands

occurs in crater or active or and gravels or the
metamorphic rocks extinct volcanoes. stream beds.
such as schist, Sometimes occurs in
gneisses and altered peridotite
sedimentary rock (Kimberlite).
(crystalline
limestone).

BENGALURU 560107
Diagnostic Graphite can be Can be recognized By its hardness and

features recognized by its by its colour and the transparency.
colour and softness. ease with which it
It spoils the finger. burns.
Uses Used in steel, brass Manufacture of Used in industries to

and bronze industry. sulphuric acid. cut glass and also as
ornamental stone.
Table 2.4: Quartz group
Name of the Quartz Verities of quartz

Mineral
Crystalline Varieties:
Chemical SiO2 Rock crystal: colourless,

composition transparent quartz.
System Hexagonal, Trapezohedral Amethyst: purple to violet,

pyramid, prism faces transparent.
Form Irregularly developed Rose quartz: pink to rose red in

massive granular. colour, usually massive becomes
paler on exposure to light.
colour Colourless, when pure, Smoky quartz: Smokey yellow to

coloured by impurities. dark brown colour, translucent.
Streak White Milky quartz: Milk white, translucent

to nearly opaque, luster somewhat
greasy.
Luster Vitreous Citrine: yellow: yellow brown to

reddish brown streak.
Diaphaneity Transparent to opaque. Rutilated quartz: contains of fine

needles of retiles.
Cleavage Absent Cat’s eye: yellow brownish in colour,

shows good chatoyant luster.

BENGALURU 560107
Fracture Conchoidal Tiger’s eye: yellow brown in colour,

shows good chatoyant luster.
Cryptocrystalline Varieties
Hardness 7 Chalcedony: transparent to

translucent, waxy luster, stalactic,
botryoidal, concretionary with white,
grayish brown, blue and blackcolours.
Specific gravity 2.65 Bloodstone: bright or dark green

chalcedony with spots of red jasper
resembling drops of bloods.
Occurrence Occurs in Beach Sand and Agate: it is banded variety of

River sand, igneous rocks chalcedony, layers may be differently
and metamorphic rocks. coloured
Diagnostic Conchoidal fracture, glassy Jaspers: Opaque, red, yellow, grey

features luster, high hardness and in colour.
absence of cleavage.
Uses Manufacture of glass, Flint: grey, smokey or black nodular,

porcelain. Flux in translucent with prominent
metallurgical operation Conchoidal fracture.
Agates are used as Chert: Brick red in colour.

Ornaments.
Amethysts are considered

as semiprecious stone. Amorphous Varieties :
Pure quartz crystal shows Opal: amorphous, rounded and

piezoelectricity botryoidal, colourless, or white also
reddish brown, resinous, shows
Quartz plates are used in iridescence and play of colours,
controlling frequencies in hardness is 5.5-6.5.
radio circuits, radar,
Ultrasonic and multiple
telephone lines.
Fibre quartz wires are

frequently used for
transmission of telephone
messages. Each minute

BENGALURU 560107
fiber wire can send large

messages.
Quartz is used in
refractories
Pure silica is used in

ceramics
Pure sand, free from

impurities is used in
manufacturing Sand paper
and Abrasive cloth,
Table 2.5: Feldspar group (Tectosilicates)
Name of the Orthoclase Microcline Plagioclase

Mineral
Chemical KAlSi3O8 KAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8- CaAlSi2O6

composition
System Monoclinic prismatic Triclinic prismatic Triclinic prismatic

flat crystal twined flat, polysynthetic
twinning
Form Massive, granular Massive, granular Massive, granular
colour White to pink also White grey pink also White grey dark grey
greenish grey greenish grey
Streak White White White
Luster Vitreous to pearly Vitreous Vitreous
Diaphaneity Semi-transparent to Transparent to Transparent to

opaque translucent translucent
Cleavage (001) Perfect, (010) (001) Perfect, (010) (001) Perfect, (010)
good, intersection at good, good,
90o
Fracture Sub-conchoidal to Sub-conchoidal to Uneven

uneven uneven

BENGALURU 560107
Hardness 6 6 6
Specific gravity 2.56 2.56 Albite 2.605 to

anorthite 2.765
Occurrence Essential acid igneous rocks, Igneous and

constituents of acid pegmatites and metamorphic rocks
igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks according to variety
common in
metamorphic rocks.
Uses Porcelain and As in orthoclase As in orthoclase

pottery, sanitary
ware, abrasive and
glass industry.
Table 2.6: Feldspathaoids group (Tectosilicates)
Name of the Nepheline Sodalite Leucite

Mineral
Chemical NaAlSiO4 3NaAlSiO4 Nacl KAl(SiO3)2

composition
System
Form
colour Colourless white or Grey to greenish, White to ash grey.

yellowish yellowish, blue.
Streak Un-coloured Un-coloured Un-coloured
Luster Vitreous Vitreous Vitreous
Diaphaneity Transparent to Transparent to Transparent to

opaque translucent opaque
Cleavage imperfect Less distinct Very imperfect
Fracture Sub-conchoidal conchoidal Conchoidal
Hardness 5.5-6 5.5-6 5.5-6
Specific gravity 2.5 to 2.6 2.14 to 2.3 2.45 to 2.5

BENGALURU 560107
Occurrence Occurs in volcanic Occurs in soda rich Occurs as a primary

rocks and plutonic igneous rocks constituent of
rocks volcanic rocks.
Diagnostic Inferior cleavage Blue Colour, not Well developed

features than orthoclase occurring with crystals and rounded
decomposes by HCl quartz grains in volcanic
forming gelatinous rocks.
silica.
Uses Used in the Used as jewelry Used in the

manufacture of glass production of potash
and ceramics fertilizer.
Table 2.7: Zeolite group (Tectosilicates)
Name of the Natrolite Heulandite Stilbite

Mineral
Chemical Na2Al2Si3O10 2H2O CaAl2Si7O18 6H2O CaAl2Si7O18 7H2O

composition
System Orthorhombic Monoclinic Monoclinic
Form Sender, prismatic Tabular, prismatic, Prismatic cruciform,

radial interlacing, globular rough sheaf-like
fibrous, granular, crystals which are
compact. aggregates of
cruciform penetration
twins.
colour White, colourless White, reddish-white White, yellow, brown

and grey yellow red.
Luster Vitreous, silky Vitreous, pearly on Vitreous, pearly on

cleavage cleavage

BENGALURU 560107
Diaphaneity Transparent to Transparent to Translucent

translucent
Cleavage (110) Perfect, (010) Perfect, (010) Perfect,
Fracture uneven uneven Uneven
Hardness 5-5.5 4 4
Specific gravity 2.2-2.3 2.2 2.1-2.2
Occurrence It occurs in cavities Occurs in cavities of Occurs in cavities of

of basalts and by the basalts and by the basalts, in association
alteration of alteration products with heulandites.
Nepheline. of acid volcanic glass
and often in
sedimentary rock.
Table 2.8: Mica group (Phyllosilicates)
Name of the Moscovite mica Biotite mica Vermiculite mica

Mineral
Chemical KAl2Si3O10 (OH)2 K (Mg, Fe)3 Al2Si3O10 (Mg, Fe’’’…) SiAl4O10

composition (OH)2 (OH)2 4H2O
System Monoclinic Monoclinic Monoclinic
Form Tabular, Flaky, Thin tabular flaky Flaky

platy
colour Colourless, pale Black, brown, green brown, yellowish

green brown
Streak white Light grey White
Luster pearly vitreous Commonly greasy
Diaphaneity transparent translucent Opaque

BENGALURU 560107
Cleavage Perfect basal ( 001) perfect ( 001) perfect

cleavage
Fracture Sometime even Present

Conchoidal
Hardness 2.5-3 2.5-3 1-1.5
Specific gravity 2.8 3 2.4-2.7
Occurrence Common in igneous Abundant in igneous Forms as products of

rocks rocks biotite weathering
present in ultra-basic
rocks
Diagnostic Identified readily by Identified by black Resembles externally

features light coloured pearly colour and external weathered biotite or
luster excellent features chlorite. Expands
cleavage when heated
Uses Used in electrical Very little industrial Expanded

appliances use. vermiculate is used
as a heat insulator.

BENGALURU 560107
Table 2.9: Amphibole group (Inosilicates)
Name of the Hornblende Actinolite Tremolite

Mineral
Chemical Ca2 (Mg, Fe)5 (OH)2 Ca2 (Mg, Fe)5 (OH)2 Ca2 Mg5 (OH)2 Si8O22
composition (AlSi)8O22 Meta Si8O22
silicate of Ca & Mg
System Monoclinic Monoclinic Monoclinic
Form Prismatic Fibrous Acicular
colour Blackish green Green & grayish White to dark grey

green
Streak Uncoloured Uncloured Pale grey to

uncoloured
Luster Vitreous to pearly Greasy Greasy
Diaphaneity Sub-translucent to Opaque, sometimes Translucent to

opaque translucent opaque
Cleavage Perfect Present present
Fracture Uneven to sub- Uneven to sub- Uneven to sub-

conchoidal conchoidal conchoidal
Hardness 5-6 5-6 5-6
Specific gravity 2.9 – 3.5 3 2.99-3.03
Occurrence Constituents of acid Occurs in Occurs in

igneous rocks metamorphic rocks metamorphic rocks
Diagnostic Distinguished from

features pyroxene by its
cleavage angle of 56
& 124
Uses Pure variety used as Fibrous varieties are used in asbestos-

gem cement products and as a low heat
conductivity high electric resistance
substance

BENGALURU 560107
Table 2.10: Garnet group (Nesosilicates)
Name of the Garnet Varieties of garnet

Mineral
Chemical (Ca Mg Fe Mn)3 Al, Grossularite: pale olive green or green-

composition Cr)2Sio4)3 yellow, pink
System Isometric Pyrope: deep crimson red.
Form Rombododecahedral Almandite: deep red

crystals common
colour Red, brown, yellow Spessartite: brownish red
Streak Colourless Andradite: dark brown, yellowish green
Luster Vitreous Uvarovite: emerald green
Diaphaneity Transparent to sub-

tanslucent
Cleavage Imperfect
Fracture Sub-conchoidal
Hardness 6.5-7.5
Specific gravity 3.15-4.3
Occurrence Essential minerals in

some metamorphic
rocks
Diagnostic Crystalline form and

features colour of the
minerals
Uses Ornamental stone,

emery paper,
abrasive

BENGALURU 560107
Table 2.11: Carbonate group
Name of the Calcite Dolomite Aragonite

Mineral
Chemical CaCo3 Ca Mg (Co3)2 CaCo3

composition
System Rhombohedral Rhombohedral Orthorhombic
Form Crystalline, rhombic Crystalline, rhombic Acicular, radiating,

crystals usually crystals common, columnar. Fibrous,
abundant, fibrous, faces curved forming oolitic, stalactitic and
stalactitic and saddle shaped globular
granular crystal and granular
colour Ash grey, colourless White or reddish White or colourless,

or white, may be of yellow, brown, yellow, reddish bluish
any colour black, colourless or black
Luster Vitreous Vitreous Vitreous

Cleavage 1011 perfect 1011 perfect 010 distinct
Fracture Conchoidal Sub-conchoidal Sub-conchoidal
Hardness 3 3.5-4 3.5-4
Specific gravity 2.7 2.8-2.9 2.93-2.95
Occurrence Minor constituent of Occurs with Formed through

secondary origin in serpentine and other organic agencies in
igneous rocks Mg-rich rocks cavities of basalt. As
a deposit from hot
springs and geysers.

BENGALURU 560107
Diagnostic Reacts with dil. HCl Less reacts with dil. Reacts with dil. HCl
features HCl
Uses In cement industry, Building and No commercial use

optical instruments, ornamental stone
as ornamental
stones
Name of the Magnesite Siderite Rhodochrosite

Mineral
Chemical MgCO3 Fe CO3 MnCO3

composition
System Rhombohedral Rhombohedral Rhombohedral
Form Hexagonal Hexagonal Massive granular to

scalenohedron and scalenohedron compact
massive
colour White, grey, yellow Light to dark brown Rose re, sometimes
light pink to dark
brown
Luster Vitreous to vitreous Pearly, vitreous

sometimes silky

Cleavage 1011 perfect 1011 perfect 1011 perfect
Fracture Conchoidal Sub-conchoidal Uneven
Hardness 3.5-4.5 3.88 3.5-3.7
Specific gravity 3-3.12 3.88 3.5-3.7
Occurrence Occurs commonly in Found in clay iron Occurring in veins

veins and as stone, hydrothermal with ores of silver,
irregular masses veins and as nodules lead copper and with
derived from in clay other Mn mineral

BENGALURU 560107
alteration o
serpentine
Diagnostic By its colour and By its colour and By its colour and
features Conchoidal fracture high sp. gr. cleavage, lower
hardness
Uses Used in the An ore of iron A minor ore of Mn

manufacture of
bricks for furnace
linings
Table 2.12: Sulphide group
Name of the Galena Pyrite Chalcopyrite

Mineral
Chemical PbS FeS2 CuFeS2

composition
System Isometric Isometric Tetragonal
Form Massive also Pyritohedral with Usually massive

granular striated faces, also
massive and
granular.
colour Steel Lead grey Brown black Brass yellow
Streak grey Brown black Greenish black
Luster Metallic Metallic Metallic
Diaphaneity Opaque opaque Opaque
Cleavage Perfect (100) Poor (001) Imperfect (011)
Fracture Sub-conchoidal conchoidal Conchoidal, uneven,

brittle
Hardness 2 6-6.5 4
Specific gravity 7.2-7.6 5.2 4.2

BENGALURU 560107
Occurrence Hydrothermal veins It occurs as direct Wide occurrence

ad replacement magmatic mainly hydrothermal
deposits segregation and as and metasomatic
an accessory mineral veins.
in igneous rocks and
common in
sedimentary rock.
Diagnostic Recognized by its Distinguished from By its brass yellow

features cleavage, high sp. chalcopyrite by its colour, greenish black
gr. And colour paler colour and streak.
high hardness, and
also “Fools Gold”
Uses An ore of lead Used as a Iron ore, An ore of copper

used in purification
of preparation of
mineral kerosene
and in fertilizers.
Table 2.13: Oxide group
Name of the Haematite Magnetite

Mineral
Chemical Fe2O3 Fe’’Fe2’’’O4

composition
System Trigonal isometric
Form Massive Most commonly found in massive

and granular.
colour Red or Brown Black
Streak Cherry red black
Luster Metallic Metallic
Diaphaneity opaque Opaque
Cleavage poor absent
Fracture Uneven to sub-conchoidal Conchoidal

BENGALURU 560107
Hardness 5.5-6.5 5.5-6.5
Specific gravity 5.3 5.1
Occurrence Occurs in sedimentary rocks Occurs in sedimentary and

and metamorphic rocks. metamorphic rocks.
Diagnostic By its colour and streak. By its colour and streak.

features
Uses Haematite Contain 70 % of Magnetite contains 72.4 % of

Iron. Used in modern industry iron. Used in modern industry as
as an ore of iron. an ore of Iron.
Name of the Bauxite Corundum

Mineral
Chemical Al2O3 N H2 O Al2O3

composition
System Amorphous Hexagonal
Form Oolitic prismatic
colour Brown Shades of brown, pink and blue
Streak Same as that of colour colourless
Luster Earthy Adamantine to vitreous
Diaphaneity opaque Transparent to translucent
Cleavage none Parting 0001 to 1011
Fracture uneven Uneven to Conchoidal
Hardness 1-3 9
Specific gravity 2-2.5 3.95-4.10

BENGALURU 560107
Occurrence Occurs as an alteration product Commonly as an accessory

of Al rich rocks. mineral in metamorphic rocks
such as crystalline limestone and
mica schists.
Diagnostic Characterized chiefly by its great

features hardness.
Uses Principal uses of Aluminum are As gem stone, used as emery

in the manufacture of powder.
chemicals,
Cement & in refining

petroleum.
Table 2.14 Phosphate group
Name of the Apatite Monazite Wavellite

Mineral
Chemical Ca3F(PO4)3 (Ce, La) PO4 Al3(OH)3 (PO4)25H2O

composition
System Hexagonal Monoclinic Orthorhombic
Form Prismatic, massive, Crystal, large flat, Globular, hemi-

granular, compact, elongated rough, spherical, concentric
globular, reniform, striated. masses, radial,
stalactitic, oolitic. fibrous.
colour Green, bluish, violet, Yellowish or reddish Colourless, grey,

brown, red, brown to brown. yellow, green, blue or
colourless black.
Streak white Nearly white white

BENGALURU 560107
Luster Vitreous Resinous or waxy vitreous
Diaphaneity Transparent to translucent translucent

Opaque
Cleavage Poor (0001) Poor (100) (100) & (101) good
Fracture Conchoidal & Uneven Conchoidal to uneven

uneven
Hardness 5 5-5.5 3.5-4
Specific gravity 3.1-3.2 5-5.3 2.3-2.5
Occurrence In igneous rocks, Accessory mineral in Secondary mineral of

especially in acid rocks, as large rocks containing
pegmatites, crystals in phosphates.
metamorphic rocks pegmatites.
and limestone.
Uses Fertilizer, in As a source of

production of cerium and thorium.
phosphorous.
Table 2.15: Sulphate group
Name of the Gypsum Barites

Mineral
Chemical CaSO42H2O BaSO4

composition
System Monoclinic Orthorhombic prism
Form Tabular, also massive, Lamellar, granular, massive,

granular, fibrous twinning fibrous
common
colour Colourless, white, tinted pink, Colourless, white.

yellow grey.

