Fisheries Research 177 (2016) 116–123

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Fisheries Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fishres

The role of socioeconomic disaggregated indicators for fisheries

management decisions: The case of Magdalena-Almejas Bay, BCS.
Mexico
Elvia Aída Marín-Monroy, Miguel Ángel Ojeda-Ruiz de la Peña ∗
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur (UABCS), Departamento de Ingeniería en Pesquerías, La Paz BCS, Km 5.5 carretera al Sur, CP 23080, México

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Small-scale fisheries have socio-economic impacts on coastal communities, mainly related to employ-
Received 17 September 2015 ment and food provision. Because of the increase in fishing and the failures of integrated development
Received in revised form 11 January 2016 programs, several authors have documented social and economic impacts on local communities, assess-
Accepted 12 January 2016
ing poverty and vulnerability. The indicators to measure these impacts on communities have evolved
Available online 2 February 2016
into a multidimensional and holistic perspective and have been applied for specific uses for localities
and target groups. Magdalena-Almejas Bay is the region with the highest fishing productivity in Baja
Keywords:
California Sur (Mexico) and is considered a unique socio-ecological system. However, the social aspects
Artisanal fishermen
Socioeconomic indicators
have been minimally studied. We assess and illustrate the use of socioeconomic disaggregated indi-
Multidimensional poverty cators for fisheries management by developing a demographic profile of the coastal fishermen of the
Magdalena Bay three major communities of Magdalena-Almejas Bay. Variables that allow a social mapping were ana-
Local sustainable management lysed, and specific constraints were identified. Important differences between the fishermen of the three
main communities (Puerto Adolfo Lopéz Mateos, Puerto San Carlos, and Puerto Chale) were found in
terms of income, multidimensional poverty, fishing experience and education level, as well as in terms
of their economic diversification strategies using alternative livelihoods. The results of this study provide
disaggregated information for each target group. These results will permit differentiation between the
socio-demographic profiles of fishermen, as well as improve the assessment of the impacts of the fishing
sector and the social development programs of their communities.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction management, and planning measures mandated by official

Artisanal or small-scale fisheries (SSF) have ecological
and socioeconomic impacts on the environment and society
(Badalamenti et al., 2000; Folke, 2006; Pikitch et al., 2004; Béne
et al., 2015). Several studies have analysed these fisheries’ eco-
logical impact (Myers and Worm, 2003; Fulton et al., 2005;
Pauly et al., 2002; Worm et al., 2006). However, socioeconomic
effects are poorly documented despite their obvious importance
to clearly identify the impacts on SSF and the characteristics of
users. This clear identification is crucial because, irrespective of
the management scheme implemented, the users are those who
must ultimately comply with fishing activity controls, resource
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: emarin@uabcs.mx (E.A. Marín-Monroy), maojeda@uabcs.mx,
macashulluk@hotmail.com (M.Á. Ojeda-Ruiz de la Peña).
regulations.
A number of approaches are available worldwide to charac-
terize the population of users (fishermen), all of them aiming
to facilitate measures to improve fisheries management and the
socioeconomic conditions of fishermen by reducing poverty. These
approaches include the establishment of Marine Protected Areas
(Pomeroy et al., 2004), subsidies (Munro and Sumaila, 2002), the
establishment of no-fishing areas (Ojeda-Martínez et al., 2008),
the promotion of alternative livelihoods (Allison and Ellis, 2001;
Béne et al., 2015), and programs that target the reduction of fish-
ing through economic compensation for fishermen (Muallil et al.,
2014). Despite these efforts, the information regarding SSF in Latin
America is scarce. The information mainly relates to important top-
ics such as the operation of fishing fleets, the social characteristics
or organization of the fishing sector, and benefit-sharing schemes
(Salas et al., 2007).
