20th International Conference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology (SMiRT 20)

Espoo, Finland, August 9-14, 2009

SMiRT 20-Division 1, Paper 3135

Fatigue curve and stress strain response for stainless steel

Jussi Solina, Gerhard Nagelb and Wolfgang Mayingerb

a
VTT, Finland, , e-mail: jussi.solin@vtt.fi
b
E.ON Kernkraft GmbH, Tresckowstrasse 5, Hannover, Germany

Keywords: Fatigue, Stainless steel, Design curve.

1 ABSTRACT

Niobium stabilized austenitic stainless steel (X6CrNiNb1810 mod) was studied in strain controlled fatigue
tests ranging from low cycle (LCF) to high cycle (HCF) regime in RT air. An experimental strain life curve
was determined as a base line for component specific evaluations and for comparison with the Langer and
Chopra curves, which are the basis of the ASME III and NRC RG 1.207 design criteria. Stress strain
responses were carefully measured to clarify the strain amplitude dependent fatigue behaviour of this steel.
In the LCF regime our data lie within a common scatter band between the Langer and Chopra curves,
but an endurance limit was observed at εa ≈ 0,19 %. This is due to notable secondary hardening at low strain
amplitudes. In HCF regime the Chopra curve and NRC RG 1.207 become highly conservative for this
material. Relevance of all proposed design curves should be carefully considered.

2 INTRODUCTION

Fatigue design curves given in the ASME Code Section III are derived from reference mean curves proposed
by Langer . They are based on strain controlled low cycle fatigue tests in room temperature. Arbitrary design
margins, 20 against life and 2 against strain, were considered appropriate for ensuring transferability of the
data to plant components, as by ASME (1972). Similar curves are included also in the German and French
design codes KTA and RCC-M.
The ASME III design by analysis philosophy and local strain approach assume that the designer has
relevant material data available. Although generalized design curves have been included in the codes to
reduce need for material testing, choice and applicability of the code curve – or an experimental curve – for
the particular application remains the responsibility of the designer. Consideration of operation environment
is a good example on this. The code itself does not give specific curves or quantitative factors for adopting
influence of reactor coolant to fatigue calculation. Moderate environmental effects are accounted for through
the design curve definition (within the margin of 20 in life), but the responsibility of considering eventual
environmental effects was left to the designer as clearly stated in the ASME (1972) Criteria Document for
the ASME III Design by analysis procedure as follows: “protection against environmental conditions such as
corrosion and radiation effects are the responsibility of the designer”
It is obvious that the designer may choose to use an appropriately determined and more relevant
experimental curve. This is literally recommended by STUK (2002) in the Finnish YVL guide for ensuring
strength of NPP pressure devices. According to YVL guide 3.5, “fatigue assessment shall be based on S-N -
curves applicable to each material and conditions”.
The development of the ASME code was primarily aiming to prevent catastrophic fractures of pressure
vessels and the fatigue assessment was focusing on severe but rare thermal transients that can cause notable
low cycle fatigue damage in heavy equipment. Later on, higher numbers of small stress cycles acting in the
piping have been addressed, in particular for small bore pipes. Simultaneously fatigue tests have been
conducted to longer lives. Encouraged by new experimental data and the proposal by Chopra and Shack
(2007), the NRC (2007) endorsed a new air curve for stainless steels as part of a Regulatory Guide for new
designs un USA. Data and regression curves in line with the ANL/NRC reference curve (often referred as
“Chopra curve”) have been published by Jaske (1977), Higuchi (2004), Solomon (2004), Faidy (2008) et al.