BENGALURU 560107
Streak White White
Luster Vitreous to pearly Vitreous
Diaphaneity Transparent to opaque Transparent to opaque
Cleavage Perfect (010) Perfect (001-210)
Fracture None Uneven, brittle
Hardness 2 3
Occurrence Evaporates, in clays and Hydrothermal veins and

limestone associated with replacement, nodular masses
sulphur
Uses Retarder in cement as a Manufacture of white paint, and in

fertilizer, in paper, paint, paper industries.
rubber industries. Manufacture
of plaster of paris.
Table 2.16 Kaolin
Name of the Kaolin (china Clay)

Mineral
Form Massive , crystalline
colour White
Streak White
Luster Dull
Hardness 1.5

BENGALURU 560107
Specific gravity 2.6
Occurrence Occurs as an alteration product of granites and gneisses.
Diagnostic Hydrous silicate of Ca, Na, K, Al

features
Uses Used in the manufacture of potteries, earthenware, sanitary

ware, rubber and paints
Table 2.17 Hydrous silicates
Name of the Staurolite Talc

Mineral
Chemical Hydrous silicate of Fe and Al Hydrous silicate of Mg

composition
System Monoclinic Monoclinic
Form Tabular, also massive, Tabular

granular, fibrous twinning
common
colour Dark reddish brown to blackish Pale green grey or white

brown, yellowish brown, rarely
blue; pale golden yellow in thin
section
Streak Light brown White
Luster Vitreous to dull Pearly to greasy
Diaphaneity Translucent to opaque Translucent
Cleavage Perfect Perfect
Fracture None none
Hardness 7.5 2.5-3

BENGALURU 560107
Occurrence Occurs in metamorphic Is a secondary mineral formed by

rocks the alteration of Mg silicate.
Uses Coloured translucent used Electric, paints ceramics, rubber

as semiprecious stones and cosmetic industries.
varieties

BENGALURU 560107
The Standard Format is to be advised while writing the description of Minerals at

the time of identification.
(A) Observation
Form
Colour
Streak
Diaphaneity
Lustre
Cleavage
Fracture
Hardness
Sp. Gr.
Name
(B) Theoretical Information
Chemical Composition (C.C)

Crystal System (C.S)
Indian Occurrences (I.O)
Uses
(C) Note:
1] Silicate/ Nonsilicate mineral.
2] Rock forming mineral/ Ore forming mineral.
3] Belongs to the group.
2.5 HIGHLIGHTS

BENGALURU 560107
Mineralogy:
Mineral is defined as naturally occurring homogenous solid. inorganic formed, having a

definite chemical composition and ordered atomic arrangement. Identification of minerals on
the basis of Physical Properties
Form: Shape of mineral. The terms used are Granular, Massive, Tabular, Columnar, Foliated,
Fibrous, and Radiating.
Colour: Absorption of some and reflection of other Colours of white light.
Streak: Colour of the mineral in its powder form.
Diaphaneity: Ability to transmit light. The terms used are
Transparent Translucent
Opaque
Light passes clearly from Light passes partially from Light does not Pass
one end to the other end one end to the other end of through from one end
of the mineral. the mineral. to the other end of the
Example: Colourless Example: Coloured varieties mineral.
varieties of Quartz and of Quartz and Calcite
Example: Bauxite
Calcite
Lustre: Shining of a mineral in its reflected light. The terms used are:
Vitreous Metallic Pearly Silky Dull
(Broken (Metals) (Pearls) (Silk) (No shining)

glass)
Example: Example Example: Example: Bauxite
Example: Galena :Mica Asbestos
Quartz
Cleavage: Cleavages are nothing but the divisional planes of a mineral. The terms used are

BENGALURU 560107
Perfect or present Imperfect or absent
Divisional planes are there No divisional planes

Example: Feldspars, Calcite Example: Quartz
Fracture: Appearance of a mineral in its broken surface. The terms used are:
Conchoidal Even Uneven
Concentric rings Smooth Rough
Example-Agate Example-Mica Example-Feldspars
Hardness: Means resistance it offers to abrasion. The terms used are:
Low Medium High
Possible to scratch by Possible to scratch by steel Not possible by both

finger nail knife
Example-Quartz,
Example-Talc, Gypsum Example-Calcite, Apatite
Corundum
Specific Gravity: Based on the weight of the specimen, Palm is the judge. The terms used
are:
Low Medium High
Less weight Medium weight Much weight
Example: Example: Feldspars Example: Galena, Haematite, Magnetite

Quartz,
Other Characters such as: Dil. Hcl.test – If we touch the mineral with Dil, Hcl the given mineral
bubbles up. Because of CaCO3 Example: calcite.

BENGALURU 560107
Magnetism – some minerals are attracted by a bar magnet or Horseshoe magnet. Such
minerals are called Ferromagnetic Example: Magnetite.
2.6 QUESTION BANK:
1. Give an account of the physical properties, which are useful in the identification of minerals
with suitable examples?
2. Describe any FOUR of the following minerals, giving their Physical properties, chemical
composition and uses.
(a) Talc (b) Calcite
(c) Haematite (d) Pyrite
(e) Orthoclase (f) Corundum
3. How do you distinguish between?
(a) Quartz and Calcite
(b) Talc and Gypsum
(c) Hornblende and Augite
(d) Muscovite and Biotite
4. Describe the following:
(a) Cleavage in minerals
(b) Moh’s scale of hardness
(c) Streak and its significance in the mineral identification.
(d) Engineering importance of minerals.
5. Define a mineral. Describe the important physical properties of minerals with suitable
mineral examples. Give the hardness of the following minerals.
a) Calcite b) Corundum

BENGALURU 560107
c) Quartz d) Gypsum
6. Write an explanatory note on physical properties of minerals.
7. Distinguish between
(a) Quartz and Baryte

(b) Gypsum and Baryte
(c) Magnetite and Haematite
(d) Pyrolusite and Chromites
8. Write a note on rock forming minerals.
9. Write a note on rock forming minerals.
10. Write a note on classification of minerals.
11. Write hardness for the given minerals.
a) Gypsum b) Talc c) Calcite d) Flourite e) Apatite f) Orthoclase feldspar
12. What is the streak of the following minerals?
a) Pyrite b) Chalcopyrite c) Galena d) Haematite e) Magnetite
13. Mention some examples of High Specific gravity minerals.

BENGALURU 560107
MODULE 3: PETROLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Petrology (in Greek, Petra = rock, logos = science) is a branch of geology deals with
the study of origin and characteristics of rocks. The study of petrology is most
important for a civil engineer in selection of suitable rocks for building stones, road
metal etc. Petrology utilizes the classical fields of mineralogy, petrography, optical
mineralogy, and chemical analyses to describe the composition and texture of rocks.
Modern petrologists also include the principles of geochemistry and geophysics
through the studies of geochemical trends and cycles and the use of thermodynamic
data and experiments to better understand the origins of rocks
3.2 Definition of a Rock
A rock is defined as the aggregation of mineral. The most rocks consists of polyminerals,
which form the earth’s crust some rocks, may be hard like granite or soft like sand or clay.
The hard and resistant substances may be called stones. Example: Granite, Sandstone,
Marble etc. That is why all stones are rocks, but all rocks are not necessarily stones.
3.3 Classification of rocks based on their Genesis
The rocks are broadly classified into three major groups such as: primary or igneous rocks,
secondary or sedimentary rocks and altered or metamorphic rocks. In most cases rocks are
identified in the field on the basis of the physical properties of the constituent minerals.
Igneous rocks
These rocks are formed by the consolidation of hot molten material magma is called an
igneous rock or primary rock. These rocks are formed during volcanic lave eruption and
solidified. Igneous rocks are massive in form. These rocks are the oldest rocks formed on the
earth crust. Example: Granite, Syenite, Diorite, Pegmatite, Dolerite and Basalt.
Sedimentary rocks

BENGALURU 560107
These rocks are formed by the consolidation of sediments in the layered or bedded rocks
deposited in the ocean bottom or huge lakes etc. during the geological process these layers
are compacted consolidated and uplifted and form layered rocks. These rocks show
stratification, cross-bedding, fossils etc. Example: Breccia, Conglomerate, Shale, Sandstone
and Limestone.
Metamorphic rocks
The effects of temperature or pressure or both form these rocks (by a process known as
metamorphism) on the preexisting rock. Examples: Slate, Schist, Gneiss, Marble and
Quartzite.
Based on the distribution of rocks established on the surface of the earth, igneous and
metamorphic rocks are occupy34% and a sedimentary rock is 66%. But the large parts of the
continents are noticed as undifferentiated igneous and metamorphic rocks. Hence the exact
percentage of the rocks cannot be given.
Table 3.1 Classification of rocks based on their genesis
Igneous rocks or primary Sedimentary rocks or Metamorphic rocks or

rocks. secondary rocks. altered rocks.
Volcanic Organic Thermal
Example: Basalt, Trachyte Example: Fossilferrous Example: Marble.

limestone
Hypobyssal Chemical Dynamic
Example: Pegmatite Example: Limestone Example: Slate, Schist
Mechanical Dynamo thermal

Plutonic (regional)
Example: Granite, Syenite, Example: Shale, Breccia,
Example: Quartzite.
Diorite, Gabbro, Dunite Conglomerate.
etc.
3.4 Igneous Rocks

BENGALURU 560107
3.4.1 Formation
Igneous rocks are formed by the solidification of magma or lava. At about a depth of 40
kilometers in the earth, the rocks are believed to be in a molten state. Due to enormous
temperature and pressure, this molten material always has a tendency to penetrate into the
cracks and lines of weakness of the thin solid crust of the earth, and thus tries to make its
way on the surface of the earth. Sometimes, the magma, during its endeavour to come out
on the earth's surface, is successful in coming out. But sometimes the magma is held up by
strong and massive rock masses, below the earth's surface, during its upward journey. If the
magma is successful in coming out on the earth's Surface, it is erupted out from a weak point
with a great force and spreads out on the surface of the earth. This spread out lava solidifies
due to cool temperature of the atmosphere, but if the magma is held up below the earth's
surface, during upward journey, it is then unable to descend. This magma then slowly cools
down, and ultimately solidifies. The process of solidification of the magma or lava gives birth
to igneous rocks.
3.4.2 Classification of Igneous rocks
Table 3.2 Classification of Igneous rocks
On the basis of Silica (4 types)
Acidic Intermediate Basic Ultra

basic
Silica Silica Silica
Silica
(> 66%) (55 – 66%) (44 –
55%) (<44%)
on the Volcanic Rhyolite Trachyte Basalt Olivine

basis of basalt
mode of Andesite
origin (3
types)
Hypobyssal Pegmatite Diorite

Porphyries Dolerite

BENGALURU 560107
Plutonic Granite Syenite Gabbro Dunite

diorite
1. Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of Silica into four types. They are
a. Acidic igneous rocks: These are those rocks in which the Silica presence is more than
66%. Example: Granite, Pegmatite, and Rhyolite.
b. Intermediate igneous rocks: These are those rocks in which the Silica presence is in
between 55 and 66%. Example: Syenite, Trachyte.
c. Basic igneous rocks: These are those rocks in which the Silica presence is in between 44
and 55%. Example: Basalt, Dolerite, and Gabbro.
d. Ultra basic igneous rocks: These are those rocks in which the Silica presence is less than
44%. Example: Olivine basalt.
2. Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of mode of origin into three
types. They are
a. Plutonic: These are those rocks that are formed beneath the earth's surface at a
greater depth. Example: Granite, Syenite, Diorite, and Gabbro.
b. Hypobyssal: These are those rocks that are formed beneath the earth's surface at a
lesser depth. Example: Pegmatite, Porphyries, and Dolerite.
c. Volcanic: These are those rocks that are formed in the surface of the earth.
Example: Rhyolite, Trachyte, Andesite, and Basalt.
3.4.3 Forms of Igneous rocks
Magma is the liquid rocks, has a tendency to penetrate into the cracks and lines of weakness
of the thin solid crust of the earth. It tries to make its way out on the surface of the earth and
consolidates in different shapes, known as forms of igneous rocks. The forms of igneous rocks
in general may be studied under the following two headings: Concordant bodies: Sometimes
the magma during its upward journey does not possess enough energy to push, drag or cut
through the existing rock. Example: Sill, Phacolith, Laccolith and Lopolith. Discordant bodies:
Sometimes the magma, during its upward journey, possesses enough to energy to Push, drag

BENGALURU 560107
or cut through the existing rock. Example: Dyke, Batholiths. Igneous rocks are formed in
intrusive and extrusive types. They are grouped depending on the availability of magma or
lava and their size. General grouping of igneous rocks according to their mode of formation
is shown in table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Types of Igneous bodies

Extrusive bodies Intrusive bodies (Beneath the surface)
or Volcanic bodies
(On the surface of

earth).
Example:Lava flows Plutonic bodies Hypobyssal bodies

Example: Stock
and Batholith,
Boss. Transverse
intrusives
Parallel
Example:Dyke,
intrusives
Volcanic neck.
Example: Sill,
Laccolith, Lopolith
and Phacolith.

