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Cavitation detection in power control of

Kaplan water turbines


Esko K. Juuso ∗ Sulo Lahdelma ∗∗

Control Engineering Laboratory
Department of Process and Environmental Engineering
90014 University of Oulu, Finland (email: Esko.Juuso@oulu.fi)
∗∗
Mechatronics and Machine Diagnostics Laboratory
Department of Mechanical Engineering
90014 University of Oulu, Finland (email: Sulo.Lahdelma@oulu.fi)

Abstract: Cavitation is harmful to water turbines and may cause shutdowns for several weeks.
The real-time detection of cavitation risk is increasingly important, and even narrow cavitation-
free power ranges can be utilised in load optimisation. Higher derivative signals calculated from
acceleration signals and their lp norms detect the normal operating conditions, which are free of
cavitation, and also provide an early indication of cavitation risk. On-line cavitation monitoring
is based on cavitation indices calculated from a moving maximum of the lp norms obtained
from samples. Data compression is very efficient, as the detailed analysis only requires feature
values with a short sample time. Power control minimises the cavitation risk by dividing the load
between three turbines, whose conditions are normal, bad and very good. Each turbine has three
operating modes: low, normal and high power. In the normal area, a cavitation free power level
is taken as an operating point. The low and high operating areas are defined by local minima
of the cavitation indices. The control system has a feedforward controller, which allocates the
load to the turbines by means of the cavitation indices, and a linguistic equation (LE) feedback
controller. Each turbine has a P type controller which is adapted to the operating conditions
by the scaling functions. The cumulative time in the strong cavitation provides an indication of
possible damage to be used in selecting the turbine for low power operation.The characteristic
curves are adapted to the recent indices in order to handle the changes in the condition of
the turbines. For power stations with many turbines, alternatives to reduce cavitation risks are
evaluated by simulation to optimise maintenance actions.

Keywords: Cavitation, vibration analysis, higher order derivatives, feature extraction, water
turbine.

