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RESPIRATION IN PLANTS 5. Anaerobic Respiration: In anaerobic respiration the substrate is partially oxidized and Oxygen is not used.
Oxidation takes place by dehydrogenation. Hence in Anaerobic respiration the R.Q. is Infinite.
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT 2
 It is the ratio between the volume of CO2 liberated to the volume of O2 utilized by a given weight of a tissue C6 H 12O6  2CO 2  2C2 H 5OH ; R.Q   Infinite
0
or living material in a given time at standard temperature and pressure. 6. Succulent Xerophytes: In the plants like Bryophyllum, Aloe and Opuntia, Carbohydrates are partially
Volume of CO2 evolve oxidized to organic acids in dark. There is no liberation of CO 2 but oxygen is used. Hence the R.Q. is zero.
R.Q. 
 It is expressed as Volume of O2 absorbed  0
C6H12O6  3O2 2CO2  3C4H6O5  3H2O; R.Q   Zero
It is measured by using Ganong’s respirometer. 3
It is indicator of type of respiration and type of substrate oxidized in respiration. The R.Q for various types During Day time CO2 fixation is stopped and malic acid is oxidized and the R.Q. becomes more than one
of substrates in aerobic respiration, in Anaerobic respiration and Succulents as follows. i.e. 1.33 as given above for malic acid.
1. Carbohydrates: When carbohydrates are respiratory substrates such as germinating cereal grains, green
leaves kept in dark or tubers, rhizomes etc. the R.Q. is 1 or unity.
Factors Influencing Respiration
CO2 6 It is influenced by both External and Internal factors.
C6 H12O6  6O2  6CO2  6H 2O ;  1 External Factors
O2 6
1. Temperature: Th e usual temperature range for respiration is 5 – 250C. The optimum temperature for most
2. Fats: If these are the respiratory substrates (germinating seeds of Castor, Til, Mustard, Linseed) the R.Q. is
of the plants is 350C. However it varies from plant to plant. Temperate plants have different temperature
usually around 0.7. The R.Q. for various types of fatty acids is as follows.
optima compared to tropical plants. With increase in temperature for rate of respiration increases 2-3 times
i. Stearic acid:
for every 100C increase up to optimum temperature. Beyond optimum temperature, though initially there is
CO2 18
C18H36O2  26O2 18CO2 18H2O;  O.7 increase in the rate, it gradually decreases with time. At high temperature the enzymes are gradually
O2 26
denatured.
ii. Palmitic acid: At low temperatures the respiration is low or inhibited due to inactivation of enzymes. At freezing
CO2 4
C16H32O2 11O2 C12 H22O11  4CO2 5H2O ;  O.36 temperature, usually the rate is zero but temperate plants like conifers can show respiration even at -350C.
O2 11
Tropical plants like Musa are subjected to chilling injury when kept at 130C. Beyond 250C, respiration is
iii. Triolein: ;
more than photosynthesis and below this temperatures photosynthesis is more than respiration. Generally
CO2 57
  0.7 photosynthesis is ten times more than that of respiration. Potato plants grown on hill tops form larger tubers
C57 H104O6  80O2  57CO2  52 H 2O O2 80
than grown in plains as the temperature at hill tops favors more photosynthesis than in plains. Hence there
iv. Oleic acid: ; is accumulation of more food materials.
CO2 18 2. Light: Light enhances Respiration because with the availability of light temperature increases, substrates
  0.71
C18 H 34O2  25.5 O2  18CO2  17 H 2O O2 25.5 are synthesized in photosynthesis and in C3 plants photorespiration takes place.
v. Tripalmitin: ; 3. CO2 : With increase in CO2 concentration up to certain extent, respiration rate increases (formation of
CO2 102 phtosynthates) and later it decreases because of closure of stomata. Closure of stomata decreases entry of
  0.7
2C51 H 98O6  145O2  102CO2  98H 2O O2 145 oxygen into plant tissues.