BENGALURU 560107
Lava stream
1 3
1. Phacolith 2. Laccolith 3. Lapolith

4. Dyke 5. Stock 6. Batholith
Fig.3.1 Forms of Igneous rocks
Extrusive Bodies
Lava flows: the volcanic igneous rocks occur as Lava flows. They are tabular in shape;
in thickness they range from few centimetres to many hundreds of metres. Lava flows
are formed when lava breaks through the Earth’s crust along fissures. Central India
is an example of great lava flows.
1. Intrusive bodies
(a) Batholiths
These are large intrusive igneous rocks, which are general granite in components. In
plain view their outline is irregular and the area of outcrop exceeds 100 sq. Kms. Most
Batholiths increase in size with depth and they are thought to be bottomless as Shown in
figure.3.2

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.3.2 Batholith
(b) Stocks and Boss
The older term ‘stock’ was introduced by Daly (1912) to denote a vertical nearly cylindrical
body of igneous rock. A Stock is a small Batholith, in which the area of outcrop is less than
100 sq. Kms. A Stock having a circular outcrop is called a Boss.
(c) Lopolith

BENGALURU 560107
Lopolith
Fig.3.3 Lopolith
It is a lenticular igneous body, which is bent or sagged downwards into a Basin like Shape as
shown in figure.3.3
(d) Laccolith
Loccolith
Sources of Magma
Fig.3.4 Laccolith

BENGALURU 560107
Laccoliths are Plano convex intrusive igneous bodies, which cause the overlying beds to arch
in the form of a dome as shown in figure 3.4 A Laccolith may be 2 to 3 Kms in diameter and
several 100 metres in thickness. It differs from Batholiths in being much smaller and having
a known floor.
(e) Phacolith
Phacolith
Shale
Fig.3.5 Phacolith
Phacolith are intrusive igneous rocks, which occupy Crests and Troughs of folded strata as
shown in the figure 3.5
(f) Sill
Sill
Sill

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.3.6 Sill
A Sill is a Sheet- like igneous body, which runs parallel to the bedding planes of the enclosing
rocks. A Sill may be horizontal, inclined or vertical depending upon the attitude of the strata
in which they are intruded A Sill varies in thickness from a few centimetres to several
kilometres to their length along the beds.
(g) Dyke
Dyke
Fig.3.7 Dyke
Vertical wall- like structure cutting the bedding planes. Dykes probably represent a crystal
fracture into which the magma was injected.
(h) Volcanic neck

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.3.8 Volcanic neck
A volcanic neck or a plug is a vertical intrusion of igneous mass, which has a roughly
Oval or circular section as shown in the figure.3.8
3.4.4 Textures in Igneous rocks
The term texture is defined as the mutual relationship among the minerals and the glassy
materials in a rock. Textures are best observed under a microscope, because many textures
are microscopic.
The following textures of igneous rocks are important from subject point of view:
1. Equigranular: In this texture the minerals of the rock are more or less equal in size.
2. Inequigranular: The mineral of the rock will be of different sizes. Three important
textures of Inequigranular texture is:
a. Porphyritic textures
b. Poikitic texture and
c. Ophitic texture
i) Porphyritic texture:

BENGALURU 560107
Smaller grains
Bigger grains
Fig.3.9 Porphyritic texture
Bigger grains surrounded by smaller grains. Example: Granite porphyry, Syenite porphyry,
Diorite porphyry.
3. Intergrowth textures or Pegmatitic textures or Graphic textures.
Quartz
Feldspar
Fig.3.10 Pegmatitic texture
Quartz occurs within the feldspar Example: Pegmatite.
4. Trachytic texture or Directive texture:

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.3.11 Trachytic texture
Textures formed by flow of magma during crystallization process. In magma, flowing small
crystals like microlites and crystallites and well-developed Crystals may arrange themselves
in parallel line they bend in the direction of flow of magma. Example: Trachyte, Andesite.
5. Vesicular texture:
Vesicles
Fig.3.12 Vesicular texture
The lava contains hot gas. This gas begins to escape when the pressure is reduced.
The reduction of pressure takes place when the lava reaches the surface of the earth. If the
lava contains numerous cavities with irregular shapes then it is known as vesicular textures.
Example: Vesicular basalt.
6. Amygdaloidal texture
Amygdale
Amygdales
Fig.3.13 Amygdaloidal texture

BENGALURU 560107
If secondary minerals fill the cavities they are called Amygdales. They are called Amygdales
because they resemble the shape of almonds. Lava containing Amygdales (calcite, zeolite,
silica etc.) are said to show Amygdaloidal structure. Example: Amygdaloidal basalt.
3.4.5 Engineering uses
Many igneous rocks, especially plutonic, have high crushing and shearing strengths and are
thus considered to be the most satisfactory rocks for all types of engineering purposes. Basalt
and dark coloured rocks are largely used as road metals and concrete aggregates. Almost
all-igneous rocks being crystalline compact and impervious are always considered to be safe
for use as foundation rocks, abutment of dams, walls or roofs of tunnels.
3.5 Sedimentary Rocks
3.5.1 Formation
The process of formation of sedimentary rocks is as follows:
i. Erosion of the existing rocks,
ii. Transportation of the eroded material and
iii. Deposition of transported material into massive rocks by welding or cementation.
3.5.2. Classification of Sedimentary rocks

1. Sedimentary rocks may be classified on the basis of grain size into three types.
 Rudaceous (in Latin Rudous - pebbles): Rudaceous rocks are those rocks, which are
made up of particles having grain size more than 2mm in diameter. Example: Breccia,
Conglomerate.
 Arenaceous (in Latin Arena - sand): Arenaceous rocks are those rocks, which are made
up of particles having the gain size in between 1/10 th - 2mm diameter. Example:
Sandstone.
 Argillaceous (in Latin Argilla - clay): Argillaceous rocks are those rocks, which are made
up of finest clay particles i.e., size of particles is less than 1/10 mm in diameter. Example:
Shale.
Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of their origin into three types

BENGALURU 560107
a. Mechanical origin: All those sedimentary rocks, which are formed by the mechanical
action of the denuding agents. Example: Breccia, Conglomerate.
b. Chemical origin: All those sedimentary rocks, which are formed by the chemical
action of the denuding agents. Example: Limestone.
c. Organic origin: All those sedimentary rocks, which are formed by the activity of the
Organisms (both plants and animals). Example: Fossiliferos limestone.
3.5.3 Primary structures in sedimentary rocks
Structural features of sedimentary rocks are of great value in determining their origin. The
important sedimentary structures are as follows:
1. Stratification
Bedding planes
Bed
Fig.3.14 Stratification
The deposition of sediments into layers or beds is called stratification. The thickness of a
single bed may vary from a few cms to many Kms. The plane divides different beds are
bedding planes.
The stratification is formed due to the following
a. Difference in kind of material deposited.

b. Difference in size of particle deposited.
c. Difference in colour of material deposited.
2. Lamination

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.3.15 Lamination
Thin bedding less than one cm in thickness is called Lamination. It is usually found in the fine-
grained sedimentary rocks like Shale.
3. Cross bedding or Current bedding or false bedding
Fig.3.16 Current bedding
It is also called current bedding or false bedding. Cross bedding is the minor bedding or
lamination, which lies at an angle to the figure. These structures are found in shallow water
and wind formed deposits.
4. Graded bedding

BENGALURU 560107
Fine
Medium
Coarse
Fig.3.17 Graded bedding
When sedimentary bed shows a gradation in grain size from coarse below to finer above,
it is said to be graded as shown in figure 3.17 Such type of bedding is called graded
bedding. This Structure is commonly found in Greywacke.
5. Ripple marks
a) Asymmetrical RM b) Symmetrical RM
Fig.3.18: Ripple marks
Ripple marks are the wavy undulations, which may be seen in the surface of sedimentary
deposit. These are produced by the action of the waves and current in shallow water. They
may also form on the deposits from the winds. Ripple marks are of two types. They are:
i) Symmetrical ripple marks or Current ripple marks and

BENGALURU 560107
ii) Asymmetrical ripple marks or Oscillation ripple marks.

Oscillation ripple marks are useful in determination of top and bottom beds.
6. Marks in designated sediments
The sediments, which have undergone repeated wetting and drying cause mud cracks.
7. Concretion
They are various shaped mass or nodules of minerals found within sedimentary rocks. Their
shape may be elliptical or oval or irregular. Concretions generally consist of CaCO 3, SiO2 and
often possess an internal radiation or concentric structure. They are formed by the deposition
of mineral matter from percolation solutions about a nucleus.
3.5.4 Engineering uses
The strength of sedimentary rocks depends on the strength of its grains or sediments
(Constituting the rocks) and cementing material. Thus the selection of a sedimentary rock for
any building or project should be done carefully based on the strength, colour, and appearance
of its grains as well as the cementing material.
3.6 Metamorphic Rocks

3.6.1 Formation
Metamorphic rocks are formed by the process of metamorphism (under the influence of heat,
Pressure or both) of the rocks.
3.6.2 Classification of Metamorphic rocks

1. Metamorphic rocks may be classified on the basis of foliation into two types. They are:
a. Foliated rocks: This group includes the rock that can split into thin sheets.
Example: Slate, Schist, Gneiss, etc.
b. Non-foliated rocks: This group includes the rock that cannot be split into thin sheets.
Example: Marble.
2. Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of metamorphism into three types. They
are:
a. Contact (thermal) metamorphism: It is a process in which temperature is the
dominating factor.

BENGALURU 560107
Example: Limestone Thermal metamorphism Marble.

(Sedimentary Rock) (Metamorphic Rock)
b. Dynamic Metamorphism: It is a process in which pressure is the dominating factor.
Example: Shale dynamic metamorphism Slate.
Shale dynamic metamorphism Schist.
c. Dynamo thermal or thermo dynamic metamorphism: It is a process in which both
temperature and pressure are dominating factors
Example: Sandstone Thermo dynamic metamorphism Quartzite.
Granite Thermo dynamic metamorphism Gneiss
(Igneous Rock) (Metamorphic Rock)
3.6.3 Structures in Metamorphic rocks

The structures of the metamorphic rocks are:
i. Slaty structures
ii. Schistose structure
iii. Gneissose structure and
iv. Granulose structure
. i. Slaty structure
Preferred orientation
of grains
Fig.3.19 Slaty structure
The Slaty structure is also called Slaty cleavage. The rock possessing Slaty cleavage
has a unique property of splitting into thin sheets. The Slaty cleavage may form at any angle

BENGALURU 560107
to the bedding planes of the shale from which the Slaty rock has been derived as shown in
fig3.19.
ii. Schistose structure
Preferred orientation
of the grains
Fig.3.20 Schistose texture
It is formed by the parallel arrangement of flat, tabular, elongated or flaky minerals, Such as
Muscovite, Biotite, Chlorite, talc and Hornblende as shown in figure. 3.20. The rock having
schistose structure has a tendency to split readily into flakes, leaves or thin Slabs.
iii Gneissose structure
Dark coloured minerals

Fig.3.21 Gneissose texture
A rock possessing gneissose structure exhibits a pronounced appearance in which light and
dark coloured band alternate as in figure.3.21.The light coloured bands are due to quartz and
Feldspar, while the dark coloured bands are due to the presence of Ferro magnesium minerals.
v. Granulose structure

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.3.22 Granulose structure
Granulose (even grained) structure is produced due to the predominance of Equigranular

minerals such as quartz, feldspar, pyroxenes and calcite as shown in figure. 3.22 The flaky
minerals are absent or present only in small amount on breaking a granulose rock producing
a rough fracture surface.
3.6.4 Engineering Uses
The metamorphic rocks are extensively used as building stones. The foliated rocks like slate,
gneiss and schist are used as roofing material tabletops, Staircases, etc. The most important
non-foliated rock is Marble. It is considered to be an excellent building material for important
monumental, historical and architectural buildings. Marble is extensively used in modern
buildings also for the decorative purpose in columns, staircases and floors

BENGALURU 560107
3.7 DESCRIPTION OF ROCKS

3.7.1. Description of Plutonic Igneous Rocks
Properties Granite Syenite Diorite Dunite
Colour Light colour Light colour Light colour Olive green,

with yellowish
White pink tint Green, greenish

yellow
Grain size Medium to Medium to Medium to Fine to medium

coarse coarse coarse
Texture Equigranular (E) Equigranular Equigranular Equigranular
Minerals Quartz, Feldspar Feldspars, Quartz, Olivine altering

Biotite, Feldspars,
Present Biotite, to Chromite,
Hornblende Hornblende Hornblende,
Biotite Magnetite
Mode of origin PAIR PIIR PIIR PUIR
Engineering a) Granite is a) Though Used as a Used for

one of the most Syenite is not building stone Ornamental
Uses important so common, yet purposes
building stones it can be used
Specially used instead of
for decoration, granite.
monumental
and b) Presence of
Feldspar shows
Architectural
beautiful blue
purposes and green effect
which improves
b) Large blocks its appearance
of granites are and hence is
used as building used for
stone decorative
purposes

BENGALURU 560107
c) Smaller
blocks of
granites are
used as Railway
ballast or Road
metal.
Group Igneous rock Igneous rock Igneous rock Igneous rock
HYPOBYSSAL IGNEOUS ROCKS
Properties Pegmatite Porphyries Dolerite (Black

Granite)
Colour Light colour Light colour Usually dark
(White, pink. Being almost black

Green)
When fresh
Grain size Coarse Medium to coarse Medium to coarse
Texture Pegmatitic Porphyritic Doleritic
Minerals Feldspars, Quartz, Because of Porphyritic Plagioclase.

texture It may be
Present Biotite Augite and
Granite porphyry
Hornblende with
Syenite porphyry
Some Olivine
Diorite porphyry
Mode of origin HAIR Hypobyssal Hypobyssal,
Basic igneous rock
Engineering Uses a) The Muscovite ----------------------- Occurs chiefly in

mica is used dykes.
commercially and
is obtained from Used as a Road
pegmatite metal
Used in the
manufacture of
decorative stones,

BENGALURU 560107
paper weights, gift

articles, etc.
Group Igneous rock Igneous rock Igneous rock
VOLCANIC IGNEOUS ROCKS:
Properties Rhyolite Trachyte Pumicite Basalt
Colour Dirty Dark Silver Dark
White with gray when
Reddish brown Fresh,
Patches ash grayish
White
Grain size Fine Fine Fine Fine
Texture Vesicular Trachytic Vesicular Vesicular,
Amygdaloidal
Minerals present Same Same as Same Plagioclase,

Syenite
as granite as granite Augite
Mode of origin Volcanic Acidic Volcanic Volcanic Basic volcanic

Igneous rock
Intermediate Igneous rock Igneous rock
Igneous rock
Engineering Uses Used as filler, -------- Light weight The crushed

concrete, basalt is used as
Abrassive Tooth powder, a road metal

BENGALURU 560107
Polisher
NOTE: PAIR- Plutonic Acidic Igneous Rock.
HIIR - Hypobyssal Intermediate Igneous Rock
PIIR - Plutonic Intermediate Igneous Rock
BVIR- basic volcanic igneous rock
PUIR- Plutonic ultra basic igneous rock
3.7.2 DESCRIPTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Propertie Breccia Conglomer Shale Sand stone Lime stone

s ate
Color Light color Light color Light (white, Light (red, Light
(chocolate) pink, black) brown, pink)
Grain size Rudaceous Rudaceous Argillaceous Arenaceous
Argillaceous
Minerals Angular Rounded Compaction of Quartz, Calcite
present pebbles pebbles mud and clay feldspars
Cementin Siliceous Ferruginous Siliceous Siliceous Siliceous
g material (much (because
quantity red or brown
quartz) color)
Ferruginous
Ferruginous
Ferruginous
Calcareous Calcareous
Calcareous
Mode Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Chemical
of origin Organic –
Fossiliferos
lime
Stone.

BENGALURU 560107
Engineerin Used as Harder and Used in the Used as a Calcareous

g uses ornamental tougher manufacture building limestone is
stone varieties of of bricks and stone. used in the
conglomerat tiles. manufacture
es are used of Cement.
as
foundation
stones
3.7.3 DESCRIPTION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Properties Slate Schist Marble Gneiss Quartzite
Color Bluish Dark White, gray, Alternate Light

black red, blue, layers of
green and dark and
yellow light
Structure Slaty Schistose Saccharoidal Gneissose Granulose
Minerals Very fine Flaky Calcite, Quartz, felds Quartz small

present grained minerals quartz. par, Biotite, amount of
mixture of such as hornblende. mica,
quartz, muscovite, tourmaline,
chlorite, Biotite graphite and
Sericite hornblende, iron
and chlorite, minerals
talc etc.
Feldspar.
Depending
upon the
type of
flaky
mineral

BENGALURU 560107
present the
schist's are
described.
Engineering Used for Schist a) Coarse Used as a Extensively

uses being weak rained road metal used as a
a) Flooring
rock, are marbles used
and road metal
Purposes not used for for historical,
and concrete
important monumental Concrete
b) For aggregates
works and aggregates
Roofing architectural
purposes.
Materials
b) Extensively
c)
used as a
Tabletops
building stone
d) for the
Staircases decoration of
columns, stair
e) Switch
cases, floors
Boards etc
f) It is c) Fine -
grained
Seldom
marble used
Used as for statues.
a building
Stone.
Rocks

BENGALURU 560107
Photo 3.1 shows Granite Photo.3.2 Shows Granite Porphyry
Photo 3.3 shows varieties of Pegmatites. Photo 3.4 shows Basalts
Photo3.5 shows Types of Sandstones. Photo.3.6 shows Quartzite
2.5 Highlights
 Igneous rocks are formed by Solidification of magma.
 Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of Silica into 4 types
Acidic, Intermediate, Basic and Ultra basic igneous rocks.
 Igneous rocks may also be classified on the basis of mode of origin into 3 types: Plutonic,
Hypobyssal and Volcanic igneous rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of grain size of the sediments into 3types:
Rudaceous, Arenaceous and Argillaceous.
 Sedimentary rocks are classified on the basis of mode of origin into 3 types: Mechanical,
Chemical and Organic.

