ca CATHAY PACIFIC Aviation Knowledge February 2000rward The milestone of becoming a pilot for us starts with the cadet sponsorship scheme provided by Cathay Pacific Airways Ltd. Flying has always been a desire of human beings Being able to control an aircraft, i.e. to become a pilot is even a dream of most youngsters. especially in Hong Kong where the opportunity of flying is very remote. This book is written mainly to cover a very general aspects of flying materials good enough to prepare the candidates towards their interviews and, finally, 10 become cadets, It is up to you to dig out more information that is not covered in book. Chance is here waiting for you. KK Hung Antony FungChapter 1 AIR NAVIGATION Page 1. The Form of the Earth 2. Lines on the Earth 3. Variations and Deviations ........ Chapter II PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT Introduction ae Behaviour of an Airfoil Section .. Lift .. Angle of Attack Forces on the airplane in fligh Flight Controls .. Pr ee Chapter II] METEOROLOGY Introduetio Composition . ‘Temperature Structure ‘Temperature Lapse Rate Cloud Formation . Pasa eene i 3 z a Chapter [V AIR NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS 1, Introduction 2. The Magnetic Compass .. 3. Artificial Horizon 4. Pressure Instruments .. ‘Chapter V ENGINES AND AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS. Introduction Principles of Propulsio Propellers and Simple Theory Piston Engine Jet Engine Fuel System .. Hydraulic System Pawo 6 wo 38 39 Page 45Chapter 1 Air Navigation (BSI CaTHay Pacinic CHAPTER | AIR NAVIGATION 1. The Form Of The Earth ‘The Earth is referred to as an Oblate Spheroid. It is, in fact, rotating about the minor axis, which joins the North and South Poles. The direction of the Earth's rotation is from West to East, or to an observer looking down on the North pole, it is turning anti-clockwise, The speed of rotation is such that it takes 23 hr and 56 min of ‘Mean Time to make one complete tum, Since the equatorial diameter of the earth is known to be 6887086 nautical miles, then the circumference may be deduced, and the equatorial speed calculated . The circumference approximates to 21600 nautical miles» 2, Lines on the Earth i. Small Circles ‘The Earth may be regarded as a perfect sphere. A normal globe of the earth is therefore perfectly suited to the study of navigation. A small circle is any circle drawn on the surface of the sphere, such that, the plane of the circle does not pass through its centre. ii, Great Circle ‘A great circle is any circle drawn on the surface of the sphere, such that the plane of the circle passes through its centre. The shorter length of an arc of a great circle joining two places on the surface of the sphere measures the shortest distance, it sheuld be noted that only one great circle might be drawn through two places on the sphere that are not diametrically opposite one another. iii, Meridian ‘A meridian is a semi-great circle joining the North and South geographic poles. ‘The Greenwich Meridian is the meridian, which passes through the Greenwich Observatory in London. It is sometimes called the Prime Meridian.(Chapter | Air Navigation (5 Carniay Paciric iv. Latitude Latitude is a small circle drawn om the surface of the earth, such that its plane lies parallel to the plane of the Equator. v. Longitude ‘Longitude refers to the angular distance along the equator. The longitude of any point is the shortest distance in are along the equator between the prime meridian. Rhumb Line ‘A thumb line is a line drawn on the surface of the Earth such that its true direction remains unchanged, Le. a line drawn on the surface of the sphere wi cross all meridians at the same angle, e.g, the Equator, meridian, Clearly then, a thumb Hine, unless it is co-incident with a meridian, will not form the shortest distance between two positions. Refer to Figures I-1 & 1-2 for more details‘Chapter | Air Navigation fem Carn Prciic ‘Small Circle Meridian —__N Pole Axis of Rotation = Parallels of Latitude Antimeridian S Pole Figure [-1 Terms describing EarthChapter | Air Navigation (Sm Caray Paciric THE EARTH N Pole Meridians Rbumb Line Equat 8 Pole Figure 1-2 Terms describing Earth tions and Deviation i Variation In the paragraph dealing with latitude and longitude it was explained that the north and south poles are the main reference points. Meridians extend towards the poles, and any direction measured on the map will be a true direction. However, a compass needle influenced solely by the earth's magnetic ficld does not point towards True North, but instead takes up a direction towards 4Aas BS Cariiay Paciric Magnetic North -- a position in Baffinland, northeastern Canada many miles from the north geographical pole. Furthermore, this magnetic pole is not fixed but is moving very gradually round the true pole. Thus the direction indicated by @ compass will alter each year in relation to True North, although the ‘change is very small. In Britain, the annual north change is about 7° east. The difference, between the direction of True North and magnetic north is known as Variation, ‘The amount of angular difference alters fram place to place and may be east or west of True North, For example, the variation in Burma and Wester Australia is nil, whereas at Vancouver Island it is 25" E and the other side of ‘Canada, in Newfoundland, it is over 30° W. ‘To sum up: variation is the angular difference between the true meridian and the magnetic meridian. The size of this angle depends on: > Position on the earth’s surface > The year, because of the non-static of the magnetic pole (The date of the variation and the annual change is stated on the map) ‘The method of showing variation on maps may be in the form of Isogonals: chain lines joining places that have equal variation Diagram Statement in words vvwy Compass rose. Deviation When a compass is installed in an aireraft it ceases to be influenced solely by earth's magnetic field. Local magnetism, from electrical wiring and iron steel components within the aircraft, has a disturbing effect and causes the compass. to point towards Compass North and not the Magnetic North. ‘The angular difference between these two directions is known as Deviation. It is expressed as ‘plus’ or ‘minus’, During a turn the magnetic materials within the aireraft change their position relative to the compass needle, or the aircraft moves but the needle remains pointing to compass north. Consequently, deviation will alter with theShaper | Ais eign am cary Pacine heading of the aircraft; e.g. on a heading of 090° deviation may be +3" and ‘on a reciprocal (270° ), it may be -3° , while at some point between these. headings it would be The aircraft compass is fitted with adjustable compensating magnets positioned in a Corrector Box attached to the underside of the compass bowl. By manipulating the magnets with a key it is possible to reduce variation to a minimum, but it cannot be eliminated entirely. For the pilot's information, therefore, a card is tabulated with the amount of deviation remaining after correcting adjustments have been made. This Deviation Card is mounted in a frame positioned near the compass. True Magnetic Compass North North North { ay { “Sol? CN.T T MT Var. 10°W. Dev. +3% 12 128°h, 1287 138M i38°M 141°C CK Figure 1-3. Variation and Deviation iii, Allowing For Variation and Deviation Consider what must be done to convert a true heading, Hdg (T), into a compass heading, Fidg (C), or, in other words, how is the allowance made for both variation and deviation? Having found variation and deviation it only remains for the pilot to determine whether the figures should be added or subtracted to the true heading to find 6Chapter 1 Air Navigation (5 Caray Pactric Hdg (C), i.e. the heading to steering on the compass, The simple rule of ‘application for variation may be remembered by the words “East is Least and West is Best” In other Words, to convert true to magnetic, deduct easterly variation and add if westerly. The deviation card provides corrections as a ‘+" or ‘-' figure which should be applied accordingly to change magnetic to compass heading. Figure 1-3 illustrates the procedure. Hdg (T) is shown as the angle between true north and the direction in which the aircraft is heading 128° . The second sketch shows 10” W variation added to Hdg (T) to produce a Hag (M) of 138" , From the correction card in the cabin deviation on this heading is +3" i.e, Three degree west of magnetic north. Further reference to figure will show that the +3" deviation is added to obtain the correct Hag (C) —141°‘Chapter | Air Navigation Bm Caray Pacanic 278°C Figure I-4 Finding Hdg(C) and Hdg (T) When converting Hdg (C) to Hdg (T} calculations have to be reversed. Complete the following examples for practice: Hag(T) Var. a) tog 1 Ww (2) 324° IZw 6)? SE (4) ? aw @ 2 16° © 2 SE ‘Answers: Hdg (M) i 7 2 1 219° 358° (1) Hg (M), 118°; Heg (C), 116°. (3) Hg (M), 049°; Hidg (1), 054°. (5) Hag (T), 263°; Hdg (C), 278°. Dev. 7 +r° +7 -I* -1° + Hag (C) ? 