According to FAO statistics, Mexico is one of the top 20 coun-
tries in the world in terms of fish production. Forty percent of the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2016.01.009
0165-7836/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 E.A. Marín-Monroy, M.Á. Ojeda-Ruiz de la Peña / Fisheries Research 177 (2016) 116–123 117

catch is contributed by small-scale fleets that work with vessels of ecosystem-provisioning services, which include the market value
22–27 feet that are powered by outboard engines that displace less of fresh fish provision and the identification of adopted alternative
than 10 tons and that use a wide variety of artisanal fishing gear livelihoods, such as whale watching.
such as gillnets, trawls nets, longlines, and handlines; these have The information collected may add further details to the offi-
a significant impact on the coastal zone (FAO, 2014; Ojeda-Ruiz, cial data pooled by sector or municipality, rather than by specific
2012). economic activity, and support the formulation of public policies
Fishing is a major economic activity in the State of Baja Cal- and community strategies to promote sustainable development
ifornia Sur (BCS), which is Mexico’s fourth largest fish producer. in specific geographical areas or population sectors. Furthermore,
Magdalena-Almejas Bay (MAB) is recognized for its high biological this information may also be useful for the implementation of
diversity and biomass productivity, which makes it the centre of regulatory instruments, such as coastal plans and management pro-
a number of fisheries; these contribute over 50% of the total catch grams according to Mexican regulations. Finally, this research also
in Baja California Sur (Funes-Rodríguez et al., 2007; Ojeda-Ruiz, contributes to identifying the impacts of public fisheries-support
2012). Fishing activities in the region are conducted year round. programs that are strategies adopted by the government to improve
In addition, similar to other coastal areas of Mexico, increases the well-being of fishermen.
in the number of users results in congestion issues and over-
exploitation, which impacts the local economy (Ojeda-Ruiz and
2. Materials and methods
Ramírez-Rodríguez, 2012). A better understanding of the living
standards of fishermen is required to understand the situation and
2.1. Description of the study area
support proposals for improvement.
Current worldwide fisheries management schemes indicate the
MAB is located on the southwest coast of Baja California Sur
importance of using socioeconomic indicators to assess the impact
(24◦ 16 NW). It encompasses three geomorphologically distinct
of the specific policies that have been adopted for this sector (FAO,
zones: a channel zone (137 km2 ) to the northwest, Magdalena Bay
2005). Commonly used indicators include fishermen’s income,
(883 km2 ) to the centre of the complex, and Almejas Bay (370 km2 )
migration, poverty level, social gap, and degree of community par-
to the southeast (Fig. 1). MAB is recognized as one of the most bio-
ticipation (Hamilton and Butler, 2001; Muallil et al., 2013). Studying
diverse lagoon systems. It has the highest fishing potential in Baja
the behaviour of these indicators at the local or regional level helps
California Sur, and it is very attractive for ecotourism. This system is
to support strategies and actions taken by local authorities or the
key for economic development in the region, not only because of its
community. Such strategies and actions adapt communities to their
extent (approx. 1100 km2 ), but also for its high productivity most
environment while improving their socioeconomic condition. They
of the year, which supports several regionally important fisheries
should consider the specific regional, cultural, and socioeconomic
(Funes-Rodríguez et al., 2007).
conditions, focusing on the most vulnerable population segments
Relevant issues to consider regarding MAB are the following: the
and preserving the environment (Cinner and Pollnac, 2004; Nayak
presence of emblematic species, such as grey whales in the win-
et al., 2014).
ter season; other protected species, including sea turtles; unique
In social development, appropriate indicators reliably and
environmental and ecological characteristics; and several govern-
impartially show well-being or the lack of it, either in general for
mental and non-governmental organizations currently promoting
the population of a region of interest, or for specific groups, such as
the conservation of MAB. These organizations include CONABIO
coastal fishermen and their families. The Multidimensional Poverty
(National Commission for Biodiversity), which designated the Bay
Index (MPI) meets the above requirements.
and a pilot site for the Baja-to-Bering Sea marine conservation ini-
The use of the MPI is recent but has already been applied in var-
tiative.