3. Proteins: For proteins the R.Q. is 0.8 to 0.9. It requires more oxygen for oxidation of proteins than 4. O2: Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen and anaerobic respiration in the absence of
carbohydrates but less than that of fats. It serve as respiratory substrates in starving conditions. oxygen. Accumulation of ethyl alcohol beyond 12% leads to death of cells in anaerobic conditions. High O2
4. Organic acids: These are rich in oxygen when compared to carbon. Their oxidation requires less oxygen concentration leads to Photorespiration in C3 and CAM plants. Oxygen is the ultimate electron and proton
compared to any other respiratory substrates. Hence their R.Q. is always more than unity. acceptor in aerobic respiration.
I. Malic acid: 5. Water: Respiration rate is more when cells are properly hydrated because enzymatic activity increases.
CO 4 Stored seeds show low respiration as the water content is less in its protoplasm. Water promotes hydrolysis
C4 H6O5  3O2  4CO2  3H2O ; 2   1.33
O2 3 of respiratory substrates. Water is involved in Glycolysis during oxidation reaction and in Krebs cycle. In
II. Tartaric acid: water deficient conditions the stomates are closed and respiration rate decreases.
CO 8 6. Wounding or Injury: Injury increases respiration because the lipids of disrupted unit membranes are
2C4 H 6O6  5O2  8CO2  6 H 2O ; 2   1.6 oxidized in the presence of carbohydrates till the damaged membrane is repaired. Lipids yield more energy
O2 5
than carbohydrates. During injury the increase in respiration also results in increase in temperature as much
III. Oxalic acid:
CO 4
of the energy lost as heat. This is called Fever reaction. Wounded meristem show high respiratory rate and
2C2 H2O4  O2  4CO2  2H2O ; 2   4.0 forms Wound callus.
O2 1
7. Chemical substances: Cyanides, Narcotics, Formaldehyde, Acetone, Chloroform etc. in small quantities
cause initial rise in respiration rate followed by decline. In higher concentration of these substances
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respiration rate decreases in plants. Cyanide binds to the iron of cytochromes and prevents electron Gram-negative genera. Very few Gram-positive bacteria have this pathway, with Enterococcus faecalis
transport to oxygen. being a rare exception. Most organisms that use the pathway are aerobes due to the low ATP yield per
In some algae, Bacteria, inflorescence of some plants an alternate oxidase enzyme system is present
glucose such as Pseudomonas, a genus of Gram-negative bacteria, and Azotobacter, a genus of Gram-
which continues respiration. Due to this, plants show respiration even in the presence of oxygen. Such
negative bacteria.
respiration is called Cyanide resistant respiration.
8. Air Pollutants: Pollutants at low level such as 0.2ppm increases respiration in soybean. High concentration
of pollutants like SO2, NO2 and O3 lower pH of cells. Low pH decreases ETS and phosphorylation in
mitochondria. Low pH also damages cell membrane and it inhibits respiration. Heavy metals like Pb and PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Cd bind to S-containing amino acids of the enzymes and denature it and the enzymatic activity is lost.
9. Salt concentration: When a normal plant is transferred to solution with high salt concentration, it respires Bio-assay
more rapidly because it requires ATP for salt absorption to maintain low water potentials in its cells. This Bio assay means the testing of substances for its activity in causing a growth response in a living plant or
additional increase in respiration over normal when transferred to high salt concentrations is called Salt its parts
respiration. Halophytes and Mangroves show this respiration to get rid of excessive salts absorbed by them. Auxins -
Internal Factors 1)Avena curvature test
1. Respiratory substrate: With the availability and increase in concentration of respiratory substrate up to 2) Root growth inhibition test
certain concentrations, respiratory rate also increases when other factors are not limiting. Higher
Gibberellins
concentrations of substrates leads to decline in respiratory rate.