BENGALURU 560107
 Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of foliation into 2 types: Foliated and Non
foliated.
 Following are the three types of metamorphism-Thermal, Dynamic, Thermodynamic
 Concordant bodies and discordant bodies are the forms of igneous rocks.
 A texture is defined as the mutual relationship among the minerals present in a rock.
 Fine-grained marble is used for Statues.
3.9 QUESTION BANK
1. Describe the various geological properties, classification and engineering uses of the
following rocks.
a. Granite b. Basalt c. Sandstone d. Marble
2. What is an igneous rock? Describe the mode of formation and the important distinguishing
Petrologic features of these rocks.
3. What are igneous rocks? Describe the classification of igneous rocks with suitable
examples and mention the engineering importance of igneous rocks.
4. What are Sedimentary rocks? Describe the classification of Sedimentary rocks with
suitable examples and mention the engineering importance of Sedimentary rocks.
5. What are metamorphic rocks? Describe the classification of metamorphic rocks with
suitable examples and mention the engineering importance of metamorphic rocks.
6. With neat sketches describe the Primary structures in Sedimentary rocks.
7. Describe the forms of igneous rocks.
8. Write Short notes on:
(a) Conglomerate (b) Metamorphism
(c.) Dykes (d) Sills
(e) Batholith (f) Textures

BENGALURU 560107
MODULE 4: Study of Textural, Structural and Mineralogical characters of the

following rocks
4.1. Introduction
The most attractive scenery presented by the landscape on the surface of the earth always
captivates one’s mind during a journey across the county. Especially the mountains and the
valleys, occasionally presented with waterfalls, cascades, the mountains and plains and
plateaus; with rivers and lakes, sea beaches are some of the familiar earth features, which
have been a source of delight to travellers.
4.2. Dynamic Agencies
The study of landforms with regard to their structures and origin has made us aware of the
various agencies at work on the surface of the earth. They are wind, running- water (river)
moving ice (glaciers) etc., which are described as natural agencies and as natural architects.
These natural agencies are divided into two kinds. They are:
i) External Agencies: Those, which derive their energy from sources exterior to the earth
chiefly from SUN. They are known as External Agencies. Example: Atmosphere, rainfall and
rivers snow and ice, lakes, ocean and organ life.
ii) Internal Agencies: Those agencies, which derive their dynamic energy from source
interior to the earth, are known as interior agencies. Example: Earthquakes, volcanoes and
mountain building movement (causing folds, faults and geomorphologic Changes).
4.3 Weathering
The process, which involves natural breaking up of decay of rocks by wind aided by the water
and heat of the sun, is known as weathering, two sub- processes bring about weathering.
They are Disintegration and Decomposition.

BENGALURU 560107
i. Disintegration is otherwise called as “mechanical weathering” as this process cause

mechanical disruption of the rocks.
ii. Decomposition is otherwise known as “chemical weathering” as this causes decay or
rotting of the rocks due to chemical reaction. They go hand in hand. Disintegration facilitates
decomposition.
Erosion: The process of erosion includes destruction of existing rocks and removal i.e.
transportation of the products from the site of destruction. Transportation is an important
aspect of erosion, which is usually done by water, wind or ice.
Denudation: The net effect of weathering erosion and transportation is known as denudation.
4.3.1 Types of weathering
(a) Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering, which involves disintegration and disruption by mechanical force,

causes breaking up without chemical change. The important agents of physical weathering
are:
(i) Heating and cooling.

(ii) Frost and
(iii) Organism.
Types of physical weathering
1. Exfoliation (Heating and cooling action): Particularly in arid region rocks heated to high
temperature during day by solar energy, rapid cooling during night is also characteristic of
these arid countries. The unequal expansion and contraction of the mineral constituents of
the rock produce disintegration of the rock itself. The rock is found to break off into outer
layers or slabs, which are large sheets of rock, peeled off from the rock masses. This process
is known as Exfoliation. Such effects are commonly developed in Granites and Gneisses.
2. Frost action: Weathering by frost action is important as few rocks can resist the frost
action. In natural water enters cracks and breaks of rocks, it works within the rocks quite
slowly but in a definite manner, as is known on freezing undergoes an increase in volume by
10% accompanied by pressure and expansion. Obviously grains will be pushed apart leading
to partial or total disintegration of rocks into small pieces, generally angular, or sub-angular
by frost wedging.
BENGALURU 560107
3. Talus or Scree: Accumulation of rock fragments of various sizes occurring at the base of
cliff or steep slope of mountain is termed as talus or scree. These are formed due to rolling
down of weathering materials by the action of gravity. At times they form large heaps or piles.
A talus slope ranges from 200 to 400.
Scree
Talus
Fig. 4.1 Scree and Talus
4. Weathering by Organism and Plants

Organisms and plants contribute considerably towards mechanical disintegration of
rocks. Tons of fine earths are being thrown out every day from beneath the surface by the
earthworms. Disintegration of rocks of disintegration works is achieved by vegetation, tree
roots, especially of bigger trees, which may grow through cracks and crevices in the rocks or
loosening of the soil. Man also contribute to the disintegration of rocks by breaking rocks, by
making road cuts, quarrying, tunneling, mining and cultivating the land.
(B) Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering or decomposition is a process in which rocks are broken down by

the chemical decay of minerals. Rocks exposed to earth’s surface consist of various minerals

BENGALURU 560107
and these react with chemical agents of weathering differently at different rates. The principle
agents of chemical weathering are:
(i) Water and

(ii) Organisms.
(i) Water
As the main agent of chemical weathering, water becomes a powerful chemical agent when a
small amount of oxygen and CO2 are dissolved in it. Rainwater usually contains these gases.
The main reaction involved in chemical weathering is:
1. Oxidation.
2. Hydration.
3. Carbonation and
4. Solution.
Oxidation: Limonite (hydrous oxide of iron) and Haematite are the very common products
of oxidation, which impact red and yellow colour to the soil or clay.
Hydration: As a good example for hydration, water molecules combine chemically with
minerals to produce new compounds. The general formula of Gypsum. (CaSO4.2H2O) from
anhydride CaSO4.
Carbonation: Carbon-di-oxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H 2CO3). Carbonic

acid is an effective weathering agent.
The feldspar decomposes; the chief product is Kaoline or clay, which is plays a great part in
the formation of soil. The following are the reactions:
Orthoclase + water + Carbon Dioxide Kaolin + Quartz + potassium carbonate
2KalSi2 O 8 + 2H 2 O + CO 2 H4Al2Si 2O 9+ 4SiO2 + K 2CO 3
Solution: The process of solution and carbonation goes on together. The limestone,
dolomites, rock salt and gypsum are particularly susceptible to solution of silica, alumina and
iron is much greater in the presence of organic acids.
(C) Organism

BENGALURU 560107
The many dead organisms produce organic acids as they decay (decompose). These acids
increase the solvent power of water. Example being the solubility of silica, alumina and iron
is much greater in the presence of organic acids.
Types of chemical weathering
1. Spheroidal weathering: When weathering occurs on outcrop of jointed rocks, they are
subjected to chemical weathering and rounded boulders are produced. This process is called
Spheroidal weathering. The Spheroidal weathering resembles exfoliation excepting that it
takes place on much smaller scale. Due to the weathering, part of the disintegrated material
is carried away by rainwater or any other transporting agent. Some of them are left over on
the surface of jointed bedrock and their boulders are then rounded off to Spherical Cores by
simultaneous attack of eroding on all sides. It is often seen that these boulders have onion-
like structure and the weathering of this kind is termed as Spheroidal Weathering. This is
common in rocks like basalt and dolerites.
Fig.4.2. Spheroidal weathering
2. Pitted Weathering: The rounded holes or pits that are numerously produced in rocks
are very commonly seen in Soapstone (steatite-talc). This is due to the differential weathering
suffered by the rock.
3. Honey Comb Weathering: Honeycomb weathering is a characteristic structure

developed in the ultrabasic rocks such as Peridotite and Dunite consisting minerals like
Olivine, which on alteration results in the formation of magnesia i.e. MgCO 3 and Calcium
Carbonate CaCO3. Thereby Magnesite, Dolomite and Siderite occur as new minerals. The
magnesium carbonate being resistant to weathering will form the margin for granular grain

BENGALURU 560107
of the olivine and thereby actual network- like structures result after weathering popularly
known as “Honey Comb weathering”.
Fig.4.3. Honey Comb weathering
4.3.2 Engineering aspects of weathering
A civil engineer should be fully conversant with various processes of weathering and their
effects. It is generally the soil in which most of the engineering projects are to be built and
soil, we know, is the end product of the weathering processes. It always causes loss of
strength of the rocks or soil. Obviously the weathered rocks or those still undergoing
weathering are not suitable sites, where structures may be built with any satisfaction. Hence
it is always necessary to see:
1. To what extent the rock under consideration has been subjected by weathering and
2. What can be the possible effect of the weathering processes typical to the area on the
Construction materials?
Before laying foundation, it is essential to know to what depth the weathering has affected
the rock and to remove the weak and loose portion of the weathered material. It is also
essential to reject such type of material essential to know the susceptibility of construction
material, especially rocks weathered, and reject such type of material that are liable to be
attacked by weathering agencies.
4.4 Soil
Soils may be defined as any solid unconsolidated material lying on top of the bedrock. These
solid particles are produced by the mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
the minerals, organic matter, water and air.

BENGALURU 560107
4.4.1 Formation of Soil
According to the size of the particles, which consists of the broken and disintegrated rock
(Mechanical weathering), the following gradations are recognized: Pickman of rock from the
size of a small melon and up are termed as ‘Boulders’. Those larger than peas are called
‘Gravel’. Those smaller than peas that do not cohere when wet SAND, and the finest material,
which can be carried by wind, is DUST and The last which generally cohere when well is
termed as SILT, MUD or CLAY according to its character. Ordinary SOILS composed of variable
mixtures of sand and these finer materials may roughly be classified as the following groups.
SAND: Composed of sand grains mostly without clay.
LOAM: Mixture of sand and clay.
CLAY: The finest material, mostly Kaolin without sand.

The red and yellow Colours, which may posses’ soil are due to oxide of iron produced by
decay of minerals. The black Colours seen in soil are due to the carbonaceous material
resulting from the decomposition of vegetation. This substance is known as “Humus”.
Weathering is of vital importance to human race because it produces soil, the basis of all life
on land. Thus the surface of earth soil profile may be divided into four horizons they are:
1. Horizon A: Top soil, organic layer.
2. Horizon B: Rich in mineral matter, Zone of accumulation of clays. Colloids, Iron and
Aluminum oxides.
3. Horizon C: Weathered material.
4. Horizon D: Solid rock (fresh parent rock).
Now that is very clearly the process of weathering irrespective of the kind result in the ultimate
breaking down or decay of original hard and coherent rocks. Soil is therefore the ultimate end
product of all weathering process.

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.4.4 Soil profile
4.4.2 Soil Profile
A vertical through A, B, C and D horizons (Fig.4.4) in sequence are termed as a soil profile.
4.4.3 Classification of Soils
Soils have been classified into two types. They are Geological classification of Soils and
Engineering classification of Soils
1. Geological classification of Soils: Depending upon the mode of formation, soil

deposits have been broadly grouped into two classes. They are:
a) Transported soil deposits

The weathered and broken rock material are eroded and transported from one place to
another by the natural agencies such as wind, running water, ice or glaciers or gravity. The
BENGALURU 560107
deposits of soil formed in this manner are called transported soil deposits. Such soil generally
has no relation with the underlying rock mass. The transported soil has been classified
according to the nature of transporting agency responsible for the formation (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1 Transported Soils

Transporting agency Nature of Soil
Lakes Lacustrine deposits
Rivers Alluvial deposits
Glaciers Glacial deposits
Sea Marine deposits
Wind Aeolian deposits
b. Residual soil deposits: In plain regions the rock weathering continues to accumulate in
place over the parent rock masses and gives rise to residual deposits. As the weathering
action decreases with depths such SOIL deposits gradually change from soil and the surface
of broken rock fragments and merge with fresh rock beneath. The most common examples
are lateritic deposit of West Coast of India, Terra-Rosa, Peatboghs, Bauxite deposits, etc.
2. Engineering classification of soils: For general civil engineering purposes soil may
be classified based on particle size and plasticity properties. The sizes of the soil particles are
extremely variable. They range from big boulders to fine clay particles. The nomenclature of
the soil particle accordingly to the size is given in the following table. The soil containing
mixture of clay and sand is called Loam and the clayey soil having appreciable LIME content
is called MARL.
Table 4.2 Table of engineering classification of soils

Sediment name
Grain size range
Boulder 60 mm or more

BENGALURU 560107
Gravel Between 60 to 2 mm
Coarse sand Between 2 to 0.6 mm
Medium sand Between 0.6 to 0.2 mm
Fine sand Between 0.2 to 0.06 mm
Silt Between 0.06 to 0.002 mm
Clay Less than 0.002 mm
Unified soil classification is one in which the basis is both grain size plasticity properties of soil
and hence it is applicable to any use.
4.4.4 Soil conservation methods

Soil is one of the reusable natural materials of the Earth’s crust. Excess soil erosion converts
fertile land into barren land. Methods by which soil is protected from erosion are termed ‘soil
conservation’. Soil conservation in the catchment region is very essential as the transported
soil is deposited in reservoirs, dams, tanks, fertile lands in towns and villages and etc. Mainly,
there are two soil conservation methods. They are
1. Engineering soil conservation method and
2. Agronomic soil conservation method.
1. Engineering soil conservation method: In this method the following practices have to
be carried out to regulate and minimise the rate of run off water. They are:
Contour trenching: Excavation of trenches is along a particular contour level across the
slope of the uncultivated wasteland in the top portion of the catchment area. This method is
mainly adopted in catchment area consisting of hills and valleys, forest wasteland, etc.
Contour trenching mainly done to control the surface run off and to protect the contour
bunds in the lower regions.
Contour bunding: Construction of small bunds across the slope of land along the contour
level is called contour bunding. These bunds split the area into small strips and precipitation
falling on the soil between the two contour bunds is retained, eliminating run off. This helps
in filtering of water and consequently increases in the rise in water table. The height of contour

BENGALURU 560107
bunds depends on the slope of the land, the space between the two contour bunds and
maximum intensity of rainfall at any particular time.
Gentle slope
(a) (b)
Fig.4.5 Contour bunding

Terracing: Terracing is essentially a process of constructing a series of drainage channels
across the slope of the hill side, so that the runoff water may collect before it attains
harmful velocity or volume and it is conducted gradually to an erosion- proof outlet.
Steep slopes: A ridge or an earth embankment is constructed across the slope of suitable
field locations to intercept run off and minimize the rate of soil erosion. This is practiced in
Assam and Niligiri tea estates.
Terraces
Steep slope
(a) (b)
Fig.4.6 Steep Slope terraces

Gentle slope areas: Gentle sloping land is divided into a series o parts and horizontal
terraces are made generally to a height of about 50 to 60 cms. Flat land is utilised for
cultivation of paddy. Helps in regulating the soil erosion.

BENGALURU 560107
Terraces
Fig.4.7 Gentle Slope terrace

Gully plugging: Gully plugging is undertaken generally in unconsolidated rock formation
and alluvium sediment areas. The gullies are caused due to improperly located roads, poorly
maintained terraces, lands, etc. stream velocity has to be controlled by erection log dams,
boulders dams, bamboo dams, etc.
Nullah bunding: Precipitated water flows from higher altitude to lower altitude in the hilly
region. The runoff water carries eroded material from the sides of the river valley. Soil erosion
depends upon the velocity of the stream water, gradient and nature of the rock type. The soil
cover banks of rivers should have bunding on either side to protect the river system. This
reduces soil erosion.
Agronomic soil conservation method: The following measures are adopted to protect
topsoil erosion
Contour farming: In this measure, crops are cultivated along the contour planes; so that it
controls erosion of soil by holding or rather arresting run off due to increase of absorption.
Rotation of crops: Various crops are grown in the same agricultural field with definite
scheme of rotation depending upon soil conditions. First, a cultivated crop is grown followed
by small grain variety crop, then grass and again a cultivated crop. The sequential orders of
agriculture minimise soil erosion.
Aforestation: A forestation result in depletion of trees and consequently the rate of soil
erosion increases. Aforestation measures help plant roots penetrate into sub soil zone and
firmly fix soil particles in the ground. Fallen leaves from timber yielding trees on the ground
minimise the rate of runoff.