1
 It should be noted that in the LCF regime all air data for austenitic stainless steels lie practically within a
common scatter band and the later proposed curves do not much differ from the Langer curve. The
difference grows to an order of magnitude in life in the HCF regime (Nf > 105 cycles), where the Chopra
curve becomes more conservative. In other words, the ASME code stainless steel air curve has become a
subject of debate because of gradually expanding scope of fatigue assessments to HCF region. But HCF
testing of stainless steels is not simple and valid data is still rare.
Aim of the current study is to test applicability of the existing and proposed design criteria. For that
purpose we selected a material batch, which would have been ready for plant use, e.g., in a PWR surge line.
An experimental strain life fatigue curve was determined to be used as a base line for component specific
evaluations and for comparison with the Langer and Chopra curves, which are the basis of the ASME III and
NRC RG 1.207 design curves. Monotonic and cyclic stress strain responses were carefully analyzed to
clarify the deformation and fatigue mechanisms for this steel.

3 EXPERIMENTAL

Solution annealed Niobium stabilized austenitic stainless steel (X6CrNiNb1810 mod) was received as a
φ360x32 mm pipe, which fulfils all KTA material requirements for primary components in BWR and PWR.
Chemical composition of the test material is given in Table 1. The grain size in this pipe varies so that the
material report classified 50 % to ASTM 0-1 and 50 % to ASTM 2-3.
Smooth round bar specimens were turned and polished from samples extracted all round the
circumference of the pipe. Tensile and CSSC test specimens were selected from each quarter segment and
LCF specimens were randomly picked round the pipe. The LCF specimen dimensions are shown in Fig. 1.

Table 1. Composition of test material (wt %).

C N Si Mn Cr Ni Mo Nb P S
0,031 0,021 0,235 1,885 17,30 10,29 0,405 0,357 0,030 0,004
0
R2

! 8
! 15

35 20

113

Figure 1. Fatigue specimen and dimensions in mm.

Tensile and fatigue testes were both performed in a MTS 100 kN rig with precision alignment grips and
digital control unit. Alignment of load train was adjusted with the help of strain gauged specimens according
to the ASTM E 1012-05 procedure. MTS extensometers with gage lengths of 50 mm (tensile tests) and 8 mm
(fatigue) were used for measuring strains. The gauge section of the tensile specimens was φ8 mm x 58 mm.
Five tensile tests were performed with nominal strain rates varying between 2·10-5 and 2·10-3. Partial
unloadings were introduced to measure change of apparent elastic modulus as function of strain. Until onset
of necking true stress (σ = S·(1+e) and strain (ε = ln(1+e) were obtained from the nominal values (S and e).
Beyond instability the local strains were deduced from periodic optical measurements of necking.
Strain controlled low cycle fatigue tests were performed according to the ASTM E 606 procedure using
sinusoidal waveform. An average strain rate of 0,02 1/s was used for constant amplitude tests (e.g. 1 Hz for εa
= 0,5 %). For longest HCF tests, the frequency was increased to 6 Hz during the late secondary hardening
phase with decreasing plastic strain.
For determination of cyclic stress strain curves (CSSC) a spectrum straining method developed by Solin
(1986) was used. The frequency of sinusoidal ramps was varied to keep the average strain rate constant at
0,01 1/s.

2
 A simplified definition of fatigue life (Nf,25) as the number of cycles to 25 % drop of peak stress from its
absolute maximum was adopted to avoid practical problems with variable cyclic softening and hardening
behaviour of stainless steels. However, all final load drop phases were so short that the obtained lives are
insensitive to the selected failure criterion.

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Stress strain response – tensile properties and hysteresis loops

The results of tensile tests together with the material specification report results for the particular pipe and
averages for the melt are summarized in Table 2. The elongation (A5) varied from 57 % to 74 %, the largest
values obtained by the lowest applied strain rates. In spite of the well known correlation of instantaneous
flow stress and pulling rate, an inverse correlation was seen in ultimate tensile strength, because of longer
range of strain hardening with low rate. Partial unloadings seemed to have minimal effect on the tensile
curves. The nominal and true stress strain curves are shown in Fig. 2.

