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histology & function of connective tissue

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Journal of
Dental Science

HISTOLOGY AND FUNCTIONS OF Review

Article
CONNECTIVE TISSUES :
A REVIEW ARTICLE
1
Shahla Khan, 2 Gulam S. Hashmi
1
JR II, Dept. of Pathology, IDST, Modinagar
2
Associate Professor, Dept. of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery (Mentor)

Abstract: There are various kinds of cells present in connective tissue according to their
location & type of organ or structure, such as fibroblast, myofibroblast, adipose cells, mast
cells, tissue macrophages, white blood cells, osteoblast, chondroblast and blood forming Key Words :
cells. The intercellular substance is usually composed of both amorphous (non-sulphated Connective tissue,
and sulphated mucopolysaccharides) and formed elements collagen, reticular & elastic euchromatic nuclei,
fibers. The function of the intercellular ground substance is to form the matrix, by which extracellular matrix
transportation of metabolites takes place. We present a review of connective tissue with
their cells and functions. Conflict of interest : Not declared

Introduction: substance varies from one type of connective tissue to

The term connect comes from the Latin word `Connecture',
meaning `to bind'.1 It originates from the mesenchyme that is
the middle layer of three embryonic germ layers. Connective
tissue is a tissue that supports and connects other tissues and
parts. The main bulk of the tissue consists of intercellular
substance or matrix, whereas rests of the tissue are cells,
comprises of comparatively few in number. 2
Connective tissue occurs in many different forms with diverse
physical properties. In most organs, loose connective tissue
act as a biological packing material between cell and other
tissues with more specific functions. Dense form of
connective tissue provides tough physical support in the
dermis of the skin.3
Connective tissue usually consists of three components, such
as:
• Cells
• Fibers
• Ground substance
There are various kinds of cells present in connective tissue
according to their location & type of organ or structure, such
as fibroblast, myofibroblast, adipose cells, mast cells, tissue
macrophages, white blood cells, osteoblast, chondroblast and
blood forming cells. The intercellular substance is usually
composed of both amorphous (non-sulphated and sulphated
mucopolysaccharides) and formed elements collagen,
reticular & elastic fibers. The function of the intercellular
ground substance is to form the matrix, by which
transportation of metabolites takes place.
Connective tissue is composed of a cellular substance and a
non-cellular substance. Cellular substance is surrounded by
non-cellular substance. The ratio of cells to intercellular
another. Connective tissue occurs in many different forms
with diverse physical properties. In most organs, loose
connective tissue act as a biological packing materials
between cell and other tissues with more specific functions.
Dense form of connective tissue provides tough physical
support in the dermis of the skin.3
Collagen which constitutes 34% of the total extracellular
matrix (ECM) proteins forms the integral part of connective
tissue stroma and plays a vital role in maintaining structural
integrity and in determining tissue function.4
Cells of connective tissue
Cell types of connective tissue can include such as fibroblast,
mast cells, histiocytes, adipose cells, reticular cell,
osteoblast, chondroblast and blood forming cells.
Fibroblasts
Fibroblasts are the most abundant cell type in connective
tissues and form the structural framework of tissues through
their secretion of extracellular matrix component. Fibroblasts
are found in every tissue of the body. They are of
mesenchymal origin and depending on their location display
multiple morphologies.5
These cells are spindle shape with flattened nucleus. Nucleus
is large euchromatic with prominent nuclei. The cytoplast of
fibroblast contains rough endoplasmic reticulum indicates in
regards to synthesis of protein material. Fibroblasts are
obligatory components of the ECM.6
Fibroblasts are responsible for the production of collagen
fiber. They also produce reticular and elastic fibers.
Fibroblast become very active when there is a need to
produce collagen fiber. e.g.in case of wound healing when
the need arises, fibroblast can give rise to more fibroblast by
mitosis. Fibroblasts are specialized cells and they cannot

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convert themselves to other type of cells. In cell culture,
fibroblasts are known to form gap junctions with myocytes
influencing their electrophysiology and providing a substrate
for electrical conduction between separated myocytes over
extended distances.7,8,9
J H Korn et. al. in 1980, investigated the ability of
mononuclear cells to influence fibroblast proliferation.