1. INTRODUCTION periods, advantages and disadvantages can be estimated


when the severity of cavitation is known at the maximum
Cavitation is possible when vapour bubbles are formed in power levels. As water turbines are used for fast reaction
a liquid at a constant temperature. If pressure decreases on fluctuations in electricity consumption, the power need
below the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid at the to be changed quickly. Research on the hydropower plant
same time, the bubbles grow. If this phenomenon takes modelling and control focus on turbine control with large
place in a flow, the vapour bubbles grow intensively in load variation in the power system, see (Kishor et al.,
a region of lower pressure. When the bubbles move to a 2007).
higher pressure region, they collapse rapidly. The collapse
The real-time detection of cavitation risk is increasingly
takes place in a very short time period and causes high
important in both low and high power ranges. Even narrow
vibration levels, see (Brennen, 1995). Traditionally, there
cavitation-free power ranges can be utilised in load opti-
have been efforts to detect cavitation using vibration,
misation. Vibration measurements provide a good basis
pressure, acoustic emission or sound measurements. Cavi-
for condition monitoring (Lahdelma and Juuso, 2007).
tation is extremely harmful to turbines, as it damages the
Cavitation in water turbines has often been examined
surfaces of runners and flow channels, e.g. a revision of the
with standard measurements in the frequency range 10
runner may cause delays of several weeks in the operation
- 1000 Hz or by selecting 1 Hz as the lower cut-off fre-
of the turbine. Cavitation and avoiding cavitation in wa-
quency (Juuso and Lahdelma, 2006). However, practical
ter turbines has been investigated in some recent studies
experiences have shown that this analysis does not provide
(Roussopoulos and Monkewitz, 2000; Bahaj and Myers,
a sufficient picture of cavitation in the case of Kaplan
2003; Escaler et al., 2006).
turbines. Dimensionless indices are obtained by compar-
The power ranges should be selected in a way that min- ing each feature value with the corresponding value in
imises the possibility of cavitation. For instance, if one normal operation. These indices provide useful informa-
wants to produce as high output powers as possible at flood tion on different faults, and even more sensitive solutions
can be obtained by selecting suitable features.(Lahdelma obtained from (3) by using the values zero and one for the
and Juuso, 2007) Generalised moments and norms include order of derivation.
many well-known statistical features as special cases and
provide compact new features capable of detecting faulty The norm values increase with increasing order, i.e. for
the lp and lq norms holds lp ≤ lq if p < q . The increase is
situations (Lahdelma and Juuso, 2008b).
monotonous if all the signals are not equal. The mean, the
Intelligent models extend the idea of dimensionless in- harmonic mean and the root mean square (rms) are special
dices to nonlinear systems. Operating conditions can be cases of (3). The norm (3) represents the norms from the
detected by means of a Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) minimum to the maximum, which correspond the orders
type application with linguistic equation (LE) models and p = −∞ and p = ∞, respectively. When p < 0 , all the
Fuzzy Logic (Juuso, 1994, 1999, 2004). The basic idea signal values should be non-zero, i.e. x = 0. Therefore, the
is nonlinear scaling, which was developed to extract the norms with p < 0 are reasonable only if all the variable
meanings of variables from measurement signals (Juuso values are positive. When the order p → 0 , we obtain from
and Leiviskä, 1992). The LE models are linear equations (3) the geometric mean. The computation of the norms can
m be divided into the computation of equal sized sub-blocks,
Aij Xj + Bi = 0, (1) i.e. the norm for several samples can be obtained as the
j=1 norm for the norms of individual samples.
where Xj is a linguistic value for the variable j, j = Faults can also be detected with other types of norm, e.g.
1...m (Juuso, 1999). Each equation i has its own set bearing faults in slowly rotating machinery can be detected
of interaction coefficients The bias term was introduced with maximum norm
for fault diagnosis systems. The first LE application in (α)
||x(α) ||∞ = max |xi |, (4)
condition monitoring was presented in (Juuso et al., 2004). i=1,...,n
The condition monitoring applications are similar to the which in diagnostics is called peak value. An efficient
applications intended for detecting operating conditions in (2) (3) (4)
solution is to use peak values xp , xp and xp . To avoid
the process industry (Juuso and Leiviskä, 2005). the domination of a distinct peak, the peak value can be
This paper deals with the use of cavitation indices based on calculated e.g. as an average of the highest three peaks.
generalised norms in the power control and maintenance The norm (3) is a Hölder mean, also known as the power
planning of Kaplan water turbines. mean. (Lahdelma and Juuso, 2009)
The peaks of the signal have a strong effect on the moment
2. FEATURE EXTRACTION (2). The norm (3) combines two trends: a strong increase
caused by the power p and a decrease with the power
Feature extraction is based on velocity x(1) , acceleration 1/p. For the order p = 1, there is no amplification. The
x(2) and higher derivatives, x(3) and x(4) . The other moments calculated for higher order derivatives and are
signals have been obtained from acceleration through ana- more sensitive to impacts than the ones calculated for
logue (Juuso and Lahdelma, 2006) or numerical integra- velocity. The sensitivity of the moment improves when the
tion and derivation (Juuso et al., 2007). order p of the moment increases. The rms value (p = 2) has
good performance in the high power range. In the previous
2.1 Generalised moments and norms studies, the rms values were combined with kurtosis, which
provides an indication of the strong cavitation in the low
A generalised central moment can be normalised by means power range. (Lahdelma and Juuso, 2009)
of the standard deviation σα of the signal x(α) : The sample time τ is an essential parameter in the cal-
N
τ p 1 (α) culation of moments and norms. The sample time τ = 3s
σ M α = | x − x̄(α) |p , (2) provided the most sensitive results for cavitation analysis
N (σα )p i=1 i
(Lahdelma and Juuso, 2008c). However, sufficiently long
where the real number α is the order of derivation, the real signals are required to produce reliable maximum moments
number p is the order of the moment, τ is the sample time and material for analysing short-term cavitation.
(s), and x̄(α) and σα the mean and the standard deviation,
respectively, calculated for the signal x(α) . The number of 2.2 Nonlinear scaling of the features
signal values N = τ Ns , where Ns is the number of samples
per second. The moment τσ Mα2 = 1, and the moment τσ Mα4 The value range of xj is divided into two parts by the
correspond to the kurtosis of the signal x(α) . (Lahdelma central tendency value cj and the core area, [(cl )j , (ch )j ],
and Juuso, 2008c). is limited by the central tendency values of the lower and
The norm defined by means of upper part. There are problems when the value range is
very wide or the distribution is very concentrated. A new
N
1  (α) p 1/p approach based on the normalised moments generalised by
lp ≡ ||τ Mαp ||p = [ |x | ] , (3)
N i=1 i replacing the expectation with the norm (3) as the central
value:
N
was introduced in (Lahdelma and Juuso, 2008b). The lp 1 
norms are defined in such away that 1 ≤ p < ∞. In γkp = (xj − Mjp )k ), (5)
this study, the order p is allowed to be less than one. N σjk i=1
The absolute mean and the rms value are special cases where σj is calculated about the origin, and k is a positive
of (3). The rms values of displacement and velocity can be integer. (Juuso and Lahdelma, 2010) The moment (5) is
used for estimating the central tendency value and the Lahdelma et al., 2007). The features of velocity had a very
core area for the features xj , α = 0. The central tendency low correlation with the knowledge-based cavitation index.
value is chosen by the point where the skewness changes Strong cavitation can be detected with the features of
from negative to positive, i.e. γ3 = 0. Then the data set other signals in the low frequency range, even in the range
is divided into two parts: a lower part and an upper part. 10-1000 Hz. Before the lp norm, kurtosis combined with
The same analysis is done for these two data sets. The rms values was the best combination in the low frequency
estimates of the corner points, (cl )j and (ch )j , are the range, but widening the frequency range makes the peak
points where the direction of the skewness changes. The values better than kurtosis.
iteration is performed with generalised norms. Constraints
are fulfilled The scaling functions shown in Figure 1 were obtained
(cl )j − min (xj ) with a data-driven approach from the features obtained
α−j = at ten power levels: 2, 3, 5, 8, 12, 25, 45, 57.5, 58.1 and
cj − (cl )j
max (xj ) − (ch )j (6) 59.4 MW. For each feature, the level 0 was obtained as
α+ = a median of the values in the training set, and the levels
(ch )j − cj -1 and 1 as medians of the lower and higher halves of the
Then the ratios αj and α+