Table 2. Tensile test results in current study and in the material specification report.
data source E Rp0,2 UTS
minimum of 5 tests 195 GPa 224 MPa 535 MPa
maximum of 5 tests 201 GPa 249 MPa 559 MPa
average of 5 tests 197 GPa 238 MPa 544 MPa
material report / pipe - 239 MPa 548 MPa
material report / melt - 251 MPa 544 MPa

2000

1750
nominal / true stress MPa

1500
true stress strain curve
1250

1000

750
X6CrNiNb1810 mod
500 monotonic pull
intermediate rate
250 unloads, slow rate
nominal stress strain curves true stress strain
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
nominal / true strain %

Figure 2. Monotonic nominal and true stress strain curves.

As the strain amplitude is fixed in fatigue tests, stress amplitude and mean stress depend on the material
response. The stress strain responses during constant amplitude tests were studied through hysteresis loops
and hardening softening curves. Hysteresis loops at half-life (N = N25 / 2) are shown in Fig. 3a. The general
tradition of reporting the half-life data is applied here, although this practice may be questioned for stainless
steels, because the cyclic response doesn’t stabilize. A minimum stress response is found at 0,2 % strain
amplitude due to secondary hardening beginning before half-life for smaller amplitudes.
The hysteresis loops in Fig. 3a are positioned to reveal different strain hardening paths in tensile
direction. According to Bayerlein et al. (1987) non-Masing behaviour (not coinciding loops) indicates that
the dislocation microstructures and/or cyclic deformation mechanisms are amplitude dependent. But for this
material the deformation mechanisms change even during a single test. Fig. 3b shows evolution of hysteresis

3
loops during a test at or just below the endurance limit. Inelastic strains are notable even in this HCF test,
which lasted over 12 million cycles. More than one third of the total strain ( εa = 0,185 % ) was inelastic
before secondary hardening eliminated most of the hysteresis. See chapter 4.3 for further description of
cyclic softening and hardening.
MPa 300
700 MPa

200
600

500 100

400
0

300
1,00%
0,80% -100
0,50% !a = 0,185 %
200
0,40% N25 = 12 ·10 6
0,30% begin 1-2
0,22% -200 hard 28
100 soft 80k
0,20%
0,195% sec.h. 1M
0,185% EOL 10M
0 -300
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 % 2,0 -0,20 -0,15 -0,10 -0,05 0,00 0,05 0,10 0,15 % 0,20

Figure 3. Hysteresis loops at half-lives of different tests (a) and at different stages of a single test (b).

4.2 Apparent elastic modulus

The elastic modulus was determined in tensile tests to 197 GPa, but unloading – reloading modulus is not
constant as shown in Fig. 4. The apparent elastic modulus reaches a maximum just when yielding starts at
about 0,1 % total strain and then gradually decreases by about 5 % until 1 % strain and by about 15 % until 10
% strain. Note that the reduction of specimen cross section was accounted for. The modules based on
nominal stresses decrease even more. At high strains, changes of grain orientations may contribute, but at
low strains the changes must be mainly due to internal stresses. Austenitic stainless steels are known for
strain hardening and ability to generate large internal stresses by plastic strain.

210 210
X6CrNiNb1810 mod
( cross section corrected )
Apparent module GPa

200
190 repeated unloads

190
170
X6CrNiNb1810 mod
180
( cross section corrected ) .
first pull 20-70 MPa 150
170 repeated unloads
single unloads
160 130
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 0 10 20 30
strain %

Figure 4. The measured apparent elastic modules as function of applied tensile strain.
Evolution of microstructure and internal stresses cause changes in hysteresis loop shape. Kuhlmann-
Wilsdorf and Laird (1979) divided the shear stresses acting on the slip planes into thermal (rate dependent)

4
“friction stress” and athermal (elastic type) “back stress” rising from short distance dislocation motion. They
used friction stress and back stress components for modelling hysteresis loops for stainless steels.
We assume that – together with the real elastic modulus – microscopic or mesoscopic internal (back)
stresses play a role in evolution of modulus (linear part of hysteresis loops) during cyclic deformation. A
drop of modulus was systematically observed at all strain amplitude levels and during the whole fatigue life
as demonstrated in Fig. 5. Reduction of modulus scaled off or even turned to increase very late during the
longest tests, but it is worth of noting that even there the reducing trend continued also during the secondary
hardening phase. The modulus change was not in phase with softening or hardening.