Supernates of human mononuclear cell cultures suppressed
the proliferation of dermal fibroblasts in vitro. This
suppression was mediated, at least in part, by stimulation of
fibroblast prostaglandin synthesis. 10
Helene M. Langevin et. al. in 2012 studied the fibroblast
cytoskeletal remodeling & they observed, fibroblasts can
dynamically modulate the viscoelastic behavior of areolar
connective tissue through Rho-dependent cytoskeletal
mechanisms. 11
Myofibroblasts
Myofibroblasts are modified fibroblasts, characterized by the
presence of a well-developed contractile apparatus, and the
formation of robust actin stress fibers. These
mechanically active cells are thought to orchestrate
extracellular matrix remodeling during normal wound
healing in response to tissue injury, and in aberrant tissue
remodeling found in fibrosing disorders. 12
Alexis Desmoulière et. el. In 2004 reviewed and discuss the
mechanisms of Myofibroblast evolution during fibrotic and
malignant conditions and the interaction of myofibroblasts
with other cells in order to control tumor progression. On this
basis they suggested that the myofibroblast may represent a
new important target of antitumor therapy. 13
Boris Hinz in 2007 observed Specific molecular features as
well as factors that control myofibroblast differentiation are
potential targets to counteract its development, function, and
survival. Such targets include a-smooth muscle actin and
more recently discovered markers of the myofibroblast
cytoskeleton, membrane surface proteins, and the
extracellular matrix. 14
Olivier De Wever et. al. in 2008 Myofibroblasts and cancer-
associated fibroblasts are importan Components of the tumor
stroma. The origin of myofibroblasts remains controversial,
although fibroblasts and bone marrow-derived precursors are
considered to be the main progenitor cells. Myofibroblast
reactions also occur in fibrosis. Therefore, we wonder
whether non tumorous myofibroblasts have different
characteristics and different origins as compared to tumor-
associated myofibroblasts. 15
Eliene-Magda de-Assis et. al. in 2011 Evaluate the presence
of stromal myofibroblasts in OL and OSCC, they obsereved
that the presence of stromal myofibroblasts was classified as
negative in 11 (26.8%), scanty in 15 (36.6%), and abundant in
15 samples (36.6%). The presence of stromal myofibroblasts
was statistically higher in high-invasive OSCC than in low-
invasive OSCC. 16
Adipocytes :
Adipocytes are unit of fat cells and are commonly seen in
loose connective tissue. They occur singly or in a small group.
29
The first indication of a fat cell beginning to store fat is the
appearance of tiny fat droplet in cytoplasm.17
The mature white adipose cell is roughly 95% triglyceride by
weight. This cell is nevertheless highly active metabolically
and is subject to delicate nervous and hormonal control and
nutritional influences 18. The adipose cell, during periods of
caloric excess, readily converts glucose into fatty acids and
stores these together with those taken up from the
extracellular space such as triglyceride. During periods of
caloric deficit, stored triglyceride is released by the cell as
fatty acids and glycerol for transport to other tissues .The fine
structure of the adipose cell has been examined at moderate
resolution by a number of investigators 19.
Fatty foods, with high lipid content, often provide more lipids
than can be digested and used right away. The excess is stored
in the adipose tissue. Excess carbohydrate and protein taken
in with meals can also be converted to fat (usually in the liver)
and then moved to the adipose tissue for longer-term storage.
One gram of fat stores about 9 kcal per gram, compared to
carbohydrate or protein (4 kcal per gram). For mobile
animals, this means that less bulk has to be carried around and
a normal sized body that is about 20% fat has enough stored
energy to last about 20 - 30 days without eating.20
Ling-juan Zhang et. al in 2014 worked on the role of adipocyte
in host defense function was mediated through the production
of cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide from adipocytes because
cathelicidin expression was decreased by inhibition of
adipogenesis, and adipocytes capacity to inhibit bacterial
growth. 21
Lipids
A lipid is generally considered to be an organic substance that
is insoluble in water, is soluble or partially soluble in organic
solvents. Lipids normally occur as a component of all tissues
and found in the form of stored lipids or lipid structures such
as myelin. They may be bound to protein (lipoprotein) or
carbohydrates (glycolipids)22
Mast Cells
Mast cell is probably a phylogenitically old cell which
apparently occurs in all species with blood circulation. Under
light microscope human mast cells usually present as round or
elongated cells with a diameter ranging from 8-20
micrometer.23
Mast cells release various substances like histamine as well
as various types of enzymes and factors. Release of histamine
is associated with the production of allergic reaction when a
tissue is exposed to an antigen to which it is sensitive.