ious countries (Alkire and Foster, 2011; Alkire and Santos, 2010;
There are fourteen small-scale fisheries that create direct or
UNDP, 2010; Marín-Monroy and Urciaga-García, 2014). Mexico has
indirect employment for its inhabitants in the highest-production
adopted a multidimensional approach by including the methodol-
season in MAB (Ojeda-Ruiz and Ramírez-Rodríguez, 2012). SSF uses
ogy for measuring poverty since 2008 (CONEVAL, 2008). In contrast
boats from 22 to 27 feet long with outboard engines, which are
to the data published by CONEVAL, this work is a first attempt to
locally called “pangas”, with a fleet of approximately 1000 vessels
disaggregate the measurement of the MPI on a specific study group,
(Ojeda-Ruiz, 2012). There are 146 fishing and 25 catch/landing sites
such as small-scale fishermen.
(Ramírez-Rodríguez et al., 2004).
The scientific community is interested in defining the variables
Statistics from the latest population census reveal that 8123
and indicators that address the current challenges of managing
people lived in the MAB area in 2010 (INEGI, 2010; CONAPO, 2010).
small-scale fisheries and the social development of their commu-
The main settlements are Puerto San Carlos, Puerto Adolfo López
nities. Therefore, it is relevant to consider the value that fishermen
Mateos, and Puerto Chale, which are sites where fishermen were
provide to the resource through their diet and the flexibility to work
interviewed. However, certain authors note that the population
on other activities when fishing may be limited or is not a lucrative
increases during the shrimp fishing season because of temporary
option.
immigrant labour (García-Martínez and Chavéz-Ortíz, 2007). In the
Thus, this study included the economic value of the ecosystem
“Comondú” municipality where MAB is located, fishing provides
fishing provision (Holmlund and Hammer, 1999) and alternative
direct employment for 3,735 fishermen, equivalent to 16% of the
livelihoods (Allison and Ellis, 2001). The latter helps to iden-
economically active and employed population (INEGI, 2009).
tify complementary activities undertaken by the community with
social and economic benefits, such as ecotourism activities that can
be performed using their boats or process alternatives to add value 2.2. Methods
to products that are derived from fishing.
Using MAB as a case study, this research’s objective is to A questionnaire was designed in accordance with the recom-
determine demographic, social, and economic characteristics and mendations of previous research (Chambers, 1994; Ojeda-Ruiz,
calculate the MPI of organized coastal fishermen groups in the 2012) to collect reliable data from legally constituted small-scale
three main communities (Puerto San Carlos, Puerto Lopez Mateos fishermen. In addition to forming a demographic profile, we col-
and Puerto Chale). This research’s objective is also to estimate lected data on the livelihoods of fishermen and their families,
differences between groups, including an assessment of the identified other natural resources used in economic activities or
118 E.A. Marín-Monroy, M.Á. Ojeda-Ruiz de la Peña / Fisheries Research 177 (2016) 116–123
Fig. 1. Study region: Magdalena-Almejas Bay.
included in fishermens’ diets (Allison and Ellis, 2001), and applied
social indicators to the management of sustainable natural areas
(Pomeroy et al., 2004; Muallil et al., 2013).
The questionnaire was pre-tested with fishermen who addition-
ally participated as key informants for the three communities with
the largest populations in the MAB region. A minimum sample size
for finite populations with 90% confidence and an estimated error
of +/− 0.1 was used (Daniel, 2002); this was 67 units. The sample
size was determined by the formula:
NZ 2 pq
n=
d2 (N − 1) + z 2 pq
where N is population size, n is sample size, z is value of z for alpha
(normal distribution), p is the proportion of population with the
criteria, q = 1 − p, and d is the error of estimation.
Sixty-eight questionnaires were completed in May and June
2014 and validated according to the minimum sample size required
to achieve statistical validity. The high response rate of 97% resulted
from the efficient work with key informants, who were local fisher-
men who played a leading role in the communities under research.
The snowball technique was used for questionnaire administration,
beginning with key informants that sequentially identified other
fishermen for interviewing. Once the questionnaire was completed
by a fisherman, he would recommend at least one other fisherman
to be interviewed (Muallil et al., 2013). The indicators were assessed
and grouped in three categories for the analysis. Organized fishers
in MAB were grouped around the harbour where they live and land
their catch.