2 052° 183° ? 7 (2) Hag (M), 337°: Hg (C), 338°. (4) Hg (M), 184°; (6) Hag (7), 00: idg (T), 176°. idg (C), 001%.Chapter [1 Principles of Fligitt fs Carnay Pactric Chapter Il PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT 1. Introduction Since the beginning of time, Man has cast envious eyes on the birds of the air, but it is only within living memory and with the emergence of the petrol engine that powered flight has been possible, For many years before the Wright Brothers made the first powered flight in 1903, a considerable fund of aerodynamic data was being, amassed in various countries. There were the Otto Lilienthal experiments with gliders in Germany and similar research by Percy Pilcher in Britain. Even eatlier in fact between 1799 and 1810, the foundations of modem aerodynamics were being laid by Sir George Cayley in England. To many about to take up flying, the fascinating principles which make flight possible are as great a source of mystery as they were to the pioneers of a century ago. These notes are written with a view to explaining, without entering into mathematics, how an aeroplane flies. Obviously in the course of such an explanation simplicity must not be achieved at the expense of accuracy, The phrase 'as light as air’ is a common one, yet air has weight. Imagine a cubic foot of air. If it were possible to place it on a pair of accurate balances in a vacuum it would weigh in the region of 38g, Indeed the air in an average-size room would weigh 59Kg and a large hall may contain several hundred kilograms. Were it not for this fact an aeroplane would be incapable of flight. A small piece of metal weighing 38g can be supported without effort on the palm of a hand; fire this same piece of metal from a gun and it will penetrate three or four feet of timber. What has happened to give it such power? Its rapid movement has given it Momentum and the ability to exert tremendous farce. When moved at speed the ‘one cubie foot air’ will also gain momentum and it too will generate a force on meeting an object, the power and direction of the force being dependent upon the speed of airflow and the shape of the object.Chapter {1 Principles of Flight fm Carnay Pactric 2. Behaviour of an Airfoil Section ‘A simple experiment to simulate how an airfoil behaves when passing through air is shown in figure II-1. By holding a spoon with similar cross section as an airfoil besides a tap with running water, instead of pushing away by the water, the spoon is pulled towards the stream of water, Because air is brought to pass over the surface of the curved spoon by the running water and ereate a difference in pressure between the left and the right spoon surface, Hence there isa reaction such that the spoon is pulled towards the running water, Airfoil Section Waterjet Figure Il-1 Simulation of airflow on airfoil section By running water besides a spoon 10Chapter 11 Primesples of Flight frm Caray Paciric 3. Lift Refer to figure II-2 and figure 11-3 which show the air flowing through the upper surtuce of the sirfail is deflected to flow closer toyether than the air Mowing through the lower surface, According to Bemoulli’s Principles, fluid flowing from a laryer cross-section tube to a smaller cross-section tube will flow closer together, travelling at a faster speed and hence reduce its pressure. Since the air undemeath the surface remains relatively constant flow and therefore its pressure change will be a lot smaller, As a result, a difference in pressure exists between the upper and lower surface, The result is a LIFT force being generated. Approximately 2/3 of this foree is contributed by the decrease in pressure on top and the remaining 1/3 coming from the increased pressure below. This foree can be increased by making the air flow faster. It can also be controlled by altering the ANGLE OF ATTACI Figure 11-2 Flow ofair around an airfoilChapter If Principles of Flight (CATHAY PACIFIC Low pressure — _ High pressure Figure [-3 Build up of high pressure under the airfoil which adds to the force caused by the decrease in pressure on top Angle of Attack The angle of attack is the angle between the airfoil and the airflow relative to it as shown in figure Id —— ———, Relative Airflow Angle of Attack Figure 1-4. The angle of Attack It should be emphasized that the angle is between the relative airflow and the airfoil so that the same angle of attack could occur under differing flight conditions such as climb, straight and level flight, or gliding. Lift is generated from most parts of the airfoil and if it is measured and represented pictorially the distribution of force would be as shown in figure II-5Chapter It Principles of Flight Figure 11-5 FS CaTHay Pacinic Pressure distribution envelope around an airfoilChapter Il Principles of Flight IESE CatHay Paciric It is more convenient to depict these individual forces in one line drawn as the point from which the total effect occurs. This point is known as the CENTRE OF PRESSURE, as shown in figure II-6. Assuming a steady airflow of say 100 kt, if the angle of attack is increased then the amount of lift will increase, At the same time the centre of pressure moves forward - the significance of this will be explained later. Lift entre of Pressure 5. Drag Unfortunately while producing lift the airfoil also eteates a less desirable force known as Drag, Clearly any body in a moving fluid such as.air must cause resistance and drag acts at right angles to the lift. There aré two kinds of drag, Profile drag & Induced drag Profile drag ‘There are two aspects of profile drag :~ 4. Form drag — this is caused by the body as it disturbs the air through which it passes, Figure II-7 shows the extreme example of form drag at which air passed through a surface that is 90° to the direction of the airflow. This produces the maximum disturbance and hence the greatest drag.Chapter Il Principles of Flight fm CatnarPaciric Figure [1-7 Form drag creates when air passes through an object ‘As the object is made more and more streamline, the form drag produced becomes less and less. The streamline shapes which have given the least resistance at normal flying speeds have had a fimeness ratio — i.e, alb (gee figure [1-8) —of between 3 and 4 and the maximum value of b should be about one-third of the way back from the nose. These dimensions, however, may vary considerably without increasing the resistance to any great extent. Figure [1-8 Fineness Ratio b, Skin friction — this is incurred as the air passes over and under the surface of the body,Chapter If Principles of Flight Bs Carnay Paciric Induced Drag Induced drag is that part of the drag caused by lift, that is, drag caused by the change in the direction of airflow. Figure II-9 shows the air flows over and under the wing of an airplane. This airflow produces a region of relatively low pressure above the wing and a region of relati ly high pressure under the wing. If the airfoil were of infinite span, that is, if it had no ends, the airflow would be directed from the leading edge to the tailing edge, as shown in figure 11-9, because there would be no way for the air in the region of high pressure below the wing to flow into the region of low pressure above the wing, However, the airfoil is of finite area and span; that is, it has ends. Therefore the air under the ‘wing will seek the region of low pressure above the wing, This tendency will result in the high-pressure air on the under side of