Although mast cells were discovered more than a century ago,
their functions goes beyond their role in allergic responses
and remain elusive until recently. However, there is a growing
appreciation that an important physiological function of these
cells is the recognition of pathogens and modulation of
appropriate immune responses. Because of their ability to
instantly release several pro-inflammatory mediators from
intracellular stores and their location at the host-environment
interface, mast cells have been shown to be crucial for optimal
immune responses during infection.
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Tissue Macrophages
In 2008 Siamon Gordon wrote an historical essay on Elie
Metchnikoff, the father of natural immunity. Elie
Metchnikoff is credited with the discovery that the
antimicrobial defense requires the specific recruitment of
specialized cells the phagocyte, which are able to kill and eat
potential pathogen. One of the important cells of loose
connective tissue is highly specialized for phagocytosis and is
termed as macrophage which means big eater. 24
White blood cells ( WBC)
Blood is a fluid in which whole cells and fragments of
cytoplasm are suspended. The fluid portion is called plasma.
The cells are of two main types red & white respectively. Five
kinds of leukocytes are the representative of only two
families. The distinguishing trait of one family is granular
cytoplasm and nongranular cytoplasm. Hence the leukocytes
are classified either granular or agranular.25
Neutrophils
Neutrophils are terminally differentiated white blood cells,
which are equipped with a plethora of microbicidal and pro-
inflammatory mechanisms and form the first line of defense
against pathogenic insults .26They are produced in huge
numbers in the bone marrow (? 109 cells per kg bodyweight
per day), from where they are released into the circulation.
However, neutrophils are short-lived (6- to8-hour circulating
half-life) and undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).27
In response to infection and/or inflammation, circulating
neutrophils can migrate to peripheral tissues, such as the skin,
gut, lungs, or the periodontium. 28
Neutrophils homeostasis is maintained by a fine balance
among several functions, including granulopoiesis, retention
vs. release of mature neutrophils from the bone marrow,
trafficking and transmigration, and clearance of apoptotic
neutrophils.
Defective granulopoiesis leads to neutropenia, which
represents a persistent reduction in the absolute neutrophils
count in the circulation (< 1,500 cells/?L) and is generally
associated with susceptibility to infections.
Eosinophil:
It is a type of white blood cells having 10-14 micrometer in
diameter. It has sausage shaped bilobed nucleus in which two
lobes are connected with chromatin thread, thus producing
spectacle appearance. Eosinophils and their product play an
essential role in pathogenesis of various reactive and
neoplastic disorders. 29
Eosinophils help to eliminate antigen-antibody complexes
and to destroy parasitic worms. Binding of histamine,
leukotrienes and eosinophils plasmalemma receptors
resulting in migration of eosinophils to the site of allergic
reaction, inflammatory reaction or parasitic worms
invasion.29
Abdelillah Soussi Gounni et. al in 1994 says parasitic
infections are often associated with eosinophilia and high
levels of immunoglobulin E (IgE). This observation has led to
speculation that eosinophils and IgE may act together in the
30
immune response against parasites. 30
Basophils
Basophils, the least abundant granulocytes, have poorly
understood functions. They have been linked to the
development of T helper type 2 immunity during parasite
infection and allergic inflammation. Emerging evidence has
not only shown the critical involvement of basophils in the
development of T helper type 2 immunity but also provided
useful animal models with which basophils functions can be
further examined.
The function of basophils has not been clearly established.