1) amylase activity test in Barley endosperm
2. Protoplasmic factors: More is the density of protoplasm, more is the respiratory rate. Respiratory rate is
more in cells with more mitochondria. Meristematic cells show more respiratory rates than other tissues due 2) Dwarf pea & Maize test
to these reasons. pH status and extent of hydration of protoplasm also influence respiration. Cytokinins
3. Age of the plant: With increase in age respiratory rate decreases. Young regions of plant show more 1) Tobacco pith cell division test
respiratory rate. Young parts show indirect oxidation pathway (normal respiration). Senescent leaves or 2) Chlorophyll preservation test / Delay in senescence test
older regions show Oxidative pentose phosphate pathway. In some fruits, respiratory rate increases during 3) Soyabean and Radish cotyledon cell division test
ripening. It is called Climacteric. Physiological Effect of Hormones : A Summary
Pasteur Effect: It is shift from anaerobic respiration to aerobic respiration to decrease the rate of substrate Activities Hormone (s)
1. Cell formation in shoot IAA
breakdown by increasing the concentration of oxygen. This was discovered by Pasteur. It is beneficial to 2. Cell formation in roots IBA
organism because it consume less substrate and more energy is released. It is common in Barley, Pea 3. Cell division in cambium IAA, Cytokinins
leaves, Apple fruits, Carrot and Potato tubers.Extinction point: oxygen concentration at which there is 4. Cell elongation IAA,GA
shift from anaerobic respiration to aerobic respiration is called Extinction point. Crabtree Effect: It is 5. Cell differentiation IAA
6. Organ differentiation IAA,Cytokinins
reciprocal to Pasteur effect. It is decreasing the operation of Krebs cycle with decrease in oxygen
7. Apicial dominance IAA
concentration. i.e. shift from aerobic to anaerobic respiration.Entner-Doudoroff pathway: The Entner– 8. Reversal of apical dominance GA, Cytokinins
Doudoroff pathway describes an alternate series of reactions that catabolize glucose to pyruvate using a 9. Phototrophic curvature IAA
set of enzymes different from those used in either glycolysis or the pentose phosphate pathway 10.Geotropism IAA
.Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that 11. Epinasty and hyponasty IAA
12.Control of Epinasty Ethylene
converts glucose C6H 12O 6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO” + H+. The free energy released in this process is
13.Abscission of leaves/fruits ABA
used to form the high-energy compounds ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced 14.Prevention of abscission IAA, Cytokinins, GA
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). Most bacteria use glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway. This 15.Phototropic response Florigen
pathway was first reported in 1952 by Michael Doudoroff and Nathan Entner.Distinct features of the 16.Reversal of photoperiodism Gibberellins
17 Inhibition of flowering ABA
Entner–Doudoroff pathway are that it occurs only in prokaryotes and it uses 6-phosphogluconate 18. Water stress hormone ABA
dehydratase and 2-keto-3-deoxyphosphogluconate aldolase to create pyruvate from glucose. The Entner– 19. Antitranspirant ABA
Doudoroff pathway also has a net yield of 1 ATP for every glucose molecule processed, as well as 1 20.Dormancy in seeds Dormine (ABA)
NADH and 1 NADPH. By comparison, glycolysis has a net yield of 2 ATP and 2 NADH for every one 21. Breaking of seed dormancy - IAA, GA, Cytokinins
22. Flower initiation in pine-apples Ethylene
glucose molecule processed.There are a few bacteria that substitute classic glycolysis with the Entner-
23. Reversal of dwarfism GA
Doudoroff pathway. They may lack enzymes essential for glycolysis, such as phosphofructokinase-1. This 24.Elongation of hypocotyl GA
pathway is generally found in Pseudomonas, Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Agrobacterium, and a few other 25.Internodal elongation GA
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26. Expansion of leaves GA (ii) Thermotactic : Temperature induced locomotion movements.
27.Eradication of weeds 2,4-D: 2,4, 5-T
(iii) Chemotactic : Chemical stimulus induced locomotion movements. e.g., movement of antherozoids
28.Senescence hormone Ethylene, ABA
29.Delaying of Senescence Cytokinins towards the egg in bryophytes, pteridophytes etc
30.Ripening hormone Ethylene (iv) Rheotactic : Locomotion movement performed in response to running water current
31. Sex expression in cucurbits IAA, GA, ABA (v) Galvanotactic : The locomotion movement performed in response to electric current
32. Bolting effect GA II. Movements of Curvature : It is further of two types ; (1) movements of growth,
33.Substituting cold temperature GA
34.Stomatal opening inhibition ABA
(2) movements of variation.