200
GPa
195

190

185
up 0,185% dwn 0,185%
up 0,200% dwn 0,200%
180 up 0,220% dwn 0,220%
up 0,300% dwn 0,300%
175 up 0,500% dwn 0,500%
up 0,800% dwn 0,800%
up 1,000% dwn 1,000%
170
1
1,E+00 10
1,E+01 100
1,E+02 1000
1,E+03 104
1,E+04 10 5
1,E+05 10 6
1,E+06 10 7 N 1,E+08
1,E+07 10 8

Figure 5. Change of modulus in increasing and decreasing ramps during cyclic straining.

4.3 Cyclic softening and hardening

Change of cyclic stress response during a test is best visualized by softening / hardening curves. They show
stress responses (Sa = ΔS / 2) as function of number of cycles during constant strain amplitude tests, Fig. 6.

380 1,0 0,8%

MPa
εa
0,5 0,4 0,3%
360 0,22 0,2%
0,195%
340 0,190%
0,185%
320

300

280

260

240

220

200
1
1,E+00 10
1,E+01 100
1,E+02 1000
1,E+03 104
1,E+04 105
1,E+05 106 N 1,E+07
1,E+06 107

Figure 6. Cyclic hardening and softening curves.

Consistent and well repeatable cyclic stress strain responses including initial hardening, softening and
secondary hardening were observed. Dislocation density and internal stresses are increased during the first

5
10 to 20 hardening cycles. Subsequent dislocation activity utilizes the driving force and repeated
opportunities to optimize the dislocation structures. This is seen as cyclic softening, which lasts for 2000 to
100 000 cycles depending on the strain amplitude. During softening the stress response may be lowered
below that for the soft annealed material.
Softening is followed by secondary hardening. It is not clear, how onset of secondary hardening is
determined after up to 105 softening cycles, but it is astonishingly well predictable as a function of
amplitude. Secondary hardening is soon interrupted by crack growth and fracture at strain amplitudes above
0,2 %, but below this threshold, most of the fatigue life is spent in secondary hardening and the stress
response will notably increase. As shown in Figs. 3b and 6 (see lowest curve in Fig. 6), the secondary
hardening phase began after 80 000 cycles and occupied 99 % of the 12 million cycles endurance of a
specimen tested at εa = 0,185 %.

4.4 Cyclic stress strain curves

Stress strain data can also be presented as cyclic stress strain curves (CSSC), which give the stress amplitude
as function of strain amplitude. Cyclic stress strain curves (CSSC) are traditionally defined as half life
response of the material in constant amplitude as shown in Fig. 7a. The half life is assumed to represent
stabilized response occupying most of the fatigue life. But such stabilisation doesn’t occur for austenitic
stainless steels. A peak is observed below 0,2 % strain amplitude, where secondary hardening is prominent.
Solin (1989) demonstrated applicability of spectrum straining to determine CSSC for stainless steels,
which do not stabilize in cyclic deformation. By spectrum straining method with a single specimen
determined CSSC represents a certain microstructure (dislocation density and configuration), which depends
mostly on the largest strains in spectrum. Therefore, realistic amplitude scales should be applied. Results
with different amplitude scales are shown together with the constant amplitude data in Fig. 7a.
By the spectrum straining method cyclic hardening or softening can be modelled as evolution of the
CSSC in different phases of the test as demonstrated in Fig. 7b. The six first cycles are in line with the
monotonic tensile curve. A reasonably stabilized CSSC for the early test condition is reached already within
40 first cycles, but cyclic hardening gradually increases the curve until crack growth takes over.