j are restricted to the range values, respectively. A cavitation index can be obtained by
[ 13 , 3] moving the corner points (cl )j and (ch )j or the upper scaling the norm (3) with the function (5). The index,
and lower limits min (xj ) and/or max (xj ). The linearity (α)
IC = fα−1 (relative max(||τ Mαp ||), (7)
requirement is taken into account, if possible. τ p
is based on the relative max(|| Mα ||) , which is ob-
The nonlinear scaling methodology based on gener- tained by comparing max(||τ Mαp ||) at each power with
alised norms and skewness provides good results for the max(||τ Mαp ||) the at 15 MW (Lahdelma and Juuso,
automatic generation of scaling functions (Juuso and 2008b).
Lahdelma, 2010). Sensitivity to small faults and anomalies
was increased considerably. The approach was tested with The coefficients of determination R2 , calculated as the
normal, Poisson and Weibull distributions and with two square of the correlation coefficient, was compared in
applications of condition monitoring. (Lahdelma and Juuso, 2008a) for all the signals x(1) , x(3)
(1)
and x(4) . The index IC based on the velocity signal had
3. CAVITATION DETECTION 2
the lowest R value, and also the classification result were
(3)
the worst of these three. The index IC has the highest R2
The knowledge-based cavitation index provides an indica- (4)
value but the index IC has the best classification result
tion of both clear cavitation and clearly good operation.
(Lahdelma and Juuso, 2008b), when p = 2.75. Absolute
Values -2 and -1 indicate good operating conditions. Value
averages and rms values, too, have a high correlation
1 corresponds to clear signs of cavitation, and value 2
in the cavitation-free area and high power range 50-
means a very strong indication of cavitation.
59.4 MW, but in the problematic low power range 1.5
- 12 MW these values result in considerably lower R2
3.1 Norms values (Lahdelma and Juuso, 2008b). In this example, only
higher derivatives can be used in the practical classification
Short sample times were already found to be good in for cavitation, short-term cavitation and cavitation-free
(Lahdelma and Juuso, 2008c). The order p of the norm operating conditions. The indices obtained from are the
was set at 2.75 and sample time τ = 3s , which provides best alternatives.
a good balance between low and high power ranges, since
sample time has a strong effect in the low power range. The The nonlinear scaling of the features obtained from the
strong cavitation at 2 and 10 MW are clearly detected, signal x(4) are based on functions shown in Figure 1.
(4)
and also the cavitation at 59 and 59.4 MW with the same The indices IC , p = 1, 2 and 2.75, were compared to
feature: relative max(||3 M42.75 ||) > 2.3. The cavitation- the knowledge-based cavitation index at 29 power levels
free area at 7 and 13-35 MW is detected as well; relative varying from 1.5 to 59.4 MW. The optimal cavitation
max(||3 M42.75 ||) < 1.4. The power ranges classified into index is needed in the low power range: the other power
cases of short periods of cavitation are slightly wider than ranges are managed with the absolute mean and the rms
in the previous studies where 40 MW was classified as the value. The new scaling function improves the sensitivity
cavitation-free area and 55 MW as the cavitation cases. of the cavitation index for short periods of cavitation
(Fig. 2). These results are consistent with the vibration
3.2 Cavitation indices severity criteria, which originate from VDI 2056 (VDI,
1964; Collacott, 1977).
The purpose with cavitation indices is to extract indirect
measurements from the signal samples. The index devel- 4. MONITORING AND CONTROL
oped in (Juuso and Lahdelma, 2006) for a Kaplan water
turbine is based on the nonlinear scaling of two features:
Cavitation, short-term cavitation and cavitation-free oper-
peak height and the fraction of the peaks exceeding the ating conditions need to be detected in condition monitor-
normal limit. The index obtained from the signal is the
ing. Reliable indicators could be useful in turbine control
best alternative but also the index obtained from the signal
when large load variations need to be handled.
provides good results throughout the power range. Fea-
tures of velocity x(1) , acceleration x(2) and higher deriva- On-line cavitation monitoring is feasible with this ap-
tives, x(3) and x(4) were compared in (Juuso et al., 2007; proach since the analysis does not need high frequency
Figure 1. Scaling functions of the relative max(||3 M42.75 ||) in a Kaplan water turbine.