the wing moving outboard and ‘spilling over’ the tips, as shown in figure I-10. Eddies, or regions of turbulence, are formed in this manner at the tips, causing the streamline to form a vortex on cach wingtip. These vortices are like tiny tornadoes, such as those illustrated in figure U-11, The turbulence produced absorbs energy and increases the induced drag. The vortices tend ta exert a downward motion to the airflow leaving the trailing edge. If the airstream is tilted downward by the vortices, the lift vector is also tilted somewhat aft, ‘All aircraft have wingtip vortices; however, as lift increases, the strength of the vortices also increases, Therefore, since heavy aircraft require more lift, stronger wing tip vortices will be associated with them. Pilots refer to these vortices as Wake Turbulence.Chapter It Principles of Flight Bm cavnay Paciric GOEL) Figure 11-9 Figure [1-11 Airflow over and under the wing Wingtip vortices WING UPPER SURFACE —— oo >)" INGTIP VORTEX FRCP TTETTET WING LOWER SURFACE \__ VORTICES ALONG TRAILING EDGE UPPER- SURFACE : FLOW LEADING: - EDGE LOWER-SURFACE FLOW Figure 1-10 High-pressure air on wing bottom “spilling over" to Low-pressure area on top. The Aspect Ratio of an airfoil is defined as the ratio of the span to the chord, i.e. length of the wing divided by the width of the wing for a rectangular shaped wing. As discussed before, a wing with indefinite span will have no wingtip W‘Chapter Il Principles of Flight 8 Catnay Paciric vortex. So, by increasing the aspect ratio, the corresponding induced drag will decrease. However, long, thin wings increase structural weight and have relatively poor stiffness characteristics, 6. Stalling ‘As we learnt from the section on Angle of Attack, as the airfoil section is inclined from the horizon, more lift will be generated (see figure TI-12). This last discovery is pethaps the most important factor in the understanding of the why and wherefore of flight. But the lift cannot be increased indefinitely, when a certain angle is reached any further increase of angle will result in a loss of Lif. This angle is called the Stalling Angle of the airfoil, and rather curiously, perhaps, we find that the shape of the airfoil makes little difference to the angle at which this stalling takes place, although it may affect considerably the amount of lift obtained from the airfoil at that angle.‘Chapter 1 Principles of Flight 8 CatHay Paciric “To tele Th Ordinary Sof flight 'y angles of fligh + 1 12 +0] ° o ° Lift coefficient 2 B 02) 1 o a a 12 6 (20° Angle of attack Figure [I-12 Lift Curve Now, what is the cause of this comparatively sudden breakdown of lift? Although, naturally, the best demonstrations can be given in wind tunnels with proper apparatus for the purpose, perfectly satisfactory experiments can be made by using paper or wooden mode! airfoils and inserting them in any fairly steady flow of air or water, of moving them through air or water, The movement of the fluid is emphasized by introducing wool streamers or cigarette smoke in the case of air and coloured streams in the ease of water.(Chapter It Principles of Flight BS catiiay Pacific ‘Contrary to what might be expected, the relative speed at which the airfoil moves through the fluid makes very little difference to the angle at which stalling takes place; in fact, an airfoil stalls at a certain angle, not at a certain speed. (It is not correct to talk sbout the stalling speed of an airfoil, but it will be seen later why we talk about the stalling speed of an aeroplane.) Now, what happens? While the angle at which the airfoil strikes the fluid is comparatively small, the fluid is deflected by the airfoil, and the flow is of a streamline and stcady nature but suddenly, when the ctitical angle of about 15° is reached, there is a complete change in the nature of the flow. The airflow breaks away or separates from the top surface forming vortices similar to those behind a flat plate placed at right angles to the wind; there is therefore very little lift. Some experiments actually show that the fluid which has flowed beneath the under-surface doubles back round the trailing edge and proceeds to flow forward over the upper surface. In short, the streamline flow has broken down and what is called separation or “stalling” has taken its place, with consequent loss in lift (Figure 11-13). Direction of airflow Figure 11-13 Stalling of an airfoil We notice that up to the critieal angle considerable suction has been built up over the top surface, especially near the leading edge, whereas when we reach the stalling angle, the suction near the leading edge disappears, and this accounts for the Joss in lif, becauise the pressure on other parts of the airfoil remains much the same as before the eritical angie. 20Cages Heresy ee fm catuay Pactric We may think that all the lift disappears after the critical angle; this is not so, as will easily be seen by reference to cither the lift curve or to the pressure plotting diagrams, The airfoil will, in fact, give some lift up to an angle of aitack of 90° Modern interceptor aircraft are sometimes flown at very high angles of attack during violent manoeuvres, so the upper portion of the graph is nowadays quite important. ‘The stalling angie, then, is that angle of attack at which the lift coefficient of an airfoil is a maximum, and beyond which it begins to decrease owing to the airflow becoming separated instead of streamlined. 7, Forces om the airplane in flight ‘When an aircraft is airborne, there are four forces acting on it all the time. ‘They are Lift, Weight, Drag and Thrust, This is illustrated in figure 11-14. During straight and level flight at constant speed, all the forces acting are in balance: Lift must be equal to Weight and Thrust must be balanced by the Drag WEIGHT Figure [-l4 Forces acting on an airplane in flight (straight and level) i. Lift and Weight “The weight acts vertically downward from the centre of gravity (CG) of the airplane, The lift acts in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the relative ‘wind from the centre of pressure (CP). a1(Chapter I! Principles of Flight fm Cattiay Paciric ii, Thrust and Drag Thrust is defined as the forward-directed pushing or pulling force developed by an aircraft engine (cither reciprocating engines with propellers or jet engines as will be discussed in Chapter V), The thrust line is an imaginary line passing through the centre of the propeller hub perpendicular to the plane of the propeller rotation. Drag is the force which opposes the forward motion of the airplane as discussed in previous sections. For simplicity, we assumed all the drag opposing thrust acts through a resultant force line as shown in figure II-14, During straight and level flight, the tuming moment produced by the lifvweight couple must be equal to that produced by the thrustidrag couple, Since the weight of the airplane is almost unchanged (excep! when fuel is burnt in flight), so, by manipulating all other three factors, we can make the airplane climb or descent, fly faster or slower. Also, with the help of flight controls, there is much more flexibility in maneuvering the airplane the way we want. 8, Flight Controls A. Primary Flight controls There are three sets of Primary Control systems installed on an aircraft ~ i, Elevator for longitudinal control in Pitch ii, Allerons for lateral control in Roll iii, Rudder for directional control in Yaw which is shown in figure I-15 2Chapter I. Prineiples of Flight ii, ‘sa eM “= fm Caray Pactric a IDOER ELEVATOR Figure I-15 The Primary Controls: Elevator, Aileron and Rudder ‘THE PRIMARY CONTROL IN THE PITCHING PLANE IS PROVIDED BY THE ELEVATOR ‘The Pilot controls the elevator by fore and aft movement of the control column — forward, movement moving the elevator down which has the effect of pushing the nose of the aireraft down, and rearward movement of the control column moving the elevator up and which has the effect of pulling the nose of the aireraft up. These movements are logical and instinctive for a Pilot (see Figure 1-16). conTmon COLUMN: ELEVATOR Figure II-16 Elevator for Primary Pitching Control THE PRIMARY CONTROL IN ROLL IS PROVIDED BY THE AILERONS ‘The ailerons are usually positioned on the