Basophiles are set to contain about half of the histamine that is
present in the blood. Furthermore basophils, like eosinophils,
tends to leave the blood stream under the influence of certain
hormones. They seems to be involved in allergy and stress
phenomena in much the same way as eosinophils. 31
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are the commonest leucocytes seen in the
normal blood film. Lymphocytes are essential in combating
infections, they display powerfull effector mechanisms and
their activity must be regulated at all times to avoid self-tissue
or cell destruction. Function of lymphocytes and products
ranges from the neutralization of pathogen with specific
antibodies to the activation of macrophages and to direct
cytotoxic activities. Under microscope lymphocyte have only
a few mitochondria that suggest that their metabolic rate is
low. Their cytoplasm is only sparsely provided with either
free or membrane attached ribosome. A Golgi apparatus is
also seen.32
Monocytes
Monocytes are circulating blood leukocytes that play
important roles in the inflammatory response, which is
essential for the innate response to pathogens. But
inflammation and monocytes are also involved in the
pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, including
atherosclerosis.
Monocyte heterogeneity has long been recognized, but in
recent years investigators have identified three functional
subsets of human monocytes and two subsets of mouse
monocytes that exert specific roles in homeostasis and
inflammation in vivo, reminiscent of those of the previously
described classically and alternatively activated
macrophages. Functional characterization of monocytes is in
progress in humans and rodents and will provide a better
understanding of the pathophysiology of inflammation.33
Red blood cells (RBC)/Erythrocytes
Erythrocyte is a biconcave circular disc like structure having a
diameter of 7 micrometer. Erythrocytes are cells that have lost
their nuclei. They are bounded by a plasma membrane formed
by lipid and protein. It contains a red colour protein called
haemoglobin.34
The colour of the erythrocyte is because of
haemoglobin. In a healthy person there are 15 gm of
haemoglobin in every 100 ml of blood. Apart from
haemoglobin erythrocyte has an enzyme system that controls
the pH by adjusting Sodium level with in the erythrocytes.
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Life span of erythrocytes is about 100-120 days. The
cytoskeleton of erythrocytes is made up of protein spectrin.
Deficiency of haemoglobin in blood is called anaemia.
Aneamia is produced deficient iron deficiency diet.
The function of RBCs is to carry oxygen from the lungs to all
tissue of the body due to presence of haemoglobin. They also
contain an enzyme system that controls pH by adjusting
sodium level with in them. Fetal erythrocytes are nucleated
and contain a different form of haemoglobin HbF.
Fibers of Connective tissue
The term fiber is used in the textile industry to refer to
cylinder, thread like structure that can be woven or twisted
into useful commodities. As to collagen the term fiber is used
to describe thread like structure that vary between 1-12
micron in diameter. Hence on the average, collagenic fiber
have roughly about the same diameter as the RBC.35
Under light microscope the fibrous components of
extracellular matrix are classified into three typesof fibers.
• ,Collagen
• Elastic
• Reticular
1. Collagen
In humans, collagen comprises one-third of the total protein,
accounts for three-quarters of the dry weight of skin, and is the
most prevalent component of the extracellular matrix (ECM).
Twenty-eight different types of collagen composed of at least
46 distinct polypeptide chains have been identified in
vertebrates, and many other proteins contain collagenous
domains.36, Collagen fibrils formed mainly from type I
collagen (all fibrous tissues except cartilage) and fibrils
formed largely from type II collagen (cartilage) have slightly
different structures.
Types of collagen fibers :
The collagen super family of proteins includes more than 25
collagen types, as well as additional proteins that have
collagen-like domains.
Fibril-forming collagens :
Types I, II, and III are the fibrillar collagens, and have the
rope-like structure Type I collagen fibers are found in
supporting elements of high tensile strength (for example,
tendon and cornea), whereas fibers formed from type II
collagen molecules are restricted to cartilaginous structures.
The fibers derived from, type III collagen is prevalent in more
distensible tissues, such as blood vessels.
Network-forming collagens:
Types IV and VII form a three-dimensional mesh, rather than
distinct fibrils. Type IV molecules assemble into a sheet or
meshwork, that constitutes a major part of basement
membranes
Fibril-associated collagens:
Types IX and XII bind to the surface of collagen fibrils,
linking these fibrils to one another and to other components in
the extracellular matrix.