350
350
MPa
MPa
300
300

250
250

200 end-of-life (N=7300)

200
hardest (N=5750)
half-life (N=3650)
150
150 early phase (N=500)
1,00% half-life 3650 first block (N=39..100)
100 100 first cycles (N=21..38)
0,50% half-life 18000
first cycles (N=7..20)
0,25% half-life 125000
50 50 first cycles (N=1..6)
const.am pl. half-life m onotonic tensile test

0 0
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 % 1,0 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 % 1,0

Figure 7. Summary of half-life CSSC’s (a) and evolution of CSSC in a spectrum straining test (b).

4.5 Fatigue lives

The obtained fatigue lives are summarized in Figs. 8-9. The individual data points are shown in Fig. 8
together with the data set used by Langer to derive the stainless steel reference curve and the ASME design
curve. Our data is within the scatter band of Langer’s data set and well above the ASME design curve.

6
 1,0 Langer data
Raw data N(25%)
Interrupted test
Mean curve
Langer curve
ASME design curve
strain amplitude %

0,1
10 3
1,E+03 10 4
1,E+04 10 5
1,E+05 10 6
1,E+06 107
1,E+07 N
N 10 8
1,E+08

Figure 8. Strain life data compared to ASME 3 design curve and air curve in US NRC Reg.Guide 1.207.

1,0

0,7

0,5

εa N / 12

0,2

εa / 2
0,1

[ Current data & Chopra margins ]

0,07
[ NUREG 6909 ]
[ NRC RG 1.207 ]
0,05

103 10 4 10 5 106 10 7 N 10 8

Figure 9. Strain life data compared to ASME 3 design curve and air curve in US NRC Reg.Guide 1.207.
The scatter in obtained fatigue lives (and endurance limit) is small, except at the secondary hardening
transition regime ( εa ≈ 0,2 % ; N25 ≥ 105 ). At 0,2 % strain amplitude the secondary hardening begins at 25 to
50 % of N25. As notable fraction of LCF tests is usually spent in crack growth, we may assume that cracks
had initiated before the hardening was effective. This may explain, why the fatigue lives are shorter at this
level. Furthermore, three specimens of five tested at 0,2 % broke at or near the altitude of a extensometer

7
knife edge. Two other specimens broke just outside of the strain measurement gauge section (at 0,4 % and
0,185 %). These five specimens were marked with validity concerns, because such crack locations may lead
to early acceleration of crack growth and reduce life. However, to stay in conservative side, even those data
points are included in the geometric averages and for determining the mean curve.
The in this study determined mean curve is shown in Fig. 9 together with the mean curve model
developed by Chopra (2007) for 304, 316 and other grades of stainless steels (310, 347, 348, …). Our data is
within the same scatter band in LCF regime, but scales off in HCF. A remarkable difference is seen for long
lives ( N25 > 105 ). For comparison with the design curve endorsed by NRC (2007) for new designs in US, we
determined an experimental design curve with the design margins proposed by Chopra (2007). We can see in
Fig. 9 that the NRC design curve would be very conservative for this particular material batch in HCF.

5 DISCUSSION ON STRAIN LIFE CURVES

5.1 Endurance limit

The obtained data in room temperature air demonstrates a typical endurance limit behaviour for this material.
Note that all data below 0,195 % (at amplitudes 0,17 %; 0,185 %; 0,19 %) were run-outs against a definition
of endurance limit for 107 cycles. Two tests were interrupted and one lasted for 12,3 million cycles, before
fracturing outside of gauge section. Three tests at εa = 0,195 % resulted to less than one million cycles, but
the test at εa = 0,190 % was interrupted after ten million cycles. This specimen was actually tested till failure
at εa = 0,22 % and it lasted more than double the longest life received at that amplitude – clearly
demonstrating that the specimen was not near its end of life when interrupted, and also that the preload
secondary hardening was effective even at the higher amplitude. It is naturally possible that several repeats
could bring finite lives at εa = 0,190 %, but all three tests below εa = 0,195 % showed remarkable secondary
hardening and we have good reason to assume that there is an effective endurance limit below, but not much
below εa = 0,195 %.
The endurance limit behaviour is enhanced by secondary hardening in a synergistic manner. As the
specimen doesn’t fail, secondary hardening gets a chance to decrease the damaging inelastic strains, thus
effectively ensuring that the specimen endures even longer. Further details and discussion on the secondary
hardening phenomena go beyond this presentation, but it is worth of noting that it may occur also in
operation temperatures. The GE/EDF programme actually resulted to extreme secondary hardening in 300 ºC
as convincingly reported by Solomon et al. (2004). Chopra (2007) also observed secondary hardening in
elevated temperature.