BENGALURU 560107
Cover cropping: Cover cropping on the soil area reduces soil erosion because of the fact
precipitation intercepted, minimising the force of rainwater before they reach the soil. This
method mechanically abstracts the flow of run off water and increases filtration.
4.5 Rivers
4.5.1 Origin and development of river system
Source: A portion of the water that falls as rain evaporates and passes back into the
atmosphere. Another portion of it gets collected in depressions and remains as lakes and
pools. A major portion of it gets sunk into the soil and becomes subsurface water
(underground water) and a portion of it flows down on to the surface. The part is known as
the runoff and it is about one third of the rain that falls on the earth surface. The melting of
ice and snowfalls too contribute to the run-off water.
Definition: The water, which falls in the form of rain and snow, starts flowing over the
surface of the ground, form natural waterways. Such waterways of small dimensions are
known as Streams and those of greater dimensions as Rivers. The whole system involving
streams and rivers are known as “Drainage pattern” or “river pattern”.
Perennial: rivers are those rivers, which flow throughout the seasons of the year.
Examples are those rivers, which take birth in the Himalayan mountain ranges such as Ganga,
Jamuna, Brahmaputra and Indus.
Seasonal rivers: are those rivers, which flow only during rainy season and go dry during
summer season. Examples are Pennar, Vedavati and Arkavati Rivers amongst South Indian
Rivers.
Stages in River system

To understand the cycle of evolution of natural landscape architecture, the study of the earth's
surface has shown that they are not permanent Geological features, but are ever changing

BENGALURU 560107
the face of the earth. As the process is continuous, three different stages are recognized, i.e.
youth, maturity and old stage.
(i) Youth stage: A stream is said to be in youth stage when it acts its valley downward
to form a graded condition with its base level. The youth stage is commonly found in
mountain regions from where the stream takes its birth.
(ii) The down cutting erosion is more dominant.
(iii) Narrow V- shaped valleys are developed with steep sides.
(iv) The stream occupies most of the width of the valley floor. As a result there won’t be
flood plain.
(v) Waterfalls-rapids-cascades are common in the stage.
(vi) The stream course is angular without meanders and its tributaries are short and few.
 Mature stage: A stream is said to be in a matured stage when downward erosion

reduces and lateral erosion dominates
1. Matured stage is found in plains lying adjacent to the mountain regions.
2. Down cutting erosion is less while side cutting becomes prominent.
3. Valleys are broad and trough like.
4. The stream swings in meanders and the flood plains are narrow, which further produces
a dissected pattern of landscape.
5. Waterfalls and rapids are usually absent. Valley bottom is graded so that the longitudinal
course relatively possesses smooth curves and the gradient is moderate.
6. The stream starts moving in “meanders”. Tributaries are many.
 Old Stage: During old-stage the flood plain of a stream becomes several times wider
than its meander belt.
(i) The old stage is recognized near the mouth of the stream.
(ii) In the old stage the stream ceases to enlarge the flood plain. The main work of stream is
to rework the unconsolidated sediments of the flood plains.
(iii) Valleys become broader and open with low boundaries, which may be indistinct. In the
course of ages (times) the valleys sides are themselves leveled and finally result in
Peneplain.

BENGALURU 560107
(iv)The gradient becomes very low and the stream approaches the base level of erosion and
thus deposition of sediments takes place.
(v) Ox-bow lakes are common. Natural levees are also present and back swamps and
tributaries accompany them. The meander zone is narrower than the valley floor.
(vi)The stream pattern is meandering with Ox-bow Lake. The tributaries are very few and
broad. This stage ends with DELTA stage.
The river course may be divided into three portions, viz; the upper or mountain portion,
middle or plain portion and the lower or Deltaic portion.
Youth Maturity
Fig.4.8
4.5.2 Erosion, Transportation and Deposition of rivers
A River or stream, which flows on, wears out the rock that it encounters on its valley side
way, the process being known as EROSION. The resulting loose rock waste is transported and
deposited along its course in huge basins like oceans, where a river ends. Thus, the geological
work can be studied under three heads
1. Erosion
2. Transportation and
3. Deposition.
1. Erosion
A river or a stream is a very powerful agent of erosion, which brings about remarkable
changes on the surface, resulting in curious, natural and wonderful architectural
geomorphologic features. The river causes erosion in four ways:
i. Chemical action.

BENGALURU 560107
ii. Hydraulic action.

iii. Abrasion and
iv. Attrition.
i. Chemical action: It includes the solvent and chemical action of water on country rocks
causing corrosion. The chemical decay works along joint sand cracks and thus helps in
breaking the bedrock. The rocks that are easily soluble are limestone, by acid bearing
stream water.
ii. Hydraulic action: The inherent force of water is capable of lifting up and moving loose
material and removes the jointed rock blocks. This action of water is known as hydraulic
action. At the bottom of waterfalls, the channels are eroded at an enormously rapid rate
of hydraulic action.
iii. Abrasion: Abrasion can be defined as the mechanical wear of one rock with another. This
is caused by friction between rock fragments and solid rock in the streambed and sides.
iv. Attrition: It is the breaking of the transported material and due to the mutual collision.
The attrition causes the rock fragments to become more rounded and smaller in size such
as boulders, pebbles, sand and finer products like silt and clay.
Controlling factors of erosion are

i. The nature of the rock: The softer and readily soluble varieties get easily worn out.
ii. Attitude of the rock beds: In case of layered rocks, the direction and amount of inclination
is of importance. Beds inclined downstream erode at a faster rate.
iii. Velocity of the river water: This controls the mechanical breakdown of the rocks. Water
currents smash even the hardest rocks. The fast flowing water exerts great pressure along
the fractures, joints and bedding planes, lifts off slabs and block of the rock. A rapid flow
considerably increases the abrasion and attrition effects also.
iv. The presence of joints: The jointed rocks get easily loosened and detach from their place.
v. Nature of water: Pure water as such has no such effect. But when acidic or alkaline nature
due to some dissolved gases and other components, it may bring about enormous
chemical decomposition of the rocks involved.
vi. Landforms: The hilly and semi- hilly tracks provide a higher gradient to the stream
favoring a greater velocity. Such areas get eroded to a larger extent than plain or flat
landforms.

BENGALURU 560107
2. Transportation
A River acts as the most effective agent of transportation. The flowing water drags all the
products of erosion. The lighter and smaller fragments are carried in suspension over much
longer distances while heavier blocks are left behind very near their original places. The
insoluble products carried by the river are known as Sediments. The dissolved ingredients are
carried in solution. Dissolved products are the easiest to be transported. Depending upon the
variation in the amount and velocity of water, the entire load is carried in stages. If the water
is sluggish, the load of heavier segments may be dropped while the active rapid flow may
again lift and carry it further away.
The process of transportation also brings about a complete ‘Sorting’ of the sediments. The
larger and heavier fragments are left behind in the upper course. The smaller fragments like
pebbles, etc. are left along the riverbed, partly in the foothills and partly in the nearby plains.
Still smaller sediments such as sand, silt and clay are carried all over the plains in the form
of alluvial deposits and at the same up to the Ocean.
Controlling factors of Transportation: The velocity of a river is affected by a number of factors.
The following few are important including gradient, channel size and shape density of the
sediments and rate of velocity of river discharge. The increase of velocity increases the
transporting power of river as much as the power of the velocity.
3. Deposition
A reduction in the velocity of water results in deposition of its load. Depending upon the
reduced velocity, part of the load that the river is unable to carry gets deposited, which may
again be carried over because of an increase in the amount and velocity of water. Most of the
rivers end in oceans or lakes while some end in land itself. The sediments carried by the river
are ultimately deposited in lakes (as lacustrine deposits) or oceans. Parts of the sediments
are left behind the plain, where the flow becomes too slow. These are known as alluvial
deposits. Example: Indo -Gangetic alluvial plains.
4.5.3 Civil Engineering Aspect of Rivers

Civil engineering aspects connected with many fields’ problems of rivers are as follows:

BENGALURU 560107
1. River deposits such as sand, gravel and boulders are the important sources of Construction
materials.
2. Dams are constructed across rivers to store water for irrigation, flood control and Water
supply purposes.
3. Rivers require construction of bridges across them for carrying highways and railways.
4. The waterfalls of rivers are utilized to generate hydro-electricity.
5. Regulation of river channels is done for navigation and flood control .
4.5.4 Flood Control Measures

“Flood” usually occurs in plain region where river channel is shallow & it has very low gradient.
Especially during rainy season, large quantity of water is fed into river system. The river
channel cannot discharge all the accumulated water and thus water spread over the
riverbanks, agricultural fields, villages, towns, shipments etc resulting in flood. During floods
the river causes destruction of life and property and flood control is a very important problem
for civil engineers. The various methods that are employed to control floods are as follows
Construction of Levees
Levees are longitudinal embankments, which are constructed along the riverbanks to check
the overflow of the excess water during floods. They not only contain the river water in its
channel, but also bed-erosion and keep the channel clean.
Dredging the channel
It is the process of removing the sediments deposited at the bottom of the river channel.
Dredging is expensive, as it has to be carried out now and then at regular intervals.
Constructions of check dams
The construction of dams for controlling floods is a very important method. The check-dams
are usually built on a small tributary stream, which regulates the flow of Main River.
Diversion of river water
During floods a part of the river water is diverted and made to flow through a newly
constructed channel. Thus, the river eater gets divided and the effect of floods is minimized.
Shortening course of meandering rivers: In meandering rivers artificial cutoffs are made to
straighten the course. This helps in the efficiency of rivers.
4.6 Landslides

BENGALURU 560107
Where a mass of earth or rockslides down the slope along a definite zone or surface the
movement is called as landslides. This movement takes place under gravity and it facilitates
moisture, which acts as a lubrication agent. The landslide starts with slow movements along
a slip surface, followed by more rapid movement of separate portion of the earth mass. The
slip surface is usually bounded by a crack, which distinguishes a slip from creep in which
continues crack is often absent. The important type of landslides is
 Slump: In more or less homogeneous cohesive material such as clays and some soils a
slope fails primarily by shear and slip surface is approximately cylindrical or spoon shaped.
This movement of mass starts by cracking along a shear zones surface and then the separated
mass slides down rapidly. Such a slide is called a Slump or Shear slide, slump is often an
accompanied by bulges at the toe (fig 4.9).
Fig.4.9 Slump
 Rockslides: When detached blocks of bedrock move down the hill, it is called a
“rockslide”. In a rockslide the movement takes place on bedding planes, joints or any other
planes of weakness in the country rocks. (Fig .4.10)

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.4.10 Rock slide
 Rock falls
From steep rock slopes blocks of rock of varying sizes that are loosened by weathering
suddenly fall downwards under the influence of gravity. The rock falls supply the talus, which
are commonly found at the foot of cliffs in the higher mountain regions.
4.6.1 Causes of landslide
The factors, which promote landslides, are as follows
 Water: Water is the main factor in causing landslide. It acts in three ways:
 It reduces cohesion.
 It adds weight to the material and
 On freezing it exerts an expansive force.
1. Nature of rock: Landslides often occur where weaker and slippery materials like clay,
shale, volcanic tuff, mica schist are present.
2. Structure of rock: Joints fractures shear joints and bedding planes usually become the
slip surface in case of landslides. Landslides are particularly common on hill slopes where dip
of rock is also in the same direction (Fig.4.11).

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.4.11 Beds dipping towards hill slope.
3 Disturbance of equilibrium: The existing equilibrium of the earth of rock mass may
be disturbed by:
 Overstepping of stone by natural erosion or by manmade excavations.
 Over bedding of the upper part of the slope.
 Earthquake vibrations and
 Increase in the water content in the material .
4.6.2 Prevention of landslides
The important methods of prevention of landslides are as follows:
1. Reducing slopes prevents slides in impervious materials. Effort should also be made to not
allow the additional water to enter the material.
2. In order to check the surface water entering the unstable ground, it is diverted and made
to run off as rapidly as possible away from that area.
3. In pervious materials increasing the internal friction of the mass by lowering the water
content may prevent landslides. Drainpipes may remove the water content, by drainage
through tunnels or by pumping the water from wells.
4. In situations where slides may cause loss of life and property, the loose rock material are
prevented from slides by constructing retaining walls, concrete piers or by use of piling.
5. At some places the unstable material that may be consolidated is cement grouting
chemical means and by artificial freezing.

BENGALURU 560107
4.7 Earthquakes
(Quake= Shake) Earth shake or shaking of the earth.
4.7.1 Definition
Earthquake is a hypo gene of geological agent. Earthquake is defined as sudden Vibration of

the earth's surface caused by sudden bow inside the earth.
Focus: The place of the origin of an earthquake within the earth's crust is called its
focus"(as shown in figure 4.12).
P Wave
S Wave Surface waves
One minute
Fig.4.12 Seismogram
4.7.2 Definition of simple terms

Epicentre: The area lying vertically above the ground surface over the focus is called
epicenter. In the epicenter the shaking is most intense.
1. Isoseismal lines: Imaginary lines joining all points of equal
intensity of an earthquake.
2. Intensity of an earthquake: Amount of destruction caused by the earthquake.
3. Seismography: Instrument used to measure the intensity of an earthquake.

BENGALURU 560107
4.7.3 Classification of earthquakes

The earthquakes are classified on number of bases. Of these the depth of Focus, the cause,
the intensity and magnitude of earthquakes are very important.
1. Classification based on depth of FOCUS: Accordingly the earthquakes are

termed as:
 Shallow: When the focus lies within 60 Kms.
 Intermediate: When its focus lies within 60 to 300 Kms from the surface and
 Deep seated: When the focus lies beyond the 300 Kms depth.
2. Classification based on origin: The earthquakes are broadly classified into

Tectonic and Non-tectonic types. The tectonic earthquakes are directly related to the
movements of crystal block along faults. They are generally very severe and area affected
is often very great. The non -tectonic type includes earthquakes due to number of causes
such as:
 Volcanic eruptions
 Collapse of underground caverns
 Superficial movement like landslides, etc.
1. A third way to classify the earthquakes is on the basis of their intensity which is defined
by the effects or degree of damage that an earthquake produces on the structure & features
of the earth.
A numbers of scales of intensity have been suggested. Some of them are
 Rossifeerels scale
 Mercale scale
Richter’s scale: This scale of intensity is adopted internationally. Charles F. Richter, an
American Seismologist, devised the earthquake intensity scale. This is based in the total
amount of energy released during an earthquake. The energy is called “magnitude”. The
magnitude is calculated mathematically using the amount and duration of ground vibration /
tremors as recorded by seismograph.
Richter’s Scale
Magnitude Earthquake intensity description
2.5 Generally not felt but recorded
4.5 Causes local damage

BENGALURU 560107
6.0 Destructive in populous region.
7.0 Major earthquake, which inflicts loss of lie and serious

damage
8.0 Great earthquake ends in total destruction
4.7.4 Causes and effects of earthquakes
4.7.4.1 Causes and effects of earthquakes
The causes of earthquakes may be due to the various reasons depending upon their intensity.
The following are the major causes
 Superficial movements.
 Volcanic eruption.
 Faulting and folding.
 Earthquakes due to other causes.
 Earthquakes due to superficial movements: the feeble earthquakes are caused due to the
superficial movements such as dynamic agencies operating upon the earth’s surface.
Example:
(i) The dashing of waves cause vibration along seashore.
(ii) Water descending along high waterfalls.
(iii) The snow falling (avalanche) down from high altitude causes ground Vibration.
(iv) The movement of locomotive and working of heavy machinery produces feeble vibration,
along the railway tracks and in industrial areas.
 Earthquakes caused due to volcanic eruption: Some of the volcanoes may also produce
earthquakes such earthquakes are generally feeble or severe.
 Earthquakes caused due to folding and faulting: The earthquakes caused due to folding /
faulting are more disastrous. They are known as tectonic earthquakes and directly or
indirectly change the very structural features of the earth's crust.
 Earthquakes caused due to other causes: Atomic minerals disintegrate emanating α
(alpha), β (beta), γ (gamma) rays due to radioactivity or due to bombarding. This
produces enormous amount of heat and energy within the crust of the earth, which may
also initiate very severe earthquakes.