norm (3) introduced in (Lahdelma and Juuso, 2008b) can


2 be used alone, see (7), if the order p is chosen correctly.
Combined indices, where several orders α are used, require
1.5 Cavitation the tuning of the scaling functions.
1 The generalised norms ||τ Mαp || are defined by the order
Short periods
of derivation (α), the order of moment (p) and sample
0.5 time (τ ). A short sample time is beneficial for on-line
of cavitation
operation, and the sensitivity of the detection can be
(4)

0
C

improved without major requirements on frequency ranges


I

Short periods if a good signal, i.e. a good order α, and a proper order p
−0.5
of weak cavitation are used. The absolute mean can be used if the order α is
−1 proper and the frequency range is sufficient.
−1.5 Cavitation−free Cavitation monitoring is based on the signal analysis of
the signal samples. The analysis is repeated at intervals
−2 defined by the sample time τ :
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Power [MW] (1) Calculate the value of the norm ||τ Mαp || from the
signal sample.
Figure 2. The cavitation index for a Kaplan water turbine. (2) Calculate the feature max(||τ Mαp ||) from the 10 latest
values of the norm.
(α)
ranges, and the sample times are very short. The mo- (3) Calculate the cavitation index IC by means of the
ment can be analysed first and then combined with the scaling functions.
rms values to obtain the cavitation index if the moment (4) Add the sample time τ to the cumulative time of the
(α)
value exceeds the threshold value. The generalised moment strong cavitation if IC > 1.
(2) indicates possible cavitation but one moment value is (5) Add the sample time τ to the cumulative time of the
not enough for a detailed analysis (Lahdelma and Juuso, (α)
short-term cavitation if 0 < IC < 1.
2008c): the moments should be combined with other fea-
tures, e.g. rms values used in (Juuso et al., 2007). The
180 2
Turbine 1 Turbine 1
160 1.5 Turbine 2 Turbine 2
40 0
140 Turbine 3 Turbine 3
1 Turbine 1
120 Turbine 1
Power ( MW )

Power ( MW )
0.5 30 −0.5
100

IC(4)
I (4)
0

C
80 20 Turbine 2 −1
−0.5
60 Turbine 2
−1
40 10 −1.5
Turbine 3
−1.5
20 Turbine 3
−2 −2
0 0
50 75 100 125 150 175 50 75 100 125 150 175 20 30 40 20 30 40
Power ( MW ) Power ( MW ) Power ( MW ) Power ( MW )

Figure 3. Load allocation based on the cavitation indices Figure 4. Load allocation based on the cavitation indices
of three Kaplan water turbines in the normal and high of three Kaplan water turbines in the low power
power ranges, condition of the turbines are (1) very range, condition of the turbines are (1) very good,
good, (2) normal, and (3) bad. (2) normal, and (3) bad.