5.2 Strain life curves and different stainless grades

The Langer and Chopra curves are not much different for LCF and our data lie within a common scatter band
in between. The curves deviate in HCF regime, where Chopra curve becomes more conservative.
Our current data for the stabilized steel has lower slope and extends even above the Langer curve in
high cycle region, Fig. 8. In addition to secondary hardening, good HCF properties for this steel can be
explained by a hardening effect of Niobium carbides and – in general terms – with the classic models
correlating material strength and strain life curve slope.
In recent decades, mitigation of susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking has been a major challenge
for material scientists in the nuclear industry. Sensitization has been prevented mainly by reducing carbon
content of the steels. As a side effect, high cycle fatigue strength of the nuclear grade stainless steels have
probably decreased. If this is true, it might explain part of the differences between recent experimental data
and the Langer curve. On the other hand, our current results provide supporting arguments for use of
stabilized stainless steels in components, where high cycle fatigue is a concern.
Together with parallel results by Solin (2006, 2009) this study clearly demonstrated that different grades
of stainless steels exhibit different fatigue performance, and that the new air curve endorsed by the NRC is
directly applicable only to part of the stainless steels. Based on general experience, it seems probable, that
many soft grades developed particularly to exclude sensitivity to stress corrosion cracking will comply with
the Chopra curve, but many grades used in the existing plants will not. So, as the NRC also states, the
Regulatory Guide 1.207 as such is applicable to new (US) designs only. Furthermore, one might consider

8
determining more relevant experimental curves for material batches to be used in building of new nuclear
power plants and use code curves, when relevant experimental data is not available.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Strain controlled fatigue tests for an austenitic Niobium stabilized (X6CrNiNb1810 mod) stainless steel in
room temperature air led to the following conclusions:
• The data demonstrates an endurance limit behaviour for this material. Fatigue failures were not
obtained within ten million cycles at strain amplitudes below 0,195 %.
• The endurance limit coincides with a marked transition in the cyclic stress response.
• Secondary hardening is pronounced at strain amplitudes below 0,195 %. Secondary hardening
reduces inelastic strains and thus eliminates fatigue damage.
• Determination of cyclic stress strain curve (CSSC) for this material is complicated by continuous
change of stress response through initial hardening, softening and secondary hardening. The data for
CSSC should be based on largest strain amplitudes relevant in plant operation.
• The apparent elastic modulus decreases as function of the applied strain. This was consistently
observed after partial unloads during tensile tests and also in cyclic hysteresis loops.
Our LCF data for Niobium stabilized austenitic stainless steel extends to very long lives, where it is in
better agreement with the Langer curve than some newly proposed air curves. This means that the original
basis of ASME 3 and KTA design criteria is valid for this material batch, which is completely relevant for
primary loops in certain operating PWR’s. Applicability of the new air curve given in NRC RG 1.207, which
is based on different fatigue data, should be questioned also for new designs utilizing this kind of material.

Acknowledgements. The reported work is part of the Technical Programme of E.ON Case on Thermal
Transients funded by E.ON Kernkraft GmbH. The experiments were carried out at VTT by Mr. J. Alhainen
and E. Arilahti. The analysis of results was partly funded by the Academy of Finland decision 117700.

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