The questionnaire included seven sections that addressed topics
such as demography (e.g. number of years working as fisherman,
place of birth, and age), economy, social security, housing, social
cohesion, education, livelihoods, and commercial links between
fisheries products and markets. By pooling some of these data, a
 E.A. Marín-Monroy, M.Á. Ojeda-Ruiz de la Peña / Fisheries Research 177 (2016) 116–123
Table 1
Main socioeconomic indicators by community.
Community House ownership (%)
Puerto Adolfo López Mateos (n = 24) 100
Puerto San Carlos (n = 31) 97
Puerto Chale (n = 13) 77
Source: Author’s elaboration (confidence level 90%).
multidimensional poverty indicator (MPI) (Alkire and Foster, 2011)
was assessed on regional and local scales (Alkire and Santos, 2010).
Three social dimensions (Health, Education and Living Stan-
dards) were measured by the following 13 variables of the MPI:
body mass index, access to health services, number of leisure hours
per week, average years of schooling in adults, primary school
attendance by children, income, house tenure, access to water and
electricity, perception on social networks, sports and recreation,
insecurity, voter participation in elections, and alcohol/substance
abuse (Marín-Monroy and Urciaga-García, 2014). These variables
denote aspects that are important for the well-being of families and
focus on the sustainable development of communities, in particular
community cohesion and social participation.
The MPI was computed at two levels in a matrix. First, a depriva-
tion threshold was defined for each variable. Second, deprivation is
calculated for each unit on each variable. The indicator was equal to
1 when deprivation occurred and 0 when no deprivation occurred.
Then, the weights assigned to each variable were summed in a
nested structure. The MPI leads to values between 0 and 1. Mul-
tidimensional poverty occurs when the MPI is above 0.30, which
means the person suffers more than 30% deprivation in his or her
household.
We focus on deprivations or poverty because it may be more
tractable to monitor a small set of deprivations than a large set of
attainments (Anand and Sen, 1997). The weights or values in the
variables were selected in a balanced manner, making each of the
dimensions equally important. People fail to achieve a high level
of well-being if they have an income and education but are in poor
health. One can have combined deprivation to favour freedom of
choice (Sen, 1999). However, the sum of the weight or value of
those deprivation variables must not exceed the entire value of a
dimension.
The ecosystem services conceptual framework was adopted
to evaluate the economic impact of the fishery-provision service
by valuing self-consumption production by fishermen at market
prices (Chee, 2004; Costanza et al., 1997; Fisher et al., 2009). Sur-
veys were implemented to estimate the monthly value of marine
products consumed by each group of fishermen, which is a supple-
ment to their income. It is important to consider the perception of
fishermen and analyse how it can be influenced by other factors
such as the level of education and income.
Finally, the livelihoods approach (Allison and Ellis, 2001;
Allison and Horemans, 2006; Brocklesby and Fisher, 2003)
was used to determine the importance of alternative pro-
duction means and activities for communities that promote
sustainable development. These are activities conducted by fish-
ermen and their families as a complement to fisheries, to
increase, diversify, and make their income regular. These activ-
ities are important because they ensure income in times of
low production or the closure of resource extraction. These
activities include whale watching (during the winter sea-
son), walks to observe wildlife such as birds, and the sale
of processed seafood (with whole families involved in the
latter).
119
Income (Monthly) Livelihoods participation (%) Social security (%) MPI
$8062.5 45 91 0.3433
$6109.4 13 84 0.3543
$4142.3 23 85 0.3578
3. Results
The demographic profile shows the following: 50% percent of
respondents has been fishermen for over 20 years; 18% between
15 and 20 years; 7% between 10 and 15 years; 5% between 5 and
10 years; and 15% less than 5 years. This distribution shows that
the tradition of devoting oneself to small-scale fisheries still pre-
vails, and experienced fishermen predominate. The findings could
mean that there is lower interest among young people in becoming
fishermen.