31
Collagen fibers play a vital role not only in maintaining
structural integrity, but also in determining tissue.
S Viswanathan Et. al. in 2010 assess the thickness and color of
collagen fibres in various odontogenic cysts for its possible
role in expansion and suggests that there is a possibility of a
biochemical and morphological change in the constituent of
the fibres in these cyst groups which could be responsible for
their behavior. 37
Naveen Kumar et. al in 2012 done the histological study on
the distribution of dermal collagen and observed, distribution
of dermal collagen and elastic fibres varies not only in
different regions, but also in two different orientations of the
sections taken in the same region. 38
2. Elastic Fibers
Elastic fibres are essential extracellular matrix
macromolecules comprising of elastin core surrounded by a
mantle of fibrillin-rich microfibrils. Tissue flexibility and
extensibility have been essential requirements in the
evolution of multicellular organisms.39
They are long and narrow,ranging from less than a micron to a
few microns in a thickness. As their name implies, elastic
fibres,on being stretched and then released,tend to snap,like
rubber band,to their original state,to help impart a diffuse
elasticity to tissue they commonly branch.40
Naveen kumar et. al in 2012 studied the distribution of elastc
fibers in different region of body and observed, elastic fibres
appear in dermis much later than the collagen fibres. They
undergo significant changes during life. Changes in aging is
best studied in non exposed skin, elastoid degeneration is the
result of chronic sun exposure. In very old persons,
fragmentation and disintegration of some of the elastic fibres
may be observed.
Oxytalan fibers:
First described by Fullmer & lilly in 1958. 41 Oxytalan fiber
has been more fully reviewed by Fullmer, Sheetz and
Narkates in 1974. These specialized fibers have been found in
tendon, ligaments, the adventitia of blood vessels,
surrounding the skin appendages and the periodontium.
Oxytalan fibers appear to be closely related to elastic fibers,
possibly representing immature or modified elastin. 42
3.Reticular fibres
Reticular fibers provide a supporting framework for the
cellular constituents of various tissues and organs.Reticular
fibers and collagen type I fibers share a prominent feature.
They both consist of collagen fibrils. Unlike collagen fibers,
however, reticular fibers are composed of type III collagen.43
Ground substance
Ground substance in loose connective tissue was first proven
by Sylvia Bansley in 1934 and in 1951 Karl Meyer discovered
the chemical structure ground substance.Ground substance is
chemically heterogenous. It is the rout of of exchange of
materials between blood & tissue cells, and consequently at
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any given moment it will contain a bewildering array of
components in transit including gases, metabolites, harmones
etc.44
Christian F et. al. in 2010 wrote in journal of cell science, the
extracellular matrix (ECM) is the noncellular component
present within all tissues and organs, and provides not only
essential physical scaffolding for the cellular constituents but
also initiates crucial biochemical and biomechanical cues that
are required for tissue morphogenesis, differentiation and
homeostasis. ECM is composed of water, proteins and
polysaccharides, each tissue has an ECM with a unique
composition and topology that is generated during tissue
development through a dynamic and reciprocal, biochemical
and biophysical dialogue between the various cellular
components. 45
There are two major classes of macromolecular compounds,
which confer on the ground substance its distinguishing
characteristics of a gel like matrix. These are
• Mucoploysacrides:
There are two main kinds of mucopolysaccharides
intercellular substances.
• A non sulphated type mucopolysaccharides
• Sulphated mucopolysaccharides
• Glycoprotein:
Histochemically the mucopolysaccharides stain with alcian
blue and stain met achromatically with toludine blue. Under
carefully controlled condition, the PAS procedure is strongly
indicative of the presence of glycoprotein They impart the
properties of iron binding and ionic exchange.Ground
substance is the component that occupies the space between
the cells and fibers. The intercellular substance is usually
composed of both amorphous and formed element (Collagen,
reticular & elastic fibers) .The chief component of amorphous
ground substance is carbohydrate which is basically
amucopolysaccharide.46
Mucin:
Reid & Clamp (1978) has been suggested term
'glycoconjugates' for mucin. Mucins are highly glycosylated
macromolecules (> or =50% carbohydrate).The functions of
mucins are dependent on their ability to form viscous
solutions or gels. Although the highly glycosylated domains
of mucins are devoid of secondary structures, they are long
extended structures that are much less flexible than
unglycosylated random coils.