outboard trailing edge of the mainplanes. The ailerons act in opposing senses, one going up as the other goes down, so that the Lift generated by one wing increases and the Lift generated by the other wing decreases, The Pilot operates the ailerons with rotation of the BChapter II Principles of Flight frm Cartiay Pactric contro] wheel or sideways movement of the control column, whichever is fitted (see figure I-17). Figure I-17 _Ailerons: One Up, One Down - Rolling Moment. A resultant rolling moment is exerted on the aeroplane, The magnitude of this rolling moment depends upon the moment arm (the reason the ailerons are outboard, giving # long moment ann to the CG) and the magnitude of the differing lift forces, THE PRIMARY CONTROL IN YAW IS PROVIDED BY THE RUDDER. The rudder is hinged to the rear of the fin (or vertical stabiliser). It is controlled from the cockpit by the rudder pedals attached to the rudder bar. By pushing the lef pedal, the rudder will move Icft. This alters the fin- rudder aerofoil section and sideways lift is created that sends the tail to the right and ‘yaws the aeroplane to the left about the normal axis, Left rudder, the aeroplane ‘yaws left (see figure II-18). Rudder effectiveness increases with speed, so large deflections at low speeds and small deflections at high speeds may be required to give a particular yaw. In propeller-driven aircraft, any slipstream flowing over the rudder will increase its effectiveness. 2CChapeer IL Principles of Flight fm Caray Pacific L cs von uae @ udder Figure 1-18 Left Rudder Pressure ~ Nose Yaws Left B. High lift devices In modem transport aircraft, the wing is designed for low drag at high speeds but it doesn’t produce much lift at low speeds and therefore imposes a high stall speed. The high stall speed that results in the clean configuration can be lived with by careful choice of speed factors and operating techniques generally, but could not possibly be acceptable in terms of field performance, that is, takeoff and landing distances. High lift devices are therefore fitted (Flaps & Slats) to reduce stall speeds and their associated take-off and landing speeds. This naturally reduces take-off and landing distances. Let us take one more look at the lift formula ‘4 p V? SC, and remember that $= effective wing area and C,, = lift co% nt and p isdensity of air. The use of trailing edge flaps is well understood. With the exception of the simple plain and split flaps these increase lift by =~ a, Extending chordwise, thus effectively increasing wing area (that is, increasing the $ value). tb, Increasing the camber of the overall wing section (that is, increasing the CL value). Increased camber deflects the air downward more rapidly, thus increasing lift. 25‘Chapter IIT Meteorology (CATHAY PACIFIC Chapter 111 METEOROLOGY 1, Introduction Meteorology is the study of both weather and climate. Firstly, it is necessary to ‘consider the nature of the atmosphere and its basic properties before going on to study their interrelationships 2. Composition ‘The atmosphere is made up of a uniform mixture of gases which we call air. It does not matter how high the aircraft is flying or whieh part of the earth you are on - the same mixture of gases is still affecting us. The proportions of the main gases in the mixture expressed by volume are: Argon 0.93% Carbon dioxide 0.03% Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 21% 3. Temperature Structure ‘The Intemational Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has specified the conditions which aviation uses for a standard atmosphere of dry ait. They are: i, At mean sea level (msl) Pressure 1013.25millibars (hectopascals) Temperature +15°C Density 1225grams/eubic metre ii, Above mean sea level (ams!) a, Temperature decreases 6.5°C/km(1.98°C/L000f)up to 1ikm (36090ft) where it is -56.5°C b. From i1km to 20km (6561 7ft}temperature remains constant at -36.5°C c. From 20km to 32 km (104987ft) temperature increases by 1'C ‘km.‘Chapter [II Meteorology BS CaTHay Pactric In practice, the temperature lapses with height in the Troposphere. However, the temperature remains constant after passing an altitude known. as the Tropopause, Figure Ill-l, Above the tropopause, one enters the Stratosphere. The tropopause thus marks the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere. serra «te / seperate mies Figure I-1 The Tropopause 4. Isobar Chart Figure III-2 Types of the pressure systems Ata given time, different atmospheric pressures are experienced at different places, and they are ‘reduced’ to a common datum (e.g, msl). Then, maps arc drawn of the horizontal pressure distribution (example shown in Figure III-2), An isobar is au(Chapter IL] Meteorology Bm CaTuay Paciric a line joining all places having the sume pressure at a given level (usually mean sea level), Figure IL-2 shows that the spacing apart of the isobars is far from constant over the chart. The isobar spacing is significant in the matter of the wind strength and weather. Before we carry on the subject, we have some simple explanation about the symbols in Figure II]-2: “L Low or depression - An erea of closed isobars. It is merely relatively lower than the other pressures all around. “g" Secondary depression - An area of low pressure, not necessarily with its own isobar system, within the periphery of a larger depression. “{]" High or anticyclone - An area of closed isobars with the highest pressure at the center, The isobats are usually wider apart than the isobars of a depression and the anticyclones aré slower moving. COL" An area of almost uniform pressure between two highs and two lows, 5. Pressure gradient twill be seen from these descriptions of the various pressure systems. In Figure IL-2 the spacing apart of isobars is far from constant over the chart. This isobar spacing is significant particularly in the matter of wind strength and weather. The pressure gradient in particular area is the rate of change of pressure per unit distance measured in the direction in which pressure is decreasing most rapidly (i. at right angles to the isobars at that point. Where the isobars are wide apart it would be described as a slack pressure gradient and where the isobars are close together the situation would be described as a steep pressure gradient. 28Capper Mt aeossiner BS CaTHay PaciFic 6 Pressure settings Figure I-3. QFF OFF is defined as the barometric pressure at a place, reduced to msl, The “reduction” is made by using the actual temperature at the time of observation as the ‘mean temperature of a column extending from the barometer level to the mean sea level, Figure III-3 QNH is the observed barometric pressure reduced to the msl assuming ISA condition. QNE is the height (Pressure Altitude) indicated on the altimeter on landing at an aerodrome when the altimeter subscale is set to 1013.2Smb (29.92inches), It is also known as “Standard Setting”. 7. Temperature Lapse Rate A temperature lapse rate is the rate of decrease of temperature per unit increase of height i.e, °C per L000f. Different circumstances of static, ascending and descending air produce different lapse rates which are known by the following names: (shown in Figure III) Environmental Lapse rate (EER) It is the observed rate of decrease of temperature with the increase of height at a particular place and time. (i.e. it doesn't have a good approximated figure for the rate of change of temperature pera fixed height) Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) It is the rate of cooling with ascent or warming with descent of unsaturated air displaced vertically in which the temperature changes due entirely to dynamical processes and there is no exchange of heat with the environment i.e, 3°C/1000ft. Saturated Adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) It is the rate of cooling with the ascent of saturated air in which the expansion 2»(Chapter Ill Meteorology Sm CatHay Paciric cooling is pattly offset by the fatent heat of condensation, and there is no exchange of heat with the environment of the rising saturated air, where condensation occurs and releases latent heat, It has a variable value but in temperate latitudes at msl, its value is approx, 1.5°C/10008. ey im wo = = lew ae ee ie = | aa woah ae xe a Figure [II-4 DALR & SALR 8, Cloud Formation Cloud forms in what previously was clear sky, As the air is cooled so that it becomes saturated. The excess water vapour then condenses out onto condensation nuclei as visible water drops or ice erystals, The necessary cooling can take place by: > Long wave radiation from the upper surfaces of pre-existing cloud may lead to enough cooling to produce further cloud, > Contacting with a cold surface, so losing heat from the air by conduction. > Mixing two nearly saturated masses of air at markedly different temperature Cloud formation isa kind of adiabatic cooling, as described previously. There are four different reasons of categorizing the resulting clouds: i. Orographic Cloud - formed due to the ascent of air over high or rising ground, ‘see Figure [1l-5, 30.