Regarding the place of origin, 51% of fishermen were born in
Baja California Sur, 24% originated from the state of Sinaloa, 9%
originated from the state of Michoacán, and the remaining 16%
were born in other neighbouring states (Fig. 2). Most fishermen
have roots in and originate from fishing families; they learned the
craft from their parents. Most fishermen in this region are orga-
nized in cooperative societies: over 65% are members. Other current
organization schemes include fishing license holders, 11% (private
organizations); workers from private organizations, 8%; and people
who work under license-leasing agreements, 3%.
Differences in education were evident between communities
and localities. Fishermen with the lowest education levels were
those in the Puerto Chale community, whereas those with the
highest education level lived in Puerto San Carlos, where a high
percentage had completed high school. There was a negative cor-
relation between the number of years of fishing experience and
schooling levels. For example, people with more than 20 years as
fishermen had completed elementary school.
With regard to the economy and social security, one of the
main variables examined was income, which was disaggregated
into income from fishing, income from other sources, and per-
capita income in the household, with the latter used as an indicator
of income poverty in the household. Fishermen in Puerto Adolfo
López Mateos had the highest average monthly income, 8062.5
Mexican pesos, followed by Puerto San Carlos with 6109.37, and
Puerto Chale with 4142.3 (Table 1). The overall average income
was 6128.4 Mexican pesos per month. If the additional revenues,
called alternative livelihoods, are factored in, the total income rises
considerably to a monthly average of 11,031.24 Mexican pesos.
Fishermen from Puerto San Carlos and Puerto Adolfo López Mateos
had the most diversified sources of income. Alternative liveli-
hoods include those activities that have been adopted through local
knowledge of the MAB environment. These activities typically have
a low environmental impact and include whale watching, sport
fishing, ecotourism, food preparation, and trade. The first three are
potentially sustainable.
According to the survey, there are differences in the average
proportion of fishermen who participate in alternative livelihoods.
In Puerto Adolfo López Mateos, 45% of fishermen work as service
providers in whale watching, 27% in sport fishing, 14% in eco-
tourism, 9% in food preparation and 18% in trade. Puerto San Carlos
was second because 3% participate in sport fishing, 14% in whale
watching and 13% in trade. Finally, in Puerto Chale, 23% participate
in trade activities, and 8% provide whale watching services.
120 E.A. Marín-Monroy, M.Á. Ojeda-Ruiz de la Peña / Fisheries Research 177 (2016) 116–123
Fig. 2. Profile of respondents: schooling, experience, state of origin and type of organization.
Social security was evaluated in terms of access to healthcare
services and, in certain cases, to retirement schemes. Puerto Adolfo
López Mateos displayed the largest coverage of these two services,
with 36% of fishermen having access to the Mexican Social Secu-
rity Institute (IMSS), 14% to ISSSTE (Institute of Health Services for
State Workers), and 41% to “Seguro Popular” (a new governmental
scheme contracted and paid for by contributors). Of the fisherman,
9% had no access to social security schemes. In Puerto San Car-
los, 29% of fishermen had access to IMSS, 6% to ISSSTE, and 52%
to “Seguro Popular”; 16% had no access to social security schemes.
Puerto Chale was the village with the lowest coverage, with 15% of
fishermen lacking social security, 77% with partial access to “Seguro
Popular” and 8% to ISSSTE.
Housing conditions were examined in terms of the following
variables: house tenure (owner or tenant), access to piped drink-
ing water in the household, and access to electricity. Puerto Adolfo
López Mateos fishermen have full access to household drinking
water and electricity, and all reported being owners of their houses.
Puerto San Carlos fishermen also have full coverage of drinking
water and electricity, and 97% are homeowners. This finding indi-
cates the fishermen’s roots in these communities. In contrast, 38%
of Puerto Chale fishermen have access to piped drinking water in
households, 61% have access to electricity, and 77% own their house.
The evaluation of social cohesion in these communities revealed
that 27% of fishermen believe that their community is uncooper-
ative, i.e. it is difficult to obtain support from people outside the
family circle, either to make improvements to the neighbourhood
or to obtain economic support as well as in terms of solidarity in
case of contingencies.