Muscles
Muscle fibers are composed of functional units called
sarcomeres. Within each sarcomere are myofibrillar proteins
myosin and actin. The interaction of these two myofibrillar
proteins allows muscle to contract. There are three types of
muscles in human body. 47
Skeletal Muscles:
Skeletal muscles are found in association with the bone,
which explains the name. Human skeletal muscle is
composed of a heterogenous collection of muscle fibers. This
range of muscle fibers allow for the wide variety of
32
capabilities that muscle display.
• Smooth Muscles:
.Smooth muscles are associated with the viscera but not with
the bone. These muscles are found in the wall of hollow tube
of gastrointestinal viscera, bronchial tube, urinary bladder,
blood vessels ect.47
• Cardiac Muscles:
Cardiac muscles are the muscle of heart. It is a type of skeletal
muscle but microscopic features of cardiac muscle differs
from those of the skeletal muscles. Mechanism of contraction
of myocardium has great importance because it causes
movement of blood.48
Cartilage
Cartilage is defined as specialized type of dense connective
tissue consisting of cells embedded in a ground substance.
Three main types of cartilage can be recognized depending
upon the number and variety of fibers present in the matrix.
Cartilage is the tough but flexible tissue that covers the end of
bone at a joint. It also gives shape and support to other part of
body such as ear, nose and wind pipe. It also protects bone by
preventing them from rubbing against each other.49there are
three types of cartilage.
• Hyaline cartilage:
Hyaline cartilage is the most widespread cartilage, and is the
type that makes up the embryonic skeleton. It persists in
human adults at the ends of bones in free-moving joints as
articular cartilage. It has widely dispersed fine collagen
fibers.Most common cartilage found in ribs, nose, larynx, and
trachea. 50
b. Fibro- cartilage
Strongest kind of cartilage, because it has alternating layers of
hyaline cartilage matrix and thick layer of dense collagen
fibers. It is found in invertibral disc, joint capsule and
lagaments50
c. Elastic Cartilage
In elastic cartilage, the chondrocytes are found in a thread like
network of elastic fibres with in the matrix. Elastic cartilage
provides strength and elasticity, and maintains the shape of
certain structure such as external ear.50
Conclusion:
Connective tissue is an important tissue of the body originates
from the mesenchyme that is the middle layer of the
embryonic germ layer. Various types of cells are the part of
connective tissue. Out of all cells in the connective tissue,
majority is fibroblast which forms the structural framework
and it is present in every tissue in the body. Another cell
similar to fibroblast in appearance and function play an
important role in organogenesis, inflammation and repair
called Myofibroblast.
The cell responsible for synthesis and storage of fat is
adipocyte and it is important part of loose connective tissue.
Mast cells are important because it releases histamine in
response to antigen which takes part in allergic reaction.
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Another important loose connective tissue is macrophages
which is highly specialized and take part in phagocytosis.
Red and White blood cells are two main components of blood
cells. Neutrophils and Lymphocytes are terminally
differentiating white cells responsible for acute & chronic
inflammation respectively. Basophils contain histamine helps
in type 2 immunity during parasitic infection and allergic
response.
Connective tissue fibers are further subdivided into Collagen,
Elastic and reticular fibers. Till today there are 28 different
type of collagen has been identified, out of that type I, II, III
are fibrillar collagens, type IV-VII are network forming
collagens, type IX-XII are fibril associated collagens.
Connective tissue contains various types of cells such as
fibroblast, myofibroblast, adipose cells, mast cells, tissue
macrophages, white blood cells, osteoblast, chondroblast and
blood forming cells.Out of all cells in the connective tissue,
majority is fibroblast which forms the structural framework
and it is present in every tissue in the body.
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Correspondance
Dr Shahla khan
JR II, Department of of Pathology,
IDST, Modinagar. India
Email : drshahlakhan@yahoo.com

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