‘Chapter I Meteorology BE Carty Pacieic Figure [11-5 Orographic Cloud Convection eloud-formed due to surface heating of the air producing thermal up-currents Figure III-6. Mpegs career, “} ! toy J j 1 ee Figure [11-6 Convection Cloud aLChapeer HI] Meteorology (3 CaTHay PaciFic Turbulence cloud-formed due to the air flow producing # frictional turbulence layer caused either by the underlying earth's surface or at the upper levels, ‘another airflow associated with a rapid wind change with height Figure UII-7, — — Figure Ill-7 Turbulence Cloud iv. Frontal cloud-formed when there is a general ascent of air over a wide area. ‘There are two major types of front: - Harm front - 3s a volume of warn moist air moves forward and subsequently overtakes a mass of cold air, the warm air, being less dense, rises + over the cold. As it does so the temperature of the warm air falls, and at a certain level, its moisture starts to condense out in the formation of cloud. ‘The type of cloud formation, which then takes place, characterizes the nature of the front (Figure III-8). The first indication received of the presence of a warm front by an aireraft approaching from the cold sector is by the type of cloud experienced. Initially, some 600 miles or so ahead of the front, 2 fibrous type cloud in the form of Cirrus will be experienced. The speed of movement of these fronts varies with the nature of the 32‘Chapter Il Meteorology (PS cariiay Patric synoptic situation and their rate of progress may be estimated by the proximity of the isobars. Cirrus usually forms at an altitude of 25,000 - 30,000 f or higher. Layer clouds, Cirrastratus, Altostratus and Nimbostratus in that order, follow this. A gradual thickening and progressive lowering of the cloud base as the base of the front is approached always accompany the change of cloud type. Precipitation, in the form of rain, or snow, frequently occurs at ground level some 200 - 300 miles ahead. These figures are naturally governed by the degree of activity of the front, and the steepness of the slope Cold front - 100 mis = -200.ms,300mk mk SU mis Figure [11-8 Warm Front ‘As a cold front advances its way underneath the warm air ahead of it, as shown in Figure IIT-9, the warm air is forced to rise quite rapidly. The warm air however ascends only in the lower levels. At high level it descends along the line of the front so that at some middle level there is a horizontal movement of warm air in the general direct associated with this relative movement of air depends upon the ‘of the line of advance, The cloud formation degree of instability of the warm air. If it is very unstable - that is the temperature change of its mass decreases abnormally with height Fe‘Chapter 11 Meteorology fm catnay Paciric = then large cumulus clouds will predominate which may well develop into cumulonimbus extending along the whole line of the front. ‘More frequently however the warm air is not particularly unstable, the slope of the front is less steep and the cloud associated with it is a combination of layer type cloud made up of stratocumulus, ‘altocumulus and altostratus with occasional cumulus or ‘cumulonimbus embedded in it. ‘The majority of cold fronts over Western Europe are in this category. eat Figure 111-9 Cold Front aM(Chapter IV Ais Navigation Instruments fem cariay Paci Chapter [V AIR NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS 1. Introduction Up to 1920s even large aircraft were equipped with few instruments other than those relating to engine parameters. Then gradually, as the need became apparent for ‘a means of replacing loss of extemal visual references when cloud, fog or darkness removed from view that all-important pilot’s datum, the horizon, various Flight Instruments began to appear, Now, even a light traincr is almost invariably fitted with a full Flight Panel with the instruments arranged in an internationally agreed ‘order known as the Basic T (Figure [V-1), Power Indicator Figure IV-1 Basic ‘T' Flight Panel Aircraft instruments fall into three main categories: i. Pressure-operated ii, Gyroscopie-operated iii, Engine and Ancillary 35‘Chapter 1V Air Navigation Instruments fa camay Pacinic “The purpose of this chapter is to provide an elementary working knowledge of these instruments, to describe the information provided and to give limitations when these exist. 2. The Magnetic Compass In the early years of flying, aircraft compasses consisted of any small magnetic compass, whieh could easily be cared. Im those days much research and development was carried out and it is generally true to say that the present day direct reading magnetic compasses have changed little from those finally designed then, A typical direct reading magnetic ‘compass is shown in Figure IV-2. Pivot (Mounted above the ‘Centre of Gravity) The Magnet System (Immersed in Fluid) Figure [V-2 Essentials of Magnetic Compass The compass is composed of three main parts and we will deal with each of these in tum (sce Figure IV-2). They are: i, The Container. ii, ‘The Compass Bowl (will not be discussed here for simplicity), and iii, ‘The Magnet System. 36Chapter 1V Air Navigation lnstruments fe caruav acini The container is a bow! of a non-metallic substance into which is fitted the compass bow! itself. It houses a number of coils and leaf springs to absorb shock and aircraft vibration in order to prevent damage to the magnet system itself. It is screwed to the aireraft by three bolts in slotted holes so that the container can be tumed if required through a few degrees after being mounted. The purpose of this is to ensure that the lumber mark, against which heading is measured, is lined up accurately with the fore and aft line of the aircraft ‘The magnet system is mounted inside the bow! and immersed in the fluid, It consists of a number of magnets fixed parallel to each other and freely suspended from a pivot above their common centre of gravity. The magnets lie in the magnetic meridian, so that when the aircraft tums, the compass bow! and container turn with the aircraft leaving magnets still lying in the same direction, The position of the lubber mark on the container relative to the North-seeking end of the magnets then shows the heading of the airerafl, ‘The essential features of an ideal aircraft compass are as follows i, Sensitivity. The magnet system should be able to accurately detect the horizontal component, #, of the Earth's field in all but the highest latitude. Horizontally. ‘The magnet system should remain horizontal under all normal flying conditions. This is to say that the vertical force Z should have as little influence on the needle as possible. iii, Periodicity, The magnet system and pointer must not oscillate about the direction of the magnetic meridian, In other words, if the needle is deflected to one side and then released, it should return to the original senting directly and not swing past this direction and back again in a damped oscillation, It should “dead beat”. 