The education level was assessed in terms of the following vari-
ables: coverage of primary education for minors and the average
number of years of schooling for adults. All children in this region
have full primary education coverage. However, 41% of adults have
failed to complete the basic education schooling program, which
includes primary and secondary school (mandatory since 1993).
The impact of federal government support programs was
assessed in terms of the participation of inhabitants in three
ongoing programs of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Rural
Development, Fisheries and Food (SAGARPA): donations of out-
board engines, production assets, and marine diesel. In Puerto
Adolfo López Mateos, over 70% of fishermen have been supported
with outboard engines. In Puerto San Carlos, 62% have received
outboard engines. However, most of the support provided related
to production assets. In Puerto Chale, nearly 40% of fishermen
were provided outboard engines, whereas approximately 25% also
received marine diesel.
The monetary value of ecosystem provision services was esti-
mated, including subsistence fishing, construction materials, and
firewood. The nominal value stated by Magdalena Bay inhabitants
was 1,121 pesos per household, on average, in addition to their
income. The fishing provision service represents 63.7% of those rev-
enues, construction materials through timber gathering represents
35.7%, and firewood represents 0.6%.
The MPI calculated for the study area was 0.3506, which indi-
cates that poverty conditions prevail. In terms of incidence, 64% of
fishermen suffer from multidimensional poverty. This result means
that in Baja California Sur, a fisherman is twice as likely to suffer
poverty because the poverty incidence in the general population is
approximately 31%.
4. Discussion
There are currently 33 million coastal fishermen in the world, 5.8
million of whom earn less than one dollar a day or live in extreme
poverty (FAO, 2005). In 2014, 46.2% of the population in Mexico
was living in poverty according to the institution responsible for
 E.A. Marín-Monroy, M.Á. Ojeda-Ruiz de la Peña / Fisheries Research 177 (2016) 116–123
measuring this indicator (CONEVAL, 2014). In terms of income, 53%
earn less than the well-being threshold, which is 2518.65 Mexi-
can pesos per person (approximately $5 US per day). In the region
of Baja California Sur, the picture is relatively better, with 30.3%
of the population considered to suffer poverty. Nonetheless the
municipality of Comondú, which is where most MAB communi-
ties are located, showed that 48.1% of its people live in poverty
(CONEVAL, 2012), although there is no specific official data for
workers from the fishing sector. We found that the percentage of
fishermen in multidimensional poverty (64%) is greater than the
population average.
This study found that although there is no indication that there
is extreme poverty in MAB (CONEVAL, 2012), the target group “fish-
ermen” is more likely to suffer poverty. The average daily income
recorded in this study was higher than that reported in other stud-
ies. Fishermen with the lowest income in MAB earned $10 US per
day, which is 25% above the average income reported for fishing
regions in the Philippines (Muallil et al., 2011) and twice the aver-
age daily income of fishermen from the coast of Chiapas, Mexico (De
la Cruz-González et al., 2011). It is important to note that “living”
may be cheaper or more expensive, depending on the country.
Although the average income in MAB is suitable, significant
differences between the fishing communities investigated were
observed. A fisherman in Puerto Adolfo López Mateos makes twice
the income of a Puerto Chale fisherman. If the low coverage of
basic services that prevails in Puerto Chale is also considered,
the importance of using economic indicators disaggregated by
locality becomes evident to assess the level of economic develop-
ment within each locality, identify opportunities for improvement,
and strengthen community development programs and policies
(Marín-Monroy, 2013).
A critique of the indicators currently used to measure poverty is
that they are calculated on an aggregate basis, which creates the
disadvantage of generalizing the situation to the entire popula-
tion and does not consider that a certain sector of the population
may have different conditions, such as in the case of Puerto Chale
fishermen. In addition, there are few studies focused on mea-
suring poverty among fishermen in México and the BCS region.