35. Shortening of internodes ABA (1) Movements of growth
36. Bud dormancy ABA (a) Autonomous
37 Sprouting of lateral buds Cytokinins, GA (i) Nastic : The movements due to differential growth are said to be nastic. when there is more growth on the
38. Sprouting of vegetative buds IBA
upper side, the phenomenon is called as epinasty. Stimilarly. if there is more growth on the lower side, the
39. Nucleic acid synthesis Cytokinins
40. Wound healing IAA, Traumatic acid phenomenon is called as hyponasty. The opening of a flower bud and downward bending of poppy bud
41. Parthencarpy IAA,GA occurs due to epinasty, whereas closing of flower and erect poppy bud is due to hyponasty. those autonomic
42 Morphological variations Morphactins growth movements which occur only once in the life time are sometimes described as ephemeral.
43 Climacteric rise Ethylene
(ii) Nutational : The growing shoot apex in serveral plants shows zig - zag movement perhaps due to change
44 Apogeotropism Ethylene
in growth rates at two opposite points. Such a type of movement is described as nutational e.g., twinners. In
PHYTOCHROME
some plants, this type of growth allows the shoot apex to grow in a helical path in upward direction. This
The pigment reponsible for seed germination & flowering was isolated in 1960 and was called phytochrome
by Butler. It is a blue green pigment existing in two interconvertible forms : Pfr or P730 (absorbs far - red lights) movement has been described as circumnutation. e.g., coilling of stem and tendrils.
and Pr or P660 ( absorbss red light) (b) Paratonic or Tropic - These are directional movements of growth. These can be
By absorbing red light, Pr is converted to Pfr rapidly. Pfr’ on absorbing far - red light is converted to Pr rapidly. (i) Phototropism ; Light induced growth movements are called as phototropism. the stem grows towards the
source of light, hence called as positively phototropic. The root, on the other hand, grows away from the
PLANT MOVEMENTS source of light, hence called as positively phototropic. The root, on the other hand, grows away from the
The movements in plants induced by internal factors are called autonomic movements source of light, hence described as negatively phtotropic. Positive phototropism can be demonstrated by
( Spontaneous) and those induced by external factors are known as Paratonic movements. growing a potted plant in a heliotropic chamber
Types of Movements (ii) Geotropis : Gravity induced growth movement is called as geotropism. more terms such as gravitropism
The plants movements are broadly classified into categories - Vital and Physical and barytropism were coined but the term geotropism was preferred over others
A. Vital Movements (iii ) Hydrotropism: Growth movements induced by water stimulus are called as hydrotropism. the tip of the
1. Movements of Locomotion radicle shows positive hydrotropism.
(a) Autonomous (iv) Chemotropism : Chemical stimulus induced growth movement is called as chemotropism. e.g., growth
(i) Cillary movement : Some algal forms like Euglena, Chlamydomonas, Volvox, zoospores and male of pollen tube towards the micropyle ( Postitive chemotropism)
gametes of many plants show ciliary movement. (v) Thigmotropism or haptotropism : Contact or touch stimulus induced growth movement is called as
(ii) Amoeboid movement : The plasmodia of slime moulds and gametes of Spirogyra show such type of thigmotropism.e.g., growth of tendril, twisting of a twiner around a solid support. when the tip of the tendril
movement comes in contact with a solid object having uneven surface, it coils around the support. This is due to
(iii) Cyclosis : The movement of protoplasm is called as Cyclosis. It is of two types : differential growth in the tendril
1) Rotation : The circular movement of protoplasm around single vacuole is called as rotation. It is seen in (2). Movements of Variations
the leaf cells of Hydrilla and Vallisneria. These occur due to change in turgidity of cells, These are of two types:
2) Circulation : It is clockwise and anticlockwise movement of protoplasm around different small (a) Autonomous : This type of movement is seen in the leaves of Desmodium gyrans, ( Indian telegraph
vacuoles in a cell. It is seen in the staminal hairs of Tradescantia, Rheo, etc plant) and Trifollium pretense. In these plants, the leaves are trifoliate. when the environmental conditions are
b) Paratonic or Tactic ( taxis) favourable, the lateral leaflets perform to and from movements.