7Chapter IV Air Navigation Instruments cS i ii, sm Carmay Pacinic ‘Artificial Horizon Principle ‘An artificial horizon employs a vertical axis Earth gyro having freedom in all three planes and indicates the aircraft's attitude in pitch and roll. The gyro axis is maintained vertical with reference to the center of the earth so that a bar across and at 90° to the rotor axis which indicates the Horizen. The symbol representing the aircraft outline is either fixed to the instrument case or adjustable by the pilot up and down for his height of eye and the pitch trim setting. In flight, an aireraft rolls and pitches about the gyro axis which remains rigid and the indications are instantaneous. ay unt pees oe timber = Figure IV-3 Schematic View of a Simple AH Construction ‘The rotor of the gyro is encased in a sealed case, which acts as inner gimbal Air is let into the case under pressure, the pressure either created by a pressure pump or by creating suction inside the case. The rotor spins under air pressure at the rate of approximately 15,000 zpm in an anti-clockwise direction when viewed from above. Having spun the rotor, the air escapes from the case through four exhaust ports in a pendulous unit mounted at the base of the gyro. Artificial horizons with air driven gyros are mainly fitted to training and general aviation aircraft when a suitable electrical supply is not available. 38Chapter 1V Air Navigation Instruments foam Carttay Paciric tik, 4. pilot’ Ay Figure IV-4 Movements of the gimbals Operation Any movement relative to the inner gimbal is transmitted to the horizon bar am through a guide pin on the inner gimbal. The guide pin engaged the horizon bar arm through a curved slot in the outer gimbal, as shown in Figure IV-4, During level flight, the aircraft's vertical axis is parallel to the rotor axis and the guide pin is in the center of the slot. Horizon bar arm is in the center, and its extension across the face of the dial is in the center of dial behind the miniature aircraft. When the aircraft climbs or descends the rotor ‘case (that is, the inner gimbal) remains rigid whereas the outer gimbal and the instrument case move with the aircraft. Due to the movement relative to the inner gimbal, the guide pin gets displaced in the slot taking the horizon bar arm with it, Thus an indication of climb or decent results, Figure [V-4(a} represents the relative positions of the miniature aircraft and inner and outer gimbals in straight and level flight. Pressure Instruments Modern aircraft carry a number of indicating instruments mounted on the 5 flight panel, all of which are essential to the safe operation of the aircraft. It is, however, outside the scope of this book to describe the purpose, principle and operation of all these instruments, but there are a number of them which are of fundamental importance and which will be present in practically all types of aircraft. They are (i) The Altimeter, (if) The Vertical Speed Indicator, (iii) The Airspeed Indie: ator, and {iv) The Mach Meter. These instruments all have one thing in common, and that is using the pressure of air surrounding the aircraft together with 39(Chapter 1V Air Navigation Instruments bom Carnay Pacinic the dynamic pressure created by the forward movement of the aircraft. The instruments need one, or both, of these pressures to operate, and they are collectively called the “Pressure Instruments". Only the Altimeter and the Vertical Speed Indicator are discussed here. i, The Pressure Head An aircraft is always subject to the normal atmospheric pressure surrounding, it, This és termed the “Static Pressure” since it is completely uninfluenced by the forward movement of the aircraft. Static pressure will vary with aircraft height due to the reduction of atmospheric pressure with increasing altitude, It will also vary with any daily change in barometric pressure which may occur, or which may be experienced as a result of flying from a high pressure area to a low pressure area or vice versa. ‘An aircraft in flight creates forward pressure on the leading surfaces due to the impact of the air ahead of it, This type of pressure is called the “Pitot Pressure”. The pitot pressure will also vary with height since it is made up of the air surrounding the aircraft. Similarly, it will change with any daily change of atmospheric pressure which may occur or which may be experienced by the aircraft flying to an area of different pressure. The static pressure and the pitot pressure are frequently obtained from a single unit known as the “Pressure Head”. See Figure IV-5. The pressure head in Figure IV-S shows that the pitot pressure is obtained from an open ended tube (called the Pitot Tube), which is placed well in front of the wing, or fuselage, so that it lies well clear of any local turbulence of air set up by the aircraft structure. The open end of the tube faces directly into the air ahead of the aircraft,(Chapter IV Air Navigation lnstruments (5 Carty Pactric NB. Heater Connections Static Tube 3 Pitot Tube’ at Iu Static Yent Air Flow = Heater Coils Figure IV-5 Typical Pressure Head The static pressure is taken from small holes, or slots, which are cut into the side of the pressure head and which do not face into the air stream, There are cases where the static pressure is taken from. an entirely separate part of the aircraft. The holes or slots are then simply referred to as the “Static vent”. In this case the pitot pressure is still derived from the Pitot tube mounted ahead of the aircraft. An electrical heating coil is invariably placed around the pressure head, or Pitot tube, to prevent ice from blocking the holes, ‘The International Standard Atmosphere (1.S.A.) All pressure instruments are calibrated on an agreed standard atmosphere known as the Intemational Standard Atmosphere. This was defined by an organization called the International Civil Aviation Organization - LC.A.O, The following definition is the only one needed at this level. The standard adopted assumes that the atmosphere at mean sea level has a pressure of 1013.25 millibars, a temperature of plus 15° C, a density of 1225 grammes per cubic metre and, that the temperature falls at the rate of 1.98% C per thousand ff until a height of 36,090 ft (11 kilometres) is reached where the temperature is thereafter assumed to remain constant at - $6.5° C. aChapter EV Air Navigation Instruments [ES Catiay Pactric The Pressure Altimeter it is known that the pressure of air surrounding an aircraft reduces with increase in height. Although this statement does not appear in the definition of the [.S.A., iteould be calculated from the assumed drop in temperature that the pressure falls by approximately | millibar for every 27 ft. The precise fall depends upon conditions prevailing, but this figure is reasonably accurate at lower altitudes for general use. Knowing the pressure at sea level, and the rate at which it decreases with i rease in height, a measurement of the pressure of air surrounding the aircraft at any level can be directly interpreted as the height of the aircraft above sea level. This is the fundamental principle upon which the pressure altimeter is based. Simply, a pressure altimeter is an ancroid barometer, which measures atmospheric pressure, The pressure is not given in millibars, or LB/sq. in., but is given in terms of feet above mean sea fevel. ‘Any variation in pressure either with altitude, or barometric tendency, will result in variation in the indicated reading of the altimeter. At first sight pressure changes unrelated to height would seem to be a serious drawback-and indeed such changes do create problems. However, all aircraft adopting & standard procedure when using the altimeter can overcome most of the problems, ‘The pressure altimeter basically contains a round thin corrugated metal box called a capsule, which has been partially evacuated of air, At sea level this capsule will be almost flat due to the pressure of air, which surrounds it, As the aircraft climbs, the fall in pressure allows the capsule to expand —- a process, which is assisted by a leaf spring trying to force the capsule open against atmospheric pressure, The capsule movement is magnified by a suitable mechanism to drive the pointer over the dial, whieh is calibrated in feet. See Figure IV-6. Vertical Speed Indicator Vertical Speed Indicator is a pressure gauge which utilizes the principle of differential pressure to indicate an aircraft's rate of climb or descent. In construction, the VSI consists of a capsule held in an airtight case and fed with an‘Chapter 1V Air Navigation Instruments fs caruav Paciric outside static pressure. Capillary delivery to the capsule is employed for the