MATH 4B - Handout 1

1 Eigenfunctions of operators
Recall that an operator takes a function to another function. (Compare with a matrix, which takes a vector
to another vector.) Matrices have eigenvalues and eigenvectors. Similarly, an operator has eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions.

Definition: An eigenfunction of an operator T is a nonzero function y(t) such that T y = y for some
number .

d
Example: D = dt is an operator. The function y(t) = e2t is an eigenfunction of this operator with
d 2t
eigenvalue 2, since Dy = dt e = 2e2t = 2y.
2
d
Example: D2 = dt 2 is also an operator. The function y(t) = sin(2019t) is an eigenfunction of this
2
operator D with eigenvalue 2019.

Problem 1. Find another eigenfunction of the operator D2 . What is its corresponding eigenvalue?
2
Problem 2. Consider the operator T y = ddt2y + 4y. Is the function y(t) = cos(2t) an eigenfunction of T ?
Can you find another eigenfunction of T ?

2 What is a di↵erential equation? And classifications.

Definition: A di↵erential equation (sometimes abbreviated DE) is an equation where the unknown function
appears under a derivative sign.
dy p @y @y
Examples: dt = sin(y), y 00 + 3ty 0 5 = 0, y (iv) + yy 00 = t3 , @t + @x = 0, etc.

Order: The order of a di↵erential equation is the highest derivative that appears in the equation.
p
Example: dy
dt = sin(y) is first order, y
(iv)
+ yy 00 = t3 is fourth order, @y @y
@t + @x = 0 is first order, etc.

ODE: A di↵erential equation (DE) is called an ordinary di↵erential equation (ODE) if the DE does not
involve any partial derivatives.
Example: y 00 + 3ty 0 5 = 0 is an ODE, while @y @y
@t + @x = 0 is not and ODE.

Linear ODE: An ODE is linear if it involves only linear functions of the unknown function and its
derivatives.
p
Example: Linear ODE’s: y 0 = y, y 00 + t2 y 0 5 = 0. Non-linear ODE’s: y 0 = y 2 , y (iv) + yy 00 = 0, etc.

In general, a linear n-th order ODE has the form

0
p0 (t)y (n) + p1 (t)y (n 1)
+ · · · + pn 1 (t)y + pn (t)y = g(t),

where the pi (t) and g(t) are functions of t.

It is called homogeneous if g(t) = 0 , and inhomogeneous if g(t) 6= 0.

Example: y 0 = y is homogeneous, while y (iv) + y 00 = t3 is not.