BENGALURU 560107
 Atomic tests: Atomic tests conducted in earth's crust or oceans, which have become a
common thing now- a- days, release enormous energy on account of sudden explosion,
which follows initiation of earthquakes.
 Rocks burst and blasting in the deep under mines generally initiates earthquake tremors.
4.7.4.2 Effects of earthquakes
1. In cities seismic waves disrupt underground service such as water, gas pipelines and
bursts causing fire.
2. Roads are fissured, railway lines are twisted, dams and bridges are destroyed, electrical
transmission is snapped causing short circuit of electricity and out-break of fire hazards.
3. Buildings are damaged and people get frightened resulting in loss of life and property.
4. Permanent tilting of landmass may occur in certain areas; landslides may occur in hill
regions.
5. Rivers change their courses; fissures are opened up in the ground, which may cause
springs.
6. Earthquakes occurring below the ocean floor may cause heavy damage to coastal areas
4.7.5 Record of earthquakes

Seismograph: The instrument used for recording the vibrations of the earth Crust is known
as “seismograph”. The vibrations are recorded on a strip of paper or photograph film and the
diagram is produced as shown.
. Fig.4.13 Seismograph
Most seismographs contain a heavy weight suspended from a support, which is attached to
bedrock. When waves from a distant earthquake reach the instrument the inertia of the weight
keeps it stationary while the earth and support vibrate. The movement of the earth in relation

BENGALURU 560107
to the stationary weight is recorded on a rotating drum. Some seismographs detect horizontal
motion while others detect vertical motion. The traces of the earthquake waves are usually
recorded on a moving photographic paper as a series of zigzag lines. With the help of
seismograph the distance between the recording station and the epicenter is located or
determined.
4.5.6 Seismic waves

P Wave
S Wave Surface waves
One minute
Fig 4.14 Seismic waves

At the time of earthquake three types of waves are produced from the focus. Seismic waves
are of three types – P waves, S waves and L waves. Surface waves or L waves are responsible
for causing earthquakes while the importance P and S waves are in study of earth’s interior.
P and S waves travel through the interior of the earth and are reflected and refracted as they
enter core and mantle layers. P waves or Primary waves: These are compressional waves,
which cause the material of rock to vibrate in longitudinal direction. The primary waves travel
faster, therefore they reach the seismic station first. They pass through solids as well as liquid
media. The velocity of P waves from 5.5 to 13 Kms per second. These waves are also called
as Push waves and are similar to Sound waves. S waves or Secondary waves: These are
shear waves, which are transverse in nature, whose velocity is less than P waves. (The
velocity of these waves varies from 3 to 7 Kms per second). The S waves travel through solids
only and do not pass through liquid media.

BENGALURU 560107
L waves or Surface waves: When primary and secondary waves reach the earth's surface
they are converted into longitudinal wave. L waves travel along the surface and cause
earthquakes. They are traverse in nature and their velocity is much less than P and S waves
(velocity varies from 4 km to 4.3 km per second.
4.7.7 World distribution of earthquakes
The earthquakes occur in geologically active areas, mid oceanic ridges and mountain building
regions. The zones where earthquakes occur frequently are known as seismic belts. The
principal seismic belts on the earth's surface are as follows:
1. The circumpacific belt: The belt encircles the Pacific Ocean and more or less overlaps
the belt of young mountains and the zone of active volcanoes. This belt covers Chile, Peru,
Central America, and Caribbean area, Mexico, Kamchatka, Japan, Philippines, Indonesia and
New Zealand etc.
2. Alpine Himalayan belt: The belt starts from East Indies and passes through the
Himalayan foothills region to the Alpine mountain areas of Europe, rift valley of east of North
Africa, Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Iran, North India and Burma.
4.7.8 Indian earthquakes

In India, earthquakes frequently occur along the foothill zone of Himalayas beginning from
Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east. After 1819, about 15 very destructive earthquakes
have occurred in India. Some of the earthquakes are as follows:
1. Assam 1819, 1897 and 1950. Intensity 8.5 and it is Catastrophic of the world.
2. Bihar 1934 and 1992 Uttarkashi (North Bihar).
3. Indo- Nepal Border, 1988.
4. Himachal Pradesh 1905, 1975 and 1987.
5. Kashmir 1963, 1972 and 1976.
6. Kutch area, Gujarat 1819, 1956, 1970 and 2000.
7. Lahore, Maharastra. 1993
8. Gujarat (Republic day date, 2001
Note: For Indians Seismic zones please refer Fig.4.15

BENGALURU 560107

BENGALURU 560107

BENGALURU 560107
Fig 4.15 Indians Seismic zones
Major earthquakes around the world since early last century

Date Place Magnitud Killed
e
26 December 2003 South eastern Iran, Bam 6.5 41,000
21 May 2003 Northern Algeria 6.8 2,300
25 March 2002 Northern Afghanistan 5.8 1,000
26 January 2001 India 7.9 2,500
21 September 1999 Taiwan 7.6 2,400
17 August Western Turkey 7.4 17,000
25 January 1999 Western Colombia 6.0 1,171
30 May 1998 Northern Afghanistan and 6.9 5,000
Tajikistan
17 January 1995 Kobe, Japan 7.2 6,000
30 September 1993 Latur, India 6.0 10,000
21 June 1990 Northwest Iran 7.3-7.7 50,000
7 December 1988 Northwest Armenia 6.9 25,000
19 September 1985 Central Mexico 8.1 9,500
16 September 1978 Northeast Iran 7.7 25,000
28 July 1976 Tangshan, China 7.8-8.2 2,40,000
4 February 1976 Guatemala 7.5 22,778
29 February 1960 Morocco 5.7 12,000
26 December 1939 Erincan Province, Turkey 7.9 33,000
24 January 1939 Chilian Chile 8.3 28,000
31 May 1935 Quetta, India 7.5 50,000
1 September 1923 Tokyo-Yokohama, Japan 8.3 1,40,000

BENGALURU 560107
4.7.9 Earthquakes resisting structures
To build earthquake-resisting structure it is very essential to determine the probable intensity

and magnitude in the concerned area. The history and record of previous earthquake and the
knowledge of geology of the area are helpful in this connection.
 Perfectly designed steel framed or reinforced Ferro concrete structure possesses high
degree of resistance from damage.
 It is recommended that in soft grounds where soil-bearing capacity is very poor, a concrete
raft-foundation should be adopted for structures.
 The height of large building should not exceed 100 ft. The heavy loads near the top, like
heavy stone work in coping and water tanks should be avoided.
 Bridges with screw pile foundation stand better to the shocks, than that of bridges with
brick arches, and girder supported on stone work piers.
 In house construction light roof (Low density concrete) and polymer construction material
are recommended.
 Walls constructed in cement with wet bricks wok bonded are essential.
 Careful planning can ensure that the streets are wide in relation to the height of buildings.
Many of the deaths caused during earthquakes are due to the collapse of tall buildings
into narrow streets.
 Reinforced concrete houses are relatively stable. Doors and windows are provided in
alternate positions.
 The most secure house is one that will move as a unit.
 The light weight material such as wood, hard board and light weight fire proof polymer
products are employed in the construction of residential building particularly in strong
seismic zones as found in Japan.
 The main aim of the engineer is to design and construct buildings, bridges and dams in
seismic zones considering seismic co- efficient of the locality in such a way that they can
minimise loss of life during an earthquake.
4.7.10 locating the Epicenter by three Circle Method
In this method, standard tables or travel time curves, relating the epicentral distance (i.e. the
distance of the epicenter from the seismograph station) with the S.P. interval are used. The
BENGALURU 560107
S.P. interval at a station being known the epicenter distances are known. However, by
analyzing the record of a single seismograph station, although we can know the epicentral
distance, we cannot ascertain its location, as the direction of this is not known. This job of
locating the epicenter can be completed easily, provided such records are available at least
three seismological stations. These stations should, of course, be conveniently located. By
knowing the S.P. intervals for the same earthquake at these three different stations, we can
find out the three stations we can find out the three corresponding values of the 'epicentral
distance". With each of three Stations marked on a map or a globe, three circles can be drawn,
with radii equal to the epicentral distance of each, and the point of intersection will represent
the epicenter (Fig. 4.12).
s
s
Fig 4.16 Location of epicenter. S-Recording station, E-Epicentre.
To illustrate, let us suppose that a particular earthquake as recorded at three widely separated
seismograph stations A, B and C. as marked on a map or globe. The S.P.interval recorded at
these three stations was, say, 15 seconds, 20 seconds and 30 seconds, respectively. The
respective corresponding epicentral distances from these stations are now worked out from
standard tables or curves, as say 130 km, 160 Km and 240 km. Now with A, B and C as
centres and the respective distances as radii (i.e. 130, 160 and 249 km), circles are drawn
on the map to the scale. The Epicentre is finally located at the point of 'intersection' of the
three circles, say at point E (Fig.4.16).

BENGALURU 560107
4.7.11 Earthquake Recording Stations in India
In India there are five earthquake-recording stations:

(i) Gouribidanur, Karnataka
(ii) Kodaikanal in Tamilnadu
(iii) Pune and Kolaba in Maharashtra
(iv) Kolkota in West Bengal.
4.8 Highlights
 . Base level is the level below, which a stream cannot erode.
 Chemical weathering is a process by which the internal structure of a mineral is altered
by the removal and addition of elements.
 Hydration, Hydrolysis, Oxidation, Carbonation and Solution are the processes of chemical
weathering.
 Exfoliation is a mechanical weathering
 Epeirogenesis is a broad vertical movement leading to continental upwards and
downwards without severe deformation.
 Geosyncline is a thick rapidly accumulating body of sediments formed with in a narrow
belt, which is usually parallel to the margin of a continent.
 Continental crust is lower in density than the oceanic crust.
 There are periodic changes when the North Pole becomes the South Pole and vice versa.
 Where a mass of earth or rock slides down the slope along a definite zone or surface the
movement is called a Slide
 The important types of landslides are: Slumps, rockslides and rock falls.
 In situations where slides may construct retaining walls, concrete piers, prevents cause
loss of life and property, the loose rock material.
 The factors which promote landslides are: Water, nature of the rock, structure of rock,
disturbance of equilibrium, etc.,
 Seismic activity is well defined in the Himalayan region. Because it is a tectonically active
mountain building zone.
 Sudden vibration of the earth is called an Earthquake.
 P, S and L waves are Seismic waves.

BENGALURU 560107
 Karst's topography is the topography in limestone areas characterized by solution activity

and caves formed by the solution and removal of Calcium Carbonate.
 Trench is an elongated depression in the sea floor produced by the bending of oceanic
crust during subduction.
 Rift t is a fracture in the earth's crust on which divergence of ground is evidence.
 Zircon is resistance to weathering and so the degree of the weathering of zircon in a rock
is useful to judge the degree of weathering of the other mineral constituents in a rock.
4.9 Question bank

1. What is weathering of rocks? Explain the types of weathering and add a note on its
Engineering importance.
2. What is meant by erosion? Explain the methods of soil erosion.
3. What does Erosion of Soil mean? Explain the methods of Soil Conservation.
4. Explain Geological work of Rivers?
a. Soil profile b. Oxbow lakes c. Meanders Mechanical weathering
d. Life cycle of river system f. meanders
6. What does Erosion of Soil mean? Explain the methods of Soil
Conservation
a. Earthquakes b. Seismic waves c.Tsunamis d.Seismograph
8. What is an earthquake? Describe the Tectonic causes of earthquakes.
9. What is an earthquake? How are they caused? In what way are helpful in deciphering the
interior of the earth? Add a note on Seismographs?
MODULE 5
BENGALURU 560107
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY/ ROCK MECHANICS

5.1 Introduction
Structural Geology is a branch of geology deals with the study of structures found in rocks.
Structural geology is also known as “Tectonic geology" or simply Tectonics. Structural geology
is closely related to the other branches of geology such as Stratigraphy, Paleontology,
Petrology, Economic geology and Geophysics. The aims of structural geology are to:
(a) Identify and describe the structure.
(b) Investigate the age of the structure.
(c) The causes and conditions by which the structures as developed in the rocks .
Importance
The study of structural geology is most useful for a Civil Engineer as the
arrangement of rocks always plays an important role in the selection of suitable sites
for all types of projects such as dams, tunnels, multistoried buildings, etc.,
5.2 OUTCROP
Outcrop is the area to which a particular rock bed is exposed on the earth's
surface as shown in the fig.5.1

BENGALURU 560107
Rock out crop Rock beds

exposed at
the ground
Soil layer
Solid rock
Fig.5.1 Dip and Strike of beds
5.3 DIP
It is the angle of inclination of a rock bed with the horizontal plane. The dip
includes both the direction and the angle.
Apparent dip and true dip
The true dip is the maximum angle, which an inclined bed makes with the
horizontal. It is measured at right angles to the strike in a vertical plane.

BENGALURU 560107
S C S
D3
D2
D4
D1
SS = Strike
D
CD = True Dip
CD1 - Cd4 = Apparent dip
Fig.5.2 True dip and apparent dip

If the angle measured in any other direction, as along Cd1 or Cd2 it will have
a value less than the true dip such partial dip angles are called “apparent dip”. So
the apparent dip may be defined “as the inclination of bed to the horizontal in any
other direction than the direction of true dip”.
5.4 STRIKE
It is the direction of a line formed by the direction of the plane of a bed with a
horizontal plane. The strike is always at right angles to the true dip. The instrument
used to measure dip and strike is called compass clinometer.
5.5 DESCRIPTION AND USES OF COMPASS CLINOMETER
The dip and strike of an exposed bed in the field can be measured in degrees
by an instrument, known as a clinometer, which consists of a pendulum with a
graduated arc. A compass can measure the directions of the dip and strike similarly.
For the sake of convenience, a clinometer as well as a compass is both combined
together, as to form an instrument known as Clinometer- Compass. The clinometer
of this instrument will help in measuring the amount of the dip and the strike, while
the compass will help in measuring their directions with respect to north, south, east
BENGALURU 560107
and west. The clinometer compass (Fig.5.3.) differs rather from an ordinary compass
in the following manner.
Fig.5.3. Compass Clinometer
1. This compass is usually fixed to a rectangular plate made of cast iron or plastic,
in such a way that the 00= 1800 diameter, i.e., North-South direction, is parallel
to the length (i.e., longer side of the rectangular plate).
2. The divisions on the circle from 00 to 3600 go anticlockwise. The signs for East
and West are thus the opposite from the normal compass. This is done so as
to calculate the azimuth of the strike directly from the position of the North
pointing end of the magnetic needle.
3. A Clinometer is situated to the compass needle with a half circle divided from
00 to 900 On Either Side as
shown. The angle of the dip is measured by its
position on the half circle. The elements on the beds of a rock stratum are
determined in 4 steps by this instrument:
(a) The direction or line of the strike is first determined on a cleared patch of
the bed.
(b) Having determined the strike, the direction or line of the dip is determined.

BENGALURU 560107
(c) To determine the azimuth of the dip of the bed the compass is applied to
the strike, so that the south end is pressed against the bed and the north end
is pointed down the dip.
(d) Knowing the azimuth of the dip of the bed, there is no need to further
measure the azimuth of the strike, as adding or subtracting 900 to the
measured azimuth of the dip can easily calculate it.
5.6 FOLDS
5.6.1 Definition of fold
It is frequently seen that the strata forming the earth’s crust have been not
only tilted out of the horizontal but also bent of buckled into folds. Such a fold may
range from microscopic crinkle to great arches and troughs even upto 100kms across.
A complete fold is composed of arched portion or Anticline and a depressed trough
or Syncline.
5.6.2 Parts of a Fold
Fig 5.4– Parts of a fold

BENGALURU 560107
In a series of folds it is evident like WAVES. They consist of

alternate crests and troughs. The crest of the fold is termed as
Anticline while the trough is called Synclines. An anticline and
syncline constitute a fold.
Limbs or Flanks: - Limbs or a flank of the fold is sloping side from the crest to the
trough.
Axial plane: - An imaginary plane is bisecting the vertical angle between equal
slopes on either sides of the crest line.
Axis of the fold: - The line that divides the section of the fold.
5.6.3Types of folds
A. Based on the geometrical appearance in cross-section, Following are the types of

folds are described below from simple to complex.
1. Homocline.
Fig.5.5 Homocline
Beds dipping in one direction but at the same angle.
2. Monocline.

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.5.6Monocline
Infact beds there are steep dip at one or two places. Such a bed where
inclination is high at one or two places compared to the rest.
3. Structural terrace.
Fig.5.7 Structural terrace
A bed, which is inclined in one direction, may become more or less flat at one
Place.
4. Anticline and Syncline.

BENGALURU 560107
Fig 5.8 Anticline and Syncline

5. Overturned fold
Fig 5.9 Overturned fold
In this fold the two limbs dip in the same direction but at different angles. The
axial plane is inclined.
6. Isoclinal fold.
Inclined Vertical Horizontal
Isoclinal fold Isoclinal fold Isoclinal fold
(Axial plane is (Axial plane is (Axial plane is
Inclined). Inclined). Inclined)

BENGALURU 560107
Fig 5.10 Isoclinal fold.
In Greek Isoclinal fold means the two limbs dip in the same direction but at the
same angle.
7. Chevron fold.
Sharp Crest
Sharp Trough
Fig.5.11. Chevron fold
Usually the crest and troughs of a fold are rounded, but sometimes the folds
are characterised by sharp crests and troughs. Such folds where the crests and
troughs are sharp and angular are called Chevron Folds.
8. Recumbent fold.