They are produced in response to some external stimulus. They are said to be positive if directed towards the b) Paratonic or Nastic :
stimulus and negative if away from the stimulus.
(i) Phototactic : Light induced locomotion movements, e.g ., Chlamydomonas
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(i) Nyctinasty : The sleep movements in flowers and leaves are said to be nyctinastic. In Impatiens, Marsilea Some chemicals like organic acids, phenolics, tannins, alkaloids, lactones, mustard oil, etc. inhibits
and Oxalis, the leaves are expanded horizontally in the day ( Photonasty) and droop at night. In Tulipa plant, a germination ( e.g., ferulic acid in tamato pulp)
rise in temperature brings about opening of the flower ( thermonasty) 2. Methods to Break Dormancy:
(ii) Thigmonasty : Touch or contact stimulus induced variation movements are called as thigmonastic. The (a) Scarification : It is a method of softening and weakening of seed coat by acids, alcohol
tentacles of Drosera leaf curve leaf margins of Pinguicula and the lamina lobes of Dionaea fold on coming in or knife
contact with an insect (b) Stratification : After ripening treatment, low temperature ( 0-100C) with O2.
(iii) Seismonasty : Such movements are seen in the leaves of senstive plant, e.g., imosa pudica. The leaves of (c) Light exposure.
these plants droop down and the leaflets fold in response to stimulus of touch, shock, rain, wind, electric (d) Low temperature+ Gibberellin + O2 treatment, etc.
current and sudden change in temperature. there leaves have a pulvinus base. Pulvinus shows sudden change SEED GERMINATION
in K+ concentration and turgor pressure. Leaflets close and the pulvinus droop down upon loss of water Emergence of radicle by rupturing seed coat is called seed germination. It is of two types :
B. Physical Movements Eplgeal : Hypocotyl grows first, cotyledons comes out of soil, as in cucurbits, mustard, castor, onion,
They are also called as hygroscopic movements. they are mechanical in nature occuring in dead parts of tamarind etc.
the plant. Broadly speaking they are of two types: Hypeogeal : Epicotyl grows first, cotyledons remains underground as in rice, maize, mango, Fabaceae etc.
(i) Hydrochasy : The hygroscopic movement performed due to imbibition of water is called as hydrochasy. When the seed germinates inside fruit, while the fruit,while the fruit is still attached to plant, is called
e.g., movement in the perstome of moss, elaters of Marchantia, etc. vivipary, as in Rhizophora, Sonneratia, Heritiera
(ii) Xerochasy : The hygroscopic movement performed due to loss of water is called as xerochasy, e.g., ( Mangroove plants)
movement performed during dehisscence of follicles, pods, and some capusules etc.

SEED DORMANCY
Seed dormancy is inability of a viable seed to germinate even when kept under most favorable external
conditions due to internal or endogenous conditions within the seed it self. Non - germination of a viable but
dormant seed is called rest while non - germination of a viable non-dormant seed due to nonavailability of
favourable external conditions is called quiescence
1. Reasons of Dormancy :
(a) Due to seed coat
1) Seed coat impermeable for gases e.g., Apple
2) Seed coat impermeable for water e.g., Trigonella
3) Seed Coat mechanically resistant e.g., Capsella, Amaranthus.
(b) Due to immaturity of embryo. e.g., Ginkgo biloba.
(c) Due to specific light requirement
Some seeds require light for germination and are called positive photoblastic seeds ( e.g., Lactuca
sativa, Nicotiana tabaccum, Lythrum, etc.) Germination in lettuce ( Lactuca) is induced by red and inhibited
by far red light
Some seeds show inhibition of germination due to light exposure and are called negative photoblastic
seeds,e.g., onion, lily, etc.

(d) Dormancy due to chilling temperature requirement, e.g., Polygonum

(e) Demand of After ripening period
Some seeds have a mature embryo but do not germinate imediately due to the absence of growth
hormone. They require a period of after ripening, during which they attain the power to germinate. e.g., Oat,
barley, wheat
(f)Due to germination inhibitors