Poverty is a key factor in predicting phenomena such as vulnera-
bility and adaptability in the sustainable management of resources,
which highlights the need for such analysis (Banco Mundial, 2013;
Morzaria-Luna et al., 2014).
Puerto San Carlos and Puerto Adolfo López Mateos have a regu-
latory program during the winter called “Area of Refuge to protect
aquatic species”. The program applies to the grey whale, a species
that uses these bays for reproductive purposes (DOF, 2000). Many
fishermen in these communities place fishing on standby during
this season and participate as providers of tourist services. Among
the communities studied, productive activities conducted by orga-
nized fishermen in Puerto Adolfo López Mateos are more diversified
and could has a lower ecological impact, as is the case of alterna-
tive sustainable livelihoods (Bruger̀e et al., 2008). The successful
experiences of this community in terms of income diversification
may serve to improve policies and social programs. Due to its low
poverty and uncertainty levels, this community’s inhabitants more
highly value the future benefits provided by marine ecosystems
(Sumaila, 2005).
Approximately 25% of fishermen in MAB perform supplemen-
tary activities to increase their income and reduce their dependence
on fishing. These fishermen have managed to organize their activ-
ities to ensure a steady income throughout the year, including
during the no-fishing season, as in the winter when they engage
in grey whale watching activities. Recently, there have been new
proposals such as the Management Plan for Small Pelagic Fish-
eries and the creation of an Area of Refuge for Turtles (DOF, 2015).
These proposals are developed by central institutions and enjoy the
121
participation of non-governmental organizations concerned with
conservation. However, it is also important to consider that coastal
fishermen are direct users.
The multidimensional measurement of poverty is a recently
developed concept that changes the narrow view of considering
income alone to determine whether a person is poor (CONEVAL,
2008). Thus, several variables that affect the quality of life are
considered in accordance with a capability approach (Sen, 1999).
Income as such is not as important as what can be achieved when
people work and earn an income.
Information on poverty in the fisheries sector is scarce. A study
that involves coastal villages along the La Paz—La Ventana corri-
dor in the Gulf of California (300 km away from MAB) reported a
poverty incidence of a maximum of 92% among fishermen families
(Marín-Monroy, 2013). The variables most affected were leisure
and nutrition, e.g. fishermen do not rest a sufficient number of
hours per week (Harrington, 2001), which affects their quality of
life and makes them vulnerable to diseases. Nutrition was mea-
sured in terms of the body mass index; the results revealed that
most fishermen and their families were outside the normal range,
with a tendency to be overweight, which suggests poor nutrition
that fosters the development of diseases. For this indicator, BCS had
the highest rate of obesity in Mexico with 79.5% of adults (SS-INSP,
2012) and 74.6% in MAB.
The education of fishermen has been minimally studied, despite
the importance of studies of productivity in economic sectors
(Kirkley et al., 1998). In this study, the level of education was mea-
sured in terms of years of schooling completed. It was found that
younger fishermen who have minimal time engaged in fishing are
better educated than older fishermen. The average years of school-
ing completed was 8.5 years (this includes 6 years of primary school
and 2.5 years of secondary school). The results were compared with
another study in México; MAB fishing communities have a higher
education level than other fishing communities, e.g. Chiapas with
an average of 4.4 years (De la Cruz-González et al., 2011).
The impact of subsidies to fisheries on the local economy
deserves deeper investigation. A positive relation between sub-
sidies and income was observed in Puerto Adolfo López Mateos
fishermen. The goal of the motor-replacement program is to sup-
port fishermen in acquiring modern, environmentally-friendly
equipment and thus contributing to reduced emissions, fuel sav-
ings, and increased safety (CONAPESCA, 2014). However, the
program has also led to increased fishing activity because of the
apparent increase in profits due to subsidies.
The assessment of ecosystem services under the existing con-
ceptual framework (Chee, 2004; Costanza et al., 1997; Fisher et al.,
2009) showed that in MAB, most ecosystem services originate from
fishing, which translates into quality protein for the population; its
value is 1121 pesos per month at market price.