same reason as in the Altimeter. In Figure I'V-7, outside static pressure is also fed to the inside of the case (that is, outside the capsule) but in this ease it has to pass through a carefully calibrated restrictive device called the metering unit, ‘The expansion/contraction of the capsule is transmitted to the pointer system through a suitable mechanical link. The movement of the capsule being proportionate to the rate of change of pressure, the pointer indicates the rate of change of altitude, as shown in Figure IV-8 8Chapter 1V Ais Navigation Insruments mr cariay Paciric Figure IV-6 General Altimeter menerag ont ont te ena wee FigIV-7 Construction of a Vertical Speed Indicator Fig IV-8 ‘Vertical Speed IndicatorChaptce V Engines and Aireraft Systems fam carnay Prcanic Chapter V ENGINES AND AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS 1. Introduction In order to Keep the aircraft flying in the air, there must be sonte form of propulsion, Smaller aircraft are much lighter (less than 5,700 kg) so the engines they carry deliver less power. This is normally provided by Piston Engines driving the Propellers. Modem transport aircraft are much heavier (maximum weight of a B747 aircraft is about 393,000 kg). ‘Therefore, only powerful Jet (Gas Turbines) Engines can deliver sufficient power to keep it in the air. Apart from the engines, there are a number of basic systems installed in an aircraft. The complexity of the systems depends on how large the aircraft is and the purpose for which it is designed. In this chapter, we only discuss two major systems, namely, Fuel System and Hydraulic System, Prineiples of Propulsion For aircraft propulsion, the ‘body’ is atmospheric air that is caused to accelerate as it passes through the engine. The force required to give this acceleration has an equal effect in the opposite direction acting on the apparatus producing the acceleration. Both piston propeller and jet engine propel the aircraft by thrusting a large weight of air backwards (see figure V-1), one in the form of a large air slipstream at comparatively low speed and the other in the form of a jet of gas at very high speed. 45(Chapter V Engines and Aircraft Systems (5 CaTHay Paciic \ Figure V-1__ Propeller and jet propulsion 3. Propellers and si ple Theory A propeller normally consists of two or more bblades attached to a central hub which is mounted on an engine crankshaft. The purpose of the propeller is to convert engine horsepower to useful thrust, The blades, which are actually rotating wings, ip. shank, face and back, The blade angle is defined as the angle between the propeller plane of rotation and the chord line of a have a leading edge, trailing edge, propelier airfoil section. ‘The term pitch is the distance (in inches) that a propeller section will move forward in one revolution. Pitch distribution is the gradual twist in the propeller blade from shank to tip. All these terms being illustrated in figure V-2 and V-3. 46Chapter V Engines and. Aircraft Systems (SM Caray Pactric Figure V-2 Parts of a propeller ‘x18 OF ROTATION | Figure V-3 Propeller blade cross section A propeller blade is a rotating airfoil, it produces lift by aerodynamic action and pulls an aireraff forward, The amount of lift produced depends on the airfoil shape, revolution speed of the engine and angle of attack of the propeller blade sections. Fixed pitch propellers are the very basic kind of propellers used in most training aircraft of which the pitch of the propellers remains the same under any flying aititude. The most desirable angle of attack is berween two and four degrees with any ‘angle of attack above 15 degrees being ineffective (as learnt from Chapter 2 that an airfoil may stall at this angle). a‘Chapter V Engines and Aircraft Systems, frm corny Pacinic 4, Piston Engine The usual engine found in the modern light aeroplane is the reciprocating piston engine, with the cylinders (4, 6 or 8 of them) laid out in 2 horizontally-opposed manner. i. Basic Principles of the Piston Emgine The reciprocating engine has a number of cylinders in which pistons move up and down (hence the name reciprocating engine). In each cylinder a fueVair mixture is bumed, the heat energy causing the gases to expand and drive the piston down the cylinder, This is a conversion of chemical energy (in the fuel) to heat energy to mechanical energy. The piston is connected by a rod toa shaft, which it turns. This connecting rod, or conrod, converts the up-down motion of the piston into a rotary motion of the erankshafl, which transmits the power generated by the engine to the propeller, Light aireraft with fixed-pitch propellers (and most with constant speed propeliers) have the propeller directly coupled to the crankshaft, ic. the erankshaft is also the propeller shaft. ‘The propeller produces the Thrust force so necessary for powered flight. i, The Cycles of a Four-Stroke Engine A complete cycle of this sort of engine is comprised of four strokes of the piston travelling within the cylinder, hence the name four-stroke engine. Nicholas Otto developed this sort of engine, so the four-stroke cycle is also known as the Otte Cycle. The four strokes are a. Induction; b. Compression; ¢. Expansion (or Power Stroke); d Exhaust as shown in figure V-4. 48Chapter V Engines and Aircraft Systems BS Catiay Paciric 3. POWER 4. EXHAUST Figure V-4 The Four Strokes of a Reciprocating Engine 5. Jet Engines Based on Issac Newton's third law of motion which states that, ‘For every force acting on a body there is an opposite and equal reaction’. This same principle of reaction occurs in all forms of movement and has been usefully applied in many ways. The earliest known example of jet reaction is that of Hero's engine (figure V-5) produced as a toy in 120 B.C, This toy shawed the momentum of steam issuing from ‘ number of jets could impart an equal and opposite reaction to the jets themselves, thus causing the engine to revolve. Jet reaction is definitely an internal phenomenon and does not, as is frequently assumed, result from the pressure of the jet on the atmosphere. The types of jet engine, whether ram jet, pulse jet, rocket, gas turbine or turbo-rocket, differ only in the way in which the “thrust provider’, or engine, supplies and converts the energy into power for flight. Ataireraft speeds below approximately 450 miles per hour, the pure jet engine is 9Chapter ¥ Engines and Aircrafi Systems Bm cariay Paciric less efficient than a propeller-type engine, since its propulsive efficiency depends largely on its forward speed: the pure turbo-jet engine is, therefore, most suitable for high forward speeds. Figure V-5 Hero's Engine — probably the earliest form of jet reaction ‘The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke piston engine. However, in the gas turbine engine, combustion occurs at a constant volume. Both engine cycles (figure V-6) show that in cach instance there is induction, compression, combustion and exhaust. These processes arc intermittent in the case of the piston engine whilst they occur continuously in the gas turbine. In the piston engine only one stroke is utilized in the production of power, the others being involved in the charging, compressing and exhausting of the working fluid. In contrast, the turbine engine eliminates the three ‘idle” strokes, thus enabling more fuel to be burnt in a shorter time; hence it produces a greater power output for a given size of engine. 