The absolute mean (p = 1), the rms value (p = 2) and the


optimal norm (p = 2.75) have been compared for the signal
x(4) . The absolute mean is very good in the the normal
operating conditions, which are free of cavitation, and also 40 0
provides a clear indication of cavitation already at an early Turbine 1
Turbine 2
stage in the high power range. The cavitation indicator
Power ( MW )

30 −0.5 Turbine 3
also provides warnings of a possible risk on short periods

I (4)
Turbine 1
of cavitation if the power is not too low. This is readily

C
−1
suitable for intelligent sensors where a good solution is to 20
use analogue signals x(4) . In the low power range, absolute
averages should be combined with peak value. Because of 10 Turbine 2
−1.5
minor calculation requirements the method is well suitable
for intelligent sensors, where analog differentiation can be Turbine 3 −2
used to obtain the signal x(4) from the acceleration signal. 0 10 20 30
10 20 30
Power ( MW ) Power ( MW )
Data compression is very efficient, as the detailed analysis
only requires the feature values, i.e. the moment and the
rms value, of the appropriate samples. Uncertainty can be Figure 5. Load allocation based on the cavitation indices
handled by presenting the indices as time-varying fuzzy of three Kaplan water turbines in the very low power
numbers analysed from several samples. The classification range, condition of the turbines are (1) very good, (2)
limits and thresholds can also be considered fuzzy. The normal, and (3) bad.
high sensitivity of the analysis methods may allow the
use of lower frequency ranges. A combined analogue and
digital technique can markedly reduce the amount of data. power (Fig. 4). In the very low power range, turbine 3 can
This is important in intelligent sensors, especially if the be kept in a range, where there are only short periods of
rotation speed is very low. weak cavitation (Fig. 5).
Power control minimises the cavitation risk by dividing The load allocation operates as a feedforward control.
the load between three turbines, whose conditions are Feedback control is needed since the cavitation depends
normal, bad and very good. Knowlede-based cavitation on the flow conditions in the turbine. Each turbine has
indices are used for load allocation by minimising the three operating modes: low, normal and high power. In
overall cavitation index (Fig. 3). The solution is easy if the normal area, a cavitation-free power level is taken
all the turbines can operate in power ranges, which are as an operating point. The low and high operating areas
free of cavitation. For higher loads, the system increases are defined by the local minima of the cavitation indices.
production in the turbines in such a way that short-term Turbines can also have more operating areas, e.g. two in
cavitation is minimised (Fig. 3). the low power range as seen in Figure 2.
The optimisation procedure can also use the low power Fuzzy logic control is well suitable for power control since
ranges of the turbines efficiently. However, the low power there is wide operating area where cavitation index is not
ranges in some turbines are selected only when all the needed. In this area, the cavitation index of each turbine is
turbines cannot operate in the cavitation-free area. In this close to -2. Since the cavitation indices are already in the
example, turbine 3 is in a bad condition, but it can be range [−2, 2], the controller can be realised as a linguistic
kept in the cavitation-free area in a wide range of total equation (LE) controller (Juuso, 2004).
The difference of the cavitation index, denoted as (ΔIc )i , turbine has a P type LE controller which is adapted to
is obtained by the operating conditions by the scaling functions. The
(ΔIc )i = (Ic )i − (Ic )av , (8) cumulative time in strong cavitation provides an indication
of possible damage. The characteristic curves are adapted
where (Ic )i is the cavitation index of the turbine i, i = to the recent indices in order to handle changes in the
1, . . . , n, and (Ic )av is the average of the cavitation indices condition of the turbines.
:
n
1
(Ic )av = (Ic )i . (9)
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