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.5.12.Recumbent fold
A fold in which the axial plane is absolutely horizontal and the limbs are also
more or less horizontal is called Recumbent Fold as in the accompanying figure.5.12.
9. Drag fold.
Axial Plane
Fig.5.13. Drag fold
These are minor or small folds formed when competent beds (strong beds)
move over the incompetent beds (weak beds). The axial planes of these folds are
inclined to the bedding planes. Drag folds are useful in the determination of top and
bottom of the beds.
10. Anticlinorium and Synclinorium.

BENGALURU 560107
Anticlinorium and Synclinorium are called respectively to exceptionally large

sized fold Anticline and Syncline when it is composite fold. An Anticlinorium is a fan
shaped structure and the trend if the fold is anticline character.
a = Axis
a
a
a a
Fig 5.14. Anticlinorium
Synclinorium is an exceptionally large sized fold in which the trend of the fold is
synclinal in character.
a = Axis
a
a
a
a
Fig .5.15. Synclinorium
B. Folding of Rocks with Depth

With depth the physical conditions change. This normally affects the folding of
rocks when they are traced downward. Following are the important types of folding
based on their behaviour with depth.

BENGALURU 560107
1. Similar folding.
Crest
Fig.5.16. Similar folding
In this folding the bedding planes are similar having the dame shape
downwards or upwards so the beds near the crest are thicker and the beds at the
limbs are thinner.
2. Parallel folding.
Anticline
Syncline
Fig.5.17. Parallel folding
In this type of folding the bedding plane remains parallel throughout because of
this anticlines, which are sharp, becomes rounded and more broad. Similar Synclines,
which are broad and rounded, becomes sharper with depth.
3.Diaper fold.

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.5.18.Diaper fold
This type of folding is common on sedimentary beds where more mobile beds
are found at the centre. There are anticlines where more mobile core has broken
through the overlying brittle rocks. Such folds are common in Salt beds in France.
4.Disharmonic folding.
Fig.5.19.Disharmonic folding

BENGALURU 560107
In this type, folding is not uniform throughout the stratigraphic column. Folding
changes upwards or downwards as shown in figure. At the top folding is in the form
of a simple anticline and passes to an overturned fold and still at more depth folding
disappears
5. Suprataneous folding.
Fig.5.20. Suprataneous folding
When folding and sedimentation are contemporaneous Suprataneous folding

is formed. The beds near the crest are thinner because the beds were rising. The
beds near the troughs are thicker because the basin was sinking during
sedimentation.
6. Decollement fold
Overlying beds
foloding independently
Underlying beds

BENGALURU 560107
Fig.5.21.Decollement fold
In this type of folding a sheet of sedimentary bed breaks loose from the
underlying fold independently without affecting the lower beds.
5.6.4 Recognition of folds in the field
In recognition of folds the following factors are important.
1. The repetition of outcrops of beds suggests the present fold.
Dip
Dip
Fig. 5.22. Repetition of outcrop notes the reversal of dip direction.
2. If folding is open the reversal of dip direction is enough to identify folds (as in the
figure above). In anticlines the oldest bed will occupy an axial position, and in
synclines the youngest bed will occur there.
3. In plunging fold as a rule give rise to curved outcrops the apex of which is called
a “closure”.
4. In case of overturned and Isoclinal folds, where all the limbs dip in the same
direction, detailed observations are necessary to identify synclines and anticlines.
The features which aid in finding out the stratigraphic top of a bed and hence the
synclines and anticlines are drag folds, rock cleavage, cross-bedding, symmetrical
ripple marks and graded bedding.
5.6.5 Engineering Considerations
1. For a major project like a dam, tunnel, railway station, etc., a site which is
highly folded should be avoided because the engineer may have to face much
BENGALURU 560107
trouble sooner or later as folds are easily fractured even due to a slight
disturbance.
2. If the project is of a scattered nature like electric or telephonic poles the work can
be carried out without much of a risk.
3. Folds are also important to a water supply engineer specially when he has to select
a suitable site for digging wells for water supply purpose. It has been observed
that if the excavation of a well is done through impervious strata it will not yield
any amount of water. If another well is excavated through previous strata it will
yield abundance of water.
4. Synclinal folded rocks may yield hard and tough quality stones; where as anticlinal
folded rocks will yield weaker stones.
5. The anticlinal folds provide good prospects for stored petroleum, and hence in oil
exploration, folds must not be overlooked.
5.7 JOINTS
5.7.1. Definition of a Joint
Joints are cracks or fracture present in the rocks along which there has been
no displacement. Joints occur in all types of rocks. They may be vertical, inclines or
even horizontal. Their dip and strike are measured in the same way as that of
sedimentary strata.
Joints are formed as a result of contraction due to cooling or consolidation of

rocks. They are also formed when the rocks are subjected to compression or tension
during earth movements.
Commonly, a large number of joints lie parallel to one another. These parallel
joints together to form a joint-set. A joint system consists of two or more joint sets.
5.7.2 Classification of joints
On the basis of the origin joints may be classified into two groups.
They are:
1. Tension joints:
BENGALURU 560107
2. Tension joints are those, which are formed as a result of tension forces. These
joints are relatively open and have rough and irregular surfaces.
Fig 5.23 Anticline showing strike joints formed due to tension.
The columnar joints in lava flows and longitudinal joints in the anticline that
run parallel to the axis of the fold are the examples of tension joints.
3. Shear joints
Shear joints are those, which are due to shearing stresses involved in folding
and faulting of rocks. These joints are rather clear cut and tightly closed. Shear joints
occur in two sets and intersect at a high angle to form a “conjugate joint system”.
4. On the basis of their altitude and geometry they may be classified as

follows
Strike Joint: Joints that are parallel to the strike of rocks are called “Strike Joints”.
Dip Joints: Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks are called “Dip Joint”.
Oblique Joints
Joints, which run in a direction that lies between the strikes and dip direction
of the rock beds, are called “Oblique Joints”.
Bedding Joints

BENGALURU 560107
Joints that are parallel to the bedding planes in a sedimentary rock are called
“Bedding Joints”.
Master Joints
In sedimentary rocks the joints usually run in two directions at nearly right
angles. One set of joints run parallel to the dip direction and the other parallel to
strike o these one set of joints commonly more strongly developed than the other
and extends for long distances. Such well-developed joints are called “Master Joints”.
Mural Joints
Granites show three sets of joints mutually at right angles, which divide the
rocks mass into more or less cubical blocks. Such joints are called “Mural Joints”.
Sheet Joint
Sheet joints are often seen in the exposures of granites. These joints run in
the horizontal direction and are formed tension cracks during cooling of the rock.
These joints are somewhat curve and essentially parallel to topographic surface. They
are more conspicuous and closer together near the ground surface.
Columnar Joints
Fig 5.24. Columnar Joint
Columnar joints are formed in tabular igneous masses such as dykes, sills and
lava flows. These joints divide the rock into hexagonal columns as shown in figure

BENGALURU 560107
4.24, which are arranged at right angles to the chief cooling surface. In Lavas and
Sills the columns are vertical, while in Dykes they are more or less horizontal.
5.7.3 Engineering consideration of joints
1. In quarry operation joints in rocks are helpful for easier detachment of the rocks.
2. Well-cleaved rocks with many systems of joints are broken at much less expenses.
3. Joints provide passage for the percolation of water and help weathering and
formation of soil.
4. Joints control the natural ground water drainage system in rocks and
underground.
5. Joints are useful in exploration of water and in location of well sites.
5.8 FAULTS
5.8.1 Definition of a fault
Faults are fractures along which movement of one block with respect to others
has taken place. This movement may vary from a few centimetres to many kilometres
depending on the nature and magnitude of the stresses and resistance offered by the
rocks.
5.8.2 Parts of a fault

BENGALURU 560107
FW
A BAC = Hade
AB = Throw
BC = Heave
FF = Falut plane
FW = Foot wall
HW = Hanging wall
Throw
HW
B Heave C
Fig 5.25 Parts of a fault.

Following parts of fault are important from the subject point of view.
1. Fault Plane.
2. Hanging wall and Footwall.
3. Hade.
4. Throw and
5. Heave.
1. Fault Plane
A plane along which the rupture has actually taken place or where one block
is moved with respect to other is known as “Fault Plane”. It may be noted that
such a plane is generally formed along the line of least resistance.
2. Hanging wall and Footwall

The upper block or in other words the block above the fault plane is called
“Hanging wall”. The block below the fault plane or, in other words, beneath the
fault plane is called the Footwall.
3. Hade
It is the inclination of the fault plane that is vertical.
4. Throw:
It is the vertical displacement between the Hanging wall and Footwall.
BENGALURU 560107
5. Heave
It is the horizontal displacement between the Hanging wall and Footwall.
5.8.3 Types of faults
Depending upon the inclination of the fault number of types of faults are
recognized.
1. Normal Fault
F
Foot wall
Hanging wall
Fig.5.26. Normal fault
A fault in which Hanging wall (HW) has apparently come down with respect to
the Footwall (FW) is termed as Normal Fault.
2. Reverse Fault

BENGALURU 560107
F
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Fig 5.27 Reverse fault
A Fault in which hanging wall has apparently gone up with respect to the
Footwall is termed as “Reverse Fault”. The only difference between the Normal Fault
and Reverse Fault is that, in Normal Fault the Hanging wall is downward with respect
to the Footwall where as in a Reverse Fault the apparent movement of the Hanging
wall is upwards with respect to the Footwall.

BENGALURU 560107
3. Thrust Fault
F
Hanging wall
Foot wall
Fig 5.28 Thrust fault.
A fault which is a very small angle of hade (i.e., the inclination of fault plane
with the vertical plane is very small) and the Hanging wall that apparently goes up
with respect to the Footwall is called “Thrust Fault”.
4. Vertical Fault
F
Fig 5.29 Vertical fault

BENGALURU 560107
A fault in which the fault plane is vertical (having an angle of hade up to 5

degrees) and either of the walls has moved upwards or downwards.
5. Horst Fault
Wedge shaped block
Side block
Fig 5.30 Horst fault

Horst (German, Horst = up throw) Fault is one in which wedge shaped block
has gone up with respect to the side blocks.
6. Graben Fault or Rift Fault or Trench Fault
Side block
Wedge shaped block
Fig 5.31 Graben fault

BENGALURU 560107
Graben (German, Graben = Trench) Fault is one in which wedge shaped block
has come down with respect to side block.
7. Dip Fault or Transverse Fault

A Dip Fault whose strike is parallel to the dip of the strata is called “Transverse
Fault”.
8. Strike Fault
A Strike Fault is one whose strike is parallel to the strike of the strata.
9. Parallel Fault
A series of faults running more or less parallel to one another and all hading
in the same direction is called “Parallel Fault”.
10. Step Fault

The term Step Fault is applied to that parallel fault where down throw of all is
in the same direction and it gives a step- like arrangement.
Fig 5.32 Step fault

BENGALURU 560107
5.8.4 Field evidence of Faulting
Field evidence of faulting can be divided into two groups. They are:
 Lithological evidence including:

 Slickensides
 Fault Breccia and gauge
 Drag
 Dislocations
 Repetition and Omission of beds
 Abrupt termination of structures and
 Silicificatrion and Mineralisation
1. Physiographic evidence
These include Fault scrap, Fault line scrap and Fault control of streams.
 Slickensides
The movements of one wall against another along fault results in polishing
and grooving of one or both surfaces. These are known as “Slickensides”. The
direction of the movement is indicated by the trend of the striations or grooves.
 Fault Breccia and Gouge

Along some faults the rocks are found highly fractured or even crushed to
angular fragments. Such crushed rocks are called “Fault Breccia”. When
the dislocation forces are very severe, as is frequently the case in thrusting,
the rock may be ground to fine clay like powder called “Gouge”.
 Drag
Drag is the minor folding of strata along the walls of a fault. It is caused by
fault displacement.
 Dislocation:
The displacement of beds, igneous dykes; veins etc, along a fault may be seen
in either plan or section.

BENGALURU 560107
 Repetition or Omission of beds

The repetition and omission of beds often establish the fault.
Dip
Dip
Fig 5.33– Showing displacement of outcrop by dip faults.
 Abrupt termination of structures

An abrupt termination of structures such as folds, beds or dykes along a
common line or zone suggests faulting.
 Silicification and Mineralization:

Action water while percolation through a fault zone may deposit fine-
grained Quartz causing Silicificatrion. Many mineral deposits have also
been localized along faults.
 Fault Scarp
An actual surface of fault displacement may stand up unmodified by erosion
as in escarpment or cliff. It is called a “Fault Scrap”. In this case the escarpment
faces towards the down throw side.
Fault line Scrap
Fault frequently brings together resistant and non-resistant rocks. The

resistant rock will stand out prominently as ridge along a fault zone. Such ridges
that will generally face the up throw side of the faults are called “Fault Scrap Side”.
 Fault Control or Streams

BENGALURU 560107
Streams may be guided in the direction and course of their flow by faulting
such stream, which may follow a straight line or make approximately right angle
turns.
5.8.5Effects of Faults on Outcrop

1. Effects of Dip Fault
The effect of Dip Fault is to cause lateral displacement in the outcrops
as shown in the figure.4.34 (A)
Fig 5.34 Repetition of beds by faulting and erosion.
Fig 5.35 Omission of beds by faulting and erosion.
The amount of displacement becomes less with increase in the dip of rocks and
in vertical strata the displacement of outcrops will be nil.

BENGALURU 560107
2. Effect of Strike Faults
The effects of Strike Fault are either to cause a repetition of the outcrops of
the beds or to eliminate the outcrops of some of the beds altogether. Repetition of
the outcrops occur when a Strike Fault Hades in the opposite direction to the dip of
strata as shown in the figure 4.34 (B).
5.8.6 Engineering Considerations of Faults

1. Strictly speaking no site should be selected on a fault for any major project
because movements along the existing fault plane are much easier than any other
planes.
2. For major projects like a dam, tunnel, etc., a site that is highly faulted should be
avoided because the engineer may have to face much trouble sooner or later. The
structure constructed on fault may collapse at any moment even due to slight
disturbance.
3. If the project is of a scattered nature like electric or telegraphic poles the work
can be carried out without much of a risk.
4. Safety factor building modification should bear the initial shocks of an earthquake
of low intensity.
5. Faults are responsible for lakes, swamps and marshy places.
6. Fault traces often provide potential springheads.
7. Fault zones often form oil traps.
5.9 Unconformities
5.9.1 Conformity
Succession of strata where in all beds are horizontal and deposited one above
the other according to the law of order of superposition, without disturbance of
erosion while they were being deposited, such a succession of strata is called
“Conformable beds”.
5.9.2 Unconformity

BENGALURU 560107
Major breaks in sedimentation are called “Unconformity". In other words an

unconformity is an old erosion surface that separates younger series of rocks from
the older series.
Unconformity
Fig 5.36 – Unconformity
Types of Unconformity
There are mainly three types of unconformity. They are:
1. Disconformity
2. Angular unconformity and
3. Nonconformity
1. Disconformity

BENGALURU 560107
Fig 5.37- Disconformity
The rock beds on opposite sides of a Disconformity are parallel as shown in

figure.5.36.
Angular Unconformity
Unconformity
Fig 5.38– Angular Unconformity
The rock beds on opposite side of an angular unconformity are not parallel.