30‘Chapter V Engines and Aircraft Systems AINTAKE AIR FUEL INTAKE Figure V-6 6 Fuel System ES Catiay Paciric ‘COMPRESSION coupustion exnaust Continuous (COMPRESSION COMBUSTION A comparison between the working cycle of « turbo-jet Engine and a piston engine The function of @ fuel system is to store fuel and deliver it to the carburettor (or fuel injection system) in adequate quantities at the proper pressures. [t should provide continuous flow of fuel under positive pressure under all normal flight conditions i, change of altitude; i, change of attitude, iii, sudden acceleration; or iv, deceleration of the engine. Figure V-7 shows a simple fuel system for a piston engine aircraft Fuel is stored in Fuel Tanks, which are usually installed in the wing. A sump and a drain point at the lowest point of the tank allows heavy impurities (such as 31Chapter V Engines and Aircraft Systems BS Carmay Pactric Water) to gather, be inspected and drained off, The tanks often contain BafMles to stop the fuel surging about in flight - especially with large attitude changes or in turbulence. The fuel supply line commences higher than the sump to avoid any impurities (water or sludge} entering the fuel lines to the carburettor, even though there is a Fuel Filter in the line to catch any small quantity of impurities. Because of the fuel supply line to the engine not being right at the bottom of the fixel tank, there will always be some unuseable fuel in the tanks, ‘The top of the fuel tank is vented to the atmosphere to allow atmospheric pressure to be retained in the tank as altitude is changed and as fuel is used up. Any reduced pressure (due to ineffective venting) in the tank could reduce the rate of fuel flow to the engine and also cause the fuel tanks to collapse inwards. Fuel vents should be checked in the pre-flight external inspection to ensure that they are not blocked or damaged.(Chapter V Engines and Aircraft Systems fs Caray Paciric IRGHT FUEL TARR, CODE Figure V-7 A Simple Fuel System AS well as allowing for reduced pressure, there must be some allowance for an increased pressure. If the fuel Volume increases due to the fuel in the tanks warming up in the sun, there must be a space left for it to expand into or to overflow. A high- wing aircraft with the tanks in the wings will generally allow the fuel to be gravity fed to the carburetor with no need for a fuel pump. [fthere is no carburettor but a fuel injection system, then electric boost pump assistance is necessary. In a low-wing aircraft, the tanks, being lower than the engine, need a fuel pump to lift the fuel to the carburettor. Prior to start-up, an electric auxiliary (boost) pump is used to prime the fuel lines and to purge any vapour from the fuel lines. Once the 3chs ei mea Bam Cariiay Pacinic engine is started, the engine-driven mechanical Fuel Pump takes over. Correct functioning of the pump can be monitored with a fuel pressure gauge. It is usual fo have the electric fuel pump switched on for critical manecuvres such as the take-off, landing and low level flying in case the mechanical fuel pump fails and the engine is starved of fuel. It is important, especially on low-wing aircraft with fuel carried in tanks below the level of the engine, that the fuel strainer drain valve is checked closed during the pre-flight external inspection, If it is not closed, the engine-driven fuel pump may not be able to draw sufficient fuel into the engine (sucking air instead), and the engine may be starved of fuel if the electric fuel pump is not used. 7. Hydraulic System In this section, the basic principles of hydraulics is put into effect in the form of a basic hydraulic system which uses a number of essential components to produce a ‘working system that could be used to operate a service. In order for # hydraulic system to operate as a complete system to move a service in two directions, for example, undercarriage from down to up, and from the up to down positions, the following components must be used in the hydraulic system: i Jack or Actuator ‘The Jack, or Actuator, is the most widely used component to convert hydraulic pressure into mechanical energy and comprises of a cylinder in which is fitted 2 piston and piston rod or ram, The piston is fined with seals which prevent hydraulic fluid leaking from one side of the piston to the other. A normal jack has two pipe connections through which the hydraulic fluid is fed under pressure from a control valve, Ifitis assumed the circuit, or system in figure V- 8, is operating an undercarriage, then when undercarriage down is selected fluid will enter the pipe connection at the left hand side of the jack and the pressure of the fluid will exert a force on the piston moving the undercarriage down by forcing the piston and jack ram to move to the right. The fluid to the right of the piston, which is not under high pressure generated by the pump, will be forced ‘out of the jack cylinder by the piston moving to the right, this is termed “return fluid”, as it is forced through the pipelines and components back to the reservoir, $4Chapter V. Engines and Aircraft Systeme fee carr ii, Figure V-8 Basic Hydraulic System Reservoir The detailed construction and operation of the reservoir will not be covered here. For the purpose of understanding the operation of the system shown in figure V-8, only a simple description is given. ‘The reservoir supplies a reserve of hydraulic fluid to compensate for minor leakage in the system and provides a storage space for the returning hydraulic fluid. When a selection is made at the control valve, fluid is drawn by the pump from the reservoir. Pump A simple hand pump is shown in figure V-8 to explain the operation of this basic hydraulic system. Most larger hydraulic systems would have a pump driven by the aircraft engine and simply termed the Engine Driven Pump (EDP). ‘The hand pump draws fluid from the reservoir and directs it to the control valve. Dependent upon the selection of the control valve will depend which end of the jack the fluid is directed. The hand pump is normally designed to give a continuous flow of Mluid, that uid being used to convert, through the jack, the hydraulic pressure into mechanical energy. Most aircraft hand pumps are of a double acting type to ensure a continuous flow is provided. 55Chapter V Engines and Aircraft Systems * BE Catiiay Pacttic iv. Control Valve ‘The control valve in « hydraulic system may be mechanically operated by the pilot or electrically operated. In the basic hydraulic system illustrated, the contro! valve directs the fluid from the hydraulic pump to the end connection of the jack selected in order to move the jack in the desired direction, At the same time the contro! valve connects the retuming fluid to the common retum therefore controlling the displaced fluid at the same time, Some control valves ‘may also have a neutral selection which provides a facility to be able to stop the jack in any desired position. The simple system shown in figure V-8 contains the minimum essential components to make a basic hydraulic system work. Under normal circumstances additional valves will be required to perform other tasks within the system. A more complex hydraulic system is shown in figure V-9 where there are some components added into the system to enhance the operation when more applications are required from the system, Obviously, hydraulic system on a modem jet aircraft is far more complicated than this. However, the basic principles are the same. Also, a very simple wheel brakes. hydrauli system employed by a light aircrafl is discussed to show how hydraulic principle is applied. 56Chapter V. Engines and Aircraft Systems (PSE Catiiay Pactric NON RETURN VALVE GAOUND SeRMCE CONNECTIONS: FILTER enGiNT ORIVEN PUMP Figure V-9 Self Idling Type Supply System (Variable Volume Pump) v. Major Aircraft Systems powered by hydraulics Rudder v Elevator vv Aileron Flaps Speed brakes and ground spoilers Auto pilots Normal/altemate brakes Landing gear vvvvwyw v Nose wheel steering vi, Hydraulic Wheel Brakes System Most training aeroplanes are fited with dise brakes on the main wheels. These are hydraulically operated by the toe brakes which are situated on top of the rudder pedals. Pressing the left toe brake will slow the left main wheel down and pressing the right toe brake will slow the right main wheel down, Used separately, they provide differential braking, which is useful for manoeuvring ‘on the ground; used together, they provide normal braking. A typical system involves a separate master cylinder for each brake containing oChapter V Engines and Aircraft Systems emt cartuay Pacific hydraulic fluid (figure V-10). As an individual toc brake is pressed, this toe pressure is transmitted by the hydraulic fluid to a slave cylinder which closes the brake friction pads (like calipers) onto the brake disc. The brake dise, which is part of the wheel assembly, has its rotation slowed down RIGHT TOE-BRAKE {to Right Main Whee! Brake Assembly Figure V-10 A typical simple Hydraulic Braking System 58