In the region and in Baja California Sur, there are certain
studies that have focused on the economic valuation of services
provided by ecosystems, particularly mangroves in the Gulf of Cal-
ifornia (Aburto-Oropeza et al., 2008). Researchers have also sought
to determine values of use and non-use for ecosystem services
(Marín-Monroy, 2013; Sánchez et al., 2013). It has been found that
the assigned values differ by each site’s productive vocation. For
example, La Paz is located in the Gulf of California and is a tourism-
oriented community where fishing has minor relevance. Of note,
ecosystem services are 10% overvalued in La Paz, primarily because
of the use of beaches for leisure (Marín-Monroy, 2013), whereas the
highest value in MAB is assigned to seafood.
Our findings show significant differences between the commu-
nities in the MAB region that, in the authors’ opinion, can and
should be considered in the formulation of programs, policies,
and management schemes for small-scale fisheries. The study area
comprises certain localities with lower well-being; these are highly
122 E.A. Marín-Monroy, M.Á. Ojeda-Ruiz de la Peña / Fisheries Research 177 (2016) 116–123
dependent on artisanal fisheries. Thus, differential schemes and
community-based programs should be developed to better trans-
late their capacities into broad opportunities for improvement,
striving to ensure that the support from the government and civil
organizations reaches these communities.
One advantage provided by having measurements of the MPI in
fishing communities is that the development of the social sector
can be objectively analysed on a disaggregated basis to be able to
work with different objectives and strategies. Certain communities
showed gaps in areas such as basic services, access to health, educa-
tion, and social cohesion, which makes it difficult to increase their
development. By working directly on these variables, the effect in
the short and medium term is to reduce poverty and thus improve
the welfare of fishermen may be maximized, which should be rel-
evant to consider in the sustainable management of resources.
In the case of Puerto López Mateos, certain positive aspects
worth stressing are the higher education level that prevails among
fishermen from this region relative to other fishing localities in
Mexico and elsewhere. We also observed a higher average income, a
high level of social cohesion, and a high level of willingness to diver-
sify their economic activities with alternative livelihoods derived
from their local knowledge and their relationship with the envi-
ronment. However, issues to improve remain, such as interactions
between fisheries and marine turtles, and illegal catches. All these
aspects are keys for the implementation of a community manage-
ment scheme (Cinner et al., 2012; De la Cruz-González et al., 2011;
FAO, 2012; Muallil et al., 2013) and for engaging fishermen in the
sustainable management of marine resources.
5. Conclusions
There are few published research papers that focus on the
socioeconomic indicators of artisanal fisheries in Mexico. Gov-
ernment statistics do not provide specific information because
indicators are pooled at the municipal level and no data are avail-
able for individual villages/localities, which differ in many aspects.
Furthermore, these data are not sorted according to a specific eco-
nomic activity but by the primary sector, and fishing activity is
grouped into statistics for the entire agricultural sector. Hence,
recording the data directly from communities primarily dedicated
to coastal fisheries is a priority.
This article discusses the socioeconomic indicators that directly
affect the users of fishing resources in their own communities,
for the purpose of defining strategies and policies that promote
sustainable development. In this case study that focused on MAB,
differences in income were found among fishermen of the various
localities. From the three fishing villages analysed, Puerto Adolfo
López Mateos showed the highest income and diversification lev-
els, where alternative livelihoods play a key role in improving the
well-being of fishermen and their families, as well as in enhancing
the local economy. Puerto Chale was the most marginalized com-
munity; thus, special attention by the government is needed for
this locality.
Ecosystem services contributed a 25% increase to average family
income in the region. Moreover, subsidies were found to positively
impact the family and local economy. These aspects deserve fur-
ther investigation. Finally, the fact that the newly incorporated
fishermen have a higher-than-average education level shows that
schooling is improving gradually. It is important to analyse whether
young people who receive an education are interested in becoming
fishermen or whether they select alternative productive activities.
In sum, our study highlights the differences among the commu-
nities in the study area that should be considered to refine programs
and policies and design management plans for small-scale fisheries
to achieve a balance among environmental, ecological, and social
targets.
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