BENGALURU 560107
2. Nonconformity
Unconformity
Fig 5.39- non-conformity
When the older rock formation is made up of plutonic igneous rocks and is
overlain by unconformably sedimentary rocks, the structure is called
“Nonconformity”.
3. Overlap
Overlap
Fig 5.40 Overlap

BENGALURU 560107
In some cases the junction between two series of beds is smooth and
represents a gently sloping old land surface, which slowly sank below sea level. As a
result when series of rocks were deposited on the older beds, each new bed in turn
as ‘C’,’B’ in the figure 4.39 encroached more and more on the land surface.
5.9.3 Field evidences of Unconformities
The following factors aid in recognizing unconformities in the field.
1. Marked difference in the fossils showing gap in the succession of rock beds.
2. Presence of conglomerates at the base of upper series of rocks. Such
conglomerates contain fragments of the underlying rock beds.
3. Presence of structure discordance in the two series of rocks.
4. Presence of rock beds, which are formed under contrasting conditions such as
non-marine beds overlain by marine beds or cross-bedded strata overlain by
strata showing graded bedding.
5.9.4 Uses of Unconformities
James Hutton (1795) was the first to interpret the significance of

unconformities.
1. Unconformity represents a gap, break or interval of the deposition of beds and

forms a record of time gap.
2. In certain situation unconformity produces oil traps and aquifers.
3. Unconformity helps in visualizing paleogeography of a region.
4. .Unconformity is an important structure that affects site conditions for engineering
Work. It generally forms a weak zone.
5.10 HIGHLIGHTS
 Structural Geology is a branch of Geology, which deals with the study of Structures
found in rocks.

BENGALURU 560107
 Outcrop is the area on which a particular rock bed is exposed on the earth's
surface.
 Dip is defined as the angle of inclination of a rock bed with the horizontal.
 Anticline and Syncline constitute a fold.
 Folds are wave- like features found in rocks.
 Joints are cracks or fractures present in rocks.
 Crests and troughs of a fold are sharp and angular are called chevron folds.
 The study of structural geology is most useful for a civil engineer as the
arrangement of rocks always plays an important role in the selection of suitable
sites for all types of projects such as dams, tunnels, multistoried buildings, etc.,
 Decollement fold: In this type of folding a sheet of sedimentary bed, breaks loose
from the underlying beds and folds independently with out affecting the lower
beds.
 The anticlinal beds provide good prospects for stored petroleum, and hence in oil
exploration folds must not be overlooked. Joints are cracks or fractures present
in the rocks along which there. Has been no displacement of blocks.
 Faults are fractures along which movement of one block with respect to the other
has taken place.
 Depending upon the inclination of the fault number of types of faults is
recognized.
 Major breaks during Sedimentation are called Unconformity. In other words an
Unconformity is an old erosion surface that separates younger series of rocks from
the older series.
 Compass clinometer is the instrument used to measure Dip and Strike
 For major projects like dams. Tunnels, multistoried buildings, etc a site that is
highly folded and faulted should be avoided.
5.11 QUESTION BANK
1. What is a fold? Describe the parts of a fold. Attempt the classification of folds in
brief. Discuss the importance of fold in the field of civil engineering. [VTU Aug/Sept
2000]
BENGALURU 560107
2. What are faults? Describe the types of faults giving suitable sketches for each and
mention engineering consideration of faults.
3. What are joints? Describe the different types of joints and mention engineering
considerations.
4. Define an unconformity. Describe the types of unconformities and mention the
field evidence of unconformity.
5. Differentiate between the following pairs
a. Overturned and recumbent fold.

b. Horst fault and Graben fault.
c. Sheet Joint and Columnar Joint.
d. Normal fault and Reverse fault.
6. Differentiate between the following pairs:
a. Foot wall and Hanging wall.
b. Anticline and Syncline.
c. Joint and a Fault
d. Disconformity and Angular Unconformity
7. Write short notes on the following.
a. Dip and Strike.

b. Chevron fold.
c. Structural terrace.
d. Columnar Joints.
8. Write short notes on the following.
a. Unconformity.
b. Recumbent fold.
c. Terminology of faults [VTU Aug/Sept 2000].
d. Angular unconformity [VTU Aug/Sept 2000].

BENGALURU 560107
e. Engineering importance of joints.

f. Decollement fold
g. Anticlinorium and Synclinorium.
8. With a labelled neat sketch describe various parts of faults. Attempt
classification of faults in brief. Discuss importance of faults in the field of civil
engineering.

BENGALURU 560107
Role of Geology in the field of Mining Engineering
Role of Geology in the field of Engineering Sciences such as Mining Engineering, Civil
Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Construction Technology Management, Metallurgy,
Chemical Engineering, Cement and Ceramic Technology and Mechanical Engineering may be
briefly outlined as follows.
1) To discover new deposits of minerals and rocks for systematic scientific method of
mining/Quarrying operations.
2) Geological investigation is helpful in discovering natural fossil fuel, Rarer elements such
as Coal, Petroleum and Uranium deposits.
3) In the preparation of Mining plans Geology is useful (helpful)in metallic and Non metallic
minerals for exploration and exploitation.
4) Geology is helpful in producing metallic and Non metallic minerals for mineral based
industries
Example:1) metallic minerals such as Hematite, Magnetite for iron and steel industry.
2) Non metallic minerals such as Quartz and Feldspar recommended for glass
Industry
Gypsum recommended for Fertilizer industry
Clay minerals recommended for ceramic industry.
3) Limestone recommended for cement industry.
5) Geological Time Scale is helpful in locating Metallogenic epochs and Metalliferrous
Provinces globally.
6) Geological plans, Maps and sections helpful in Environmental clearances from State
Government appointed for systematic organizing mining operations.
7) Submission of mining plans and sections for Central government, Ministry of steel and
mines such as Indian Bearue of mines (IBM) For mineral based projects, clearance from
central government based on the exploration data for systematic operation of mine from
Central government clearance for sustainable Mineral conservation and Development.
8) Selection of Suitable method of mining based on the structural geology of the area,
Nature of the ore deposit for planning and designing such as massive and huge deposits
recommended for surface mining operation by providing benches and fixing the height of
the benches.

BENGALURU 560107
If veins, cavity filling and hydrothermal deposits recommended for subsurface mining
operation.
9) Placer deposits for collection of minerals by sieve analysis for natural method of collection
such as precious metals and semiprecious gemstones such as Ruby, Diamond and Ilmenite.
10) Preparation of mining documents, Geological plans, Maps and sections for obtaining
Environmental clearance from State and Central Government Departments.
11) Selection of suitable site for dumping waste and overburden by studying the nature of
the deposits for systematic operation of the mines either by manual or by highly modern
mechanized operation for mineral based industries for maintaining the Safety of mine by
DGML guidelines and Mine Act 1956.
12 ‘Mines Generate Wealth’ –Kautilya in Arthashastra.
13) Intelligent and useful application of the geological knowledge in the field of mining
constitutes the subject matter of Mining Geology. Similarly Intelligent and useful application
of the geological knowledge in the field of civil Engineering constitutes the subject matter of
Civil Engineering Geology
Due to the advancement of knowledge and improvement in techniques by continuous

research we can increase the uses of minerals.
Minerals are the backbones of our modern industries. There can be no industry without
minerals. Industries largely depend on the occurrence of minerals.
Example: Iron and steel industries largely depends on the occurrence of Iron ore.
14) The knowledge about the nature of the rock is very necessary in tunneling, constructing
roads, determining the stability of cuts and slopes. Thus the geology helps in mining
engineering
15) The principal objective of the Mining Geologist is the protection of life and property
against damage caused by geologic conditions.
16) Secondary structures like folds such as synclinal folded rocks may yield hard and tough
quality stones whereas Anticlinal folded rocks may yield weak stone.
17) Anticlinal folded rocks provide good prospect for stored petroleum.
18) In Quarry operation joints which are helpful for easier detachment of rocks.
19) In certain situation Unconformity produces oil traps and aquifers
20) Unconformity helps in visualizing the palaeogeography of a region.

BENGALURU 560107
21) Faults are responsible for lakes, swamps and marshy places.
22) Fault ZONE OFTEN FORM oil traps.
23) Fault traces often provide springheads.
24) Tunnels in unconsolidated rocks require Lining, Blasting is not necessary while
Tunnelling in consolidated rocks require Blasting, Lining is not necessary.
25) Tunnelling in unconsolidated rocks at shallow depth chances of falling roof and sides
Tunnelling in unconsolidated rocks at greater depth say 100feet is recommended
26) Geologists contribute their part to the nation through the discovery of new deposits of
rocks and minerals of economic value
27) A Student should know what lies beneath the crust and how long back the earth came
in to existence.
28) Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction materials, their structure and
properties.
29) The knowledge of Erosion, Transportation and Deposition (ETD) by surface water helps in
soil conservation, river control, coastal and harbour works.
30) The knowledge about the nature of the rocks is very necessary in Tunneling, constructing
roads and in determining the stability of cuts and slopes. Thus, geology helps in civil
engineering.
31) The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly related with geology
of the area where they are to be built.
32) The knowledge of ground water is necessary in connection with Excavation works, water
supply, irrigation and many other purposes.
33) Geological maps and sections help considerably in planning many engineering projects.
34)If the geological features like faults, joints, beds, folds, solution Channels are found, they
have to be suitably treated. Hence, the Stability of the structure is greatly increased.
35) Pre-geological survey of the area concerned reduces the cost of engineering work.
37) if he/she don’t have the knowledge of Geology in the above said fields this is something
like a lawyer pleading his client’s case without prior discussion with him
38) The principal objective of the Engineering Geologist is the protection of life and property
against damage caused by Geologic conditions.

BENGALURU 560107
Principles of Stratigraphy
1) Definition of Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the science of description, correlation and classification of strata in

sedimentary rocks. It also includes the interpretation of the environments of the strata .
2) Facies
A Set of lithological and paleontological characteristics of sedimentary rocks which indicate its
particular environment of deposition.
3) Facies variation
A Lateral variation in lithology and fossil assemblage in a formation which result from
change in the environment of deposition.
4) Index fossils
Those fossil forms which have short time range of their existence and wide geographical
distribution, are called index fossils. The index fossils are an excellent tool for correlating
the fossiliferous rock formations of the same age.
5 Principles of Stratigraphy
There are three major principles which are used to determine the relative age of the strata.
These principles are as follows
1) Law of Superposition
In a series of undisturbed beds a bed that overlies another bed is always the younger.
The youngest bed will be at the top of the sequence.
2) Fossil content
William Smith in 1799 noticed that each of the sedimentary bed contain a particular
set of fossils by which it can be identified.
3) Lithological character
A sedimentary bed may be identified by its distinct lithological character. But as similar
rock beds are known to occur in formations of widely different geologic age.
6. Correlation
The rock formations of widely separated areas are similar

BENGALURU 560107
6.1 Principles of Correlation
The rock formations of widely separated areas are correlated with the help of the following
criteria
1) Lithology
2) Fossil content
3) Unconformities
4) Metamorphism
5) Igneous intrusion
6) Radiometric dating
1) Lithology: Correlation by means of lithology is not reliable
2) Fossil content: Index fossils are used for correlating purposes
3) Unconformities: Unconformities are of great significance in Classifying and correlating rock

formations. Unconformities represent breaks in depositional sequence
4) Metamorphism: In a particular area the older rocks may show high grade of metamorphism
as compared to the younger rocks.
5) Igneous intrusion: The igneous history of a particular region may be Identical to

another region in such cases rocks can be correlated.
6) Radiometric dating: The age of intrusive igneous bodies may be determined by radiometric
method and then the correlation may be done
7) Fossils
Fossils are the remains or impressions of ancient plants and animals Which have been
preserved in sedimentary rocks.
7.1 Uses of Fossils
1) Evolution and migration of plants and animals through ages

2) To know the ancient climate of an area
3) To know the ancient geography of an area.
7.2 Conditions of preservation of fossils
All the animals and plants are not preserved as fossils.
The two important conditions which favour the preservation of fossils are

BENGALURU 560107
1) Possession of hard parts
2) Immediate burial
1) Possession of hard parts: After the death of the organisms the soft parts are generally
destroyed. Therefore animals like insects, jellyfish are not ordinarily preserved fossils. The
animals which possess hard skeleton have better chances of being converted in to fossil.
2) Immediate burial:
If the animals and plants are not buried quickly after the death, They are likely to be
destroyed by chemical decay and other agencies of erosion.
7.3 Forms of Fossils or Methods of preservation of fossils or

Modes of Preservation of fossils
Fossils are preserved in rocks in a number of different forms which are as
Follows
1) Entire organism preserved
2) Skeleton of organism preserved
3) Petrifaction of hard parts
4) Molds
5) Casts
6) Carbonization
1) Entire organism preserved: The whole body of the organism including
the soft parts may be preserved.
Example: Bodies of Mammoth elephants of Pleistocene age are preserved in the ice in
Northern Siberia.
2) Skeleton of organism preserved
In rocks of Tertiary age, the bony skeleton of animals having original composition and
structure are found.
3) Petrifaction of hard parts

BENGALURU 560107
Mineral materials like silica, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and iron sulphides may replace the
remains of organism particle by particle thereby preserving the structure faithfully. An
example of this type of fossil is the silicified wood.
4) Molds
After burial the hard parts of the organisms may be totally dissolved and removed in solution
as a result hollows having the same shape of the outside of the body are left with in the rock
beds. Such hollows are Called Molds.
5) Casts
Molds are filled with mineral matter producing Natural casts. A cast shows all the external
markings of the body of the organism but not its internal structure.
6) Carbonization
When plants decompose slowly, their organic tissues are transformed in to Carbon. Such
Carbonized remains commonly preserve the Structure of the original material.
Example: Seams of coal are the best example of Carbonized remains of plants

BENGALURU 560107
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
Scientists have divided entire earth history in to different time intervals.
These time intervals are divided in to different intervals of unequal length.
There are different time intervals because geologic time is divided using significant events in
the history of the earth.
Geologic time Scale is a type of chronological measurement which correlates stratigraphy to

time and is used by earth scientists to describe the timing and relationship between events
that have occurred throughout earth’s history.
The brief geological time scale is explained in the table
EON ERA PERIOD EPOCH AGE IMPORTANCE

(Million
years)
PHANEROZOIC CENOZOIC QUATERNARY Holocene 0.01
pleistocene 1.8
TERTIARY Pliocene 5.3
Miocene 23.8
Oligocene 33.7
Eocene 54.8
Paleocene 65
MESOZOIC CRETACEOUS 140
JURASSIC 210
TRIASSIC 240
PALEOZOIC PERMIAN 290
CARBONIFEROUS 354 Coal deposits of the
world
DEVONIAN 417 Age of the fishes
SILURIAN 443
ORDOVICIAN 490
CAMBRIAN 550
Pre PROTEROZOIC 550- All metallic deposits
Cambrian 2500 and building stones in
ARCHEAN >2500 construction industry

BENGALURU 560107

BENGALURU 560107


Be Mining Geology - 1 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Be Mining Geology - 1 Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Be Mining Geology - 1 Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE

Civil Engineering Geology Mining Geology

Economic Geology Petrology

Historical Geology Photo geology

Hydrogeology Physical Geology

Indian Geology Stratigraphy

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Mineralogy Structural Geology

Civil Engineering Geology

As a branch of Geology, it deals with formation, occurrence, aggregation, properties and

 For a civil engineering student to identify the rocks.

As a branch of geology, it deals with the study of application of geology to mining

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

 It reveals constructive and destructive processes of physical agents at a particular site.

1.3 Relationship of Geology with other Branches of Science and

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

1.4 Scope of Engineering Geology

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Fig. 1.1 Structure of the Solar system.

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

1.5 Structures and Composition of Earth

Table 1.1 Earth statistics.

Mass (kg) 5.976e+24

Mass (Earth = 1) 1.0000e+00

Equatorial radius (km) 6,378.14

Equatorial radius (Earth = 1) 1.0000e+00

Mean density (gm/cm^3) 5.515

Floor area of the sea (70.8%) (million sq kms) 381

Area of land (million sq kms) 149

Mean distance from the Sun (km) 149,600,000

Mean distance from the Sun (Earth = 1) 1.0000

Rotational period (days) 0.99727

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Rotational period (hours) 23.9345

Orbital period (days) 365.256

Mean orbital velocity (km/sec) 29.79

Orbital eccentricity 0.0167

Tilt of axis (degrees) 23.45

Orbital inclination (degrees) 0.000

Equatorial escape velocity (km/sec) 11.18

Equatorial surface gravity (m/sec^2) 9.78

Visual geometricalbedo 0.37

Mean surface temperature 15°C

Atmospheric pressure (bars) 1.013

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

and Hornblende in varying proportions. The remaining 5% of the crust is made up of

Fig. 1.2 Generalized structure of the Earth

Fig. 1.3 A cross-sectional view of Interior of the earth.

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

1. Sial- (Si = silicon and Al = Aluminum) having density 2.75 to 2.90).

Table 1.2 Thickness and composition of different layers of the earth

NARASIMHA MURTHY JK, ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Layers of the earth Thickness Composition

1. Crust: Sial Sima 0 - 60 k.m. Silicon, Aluminum