Final Examination on Anatomy and Physiology

May Ann M. Dimaano March 26, 2011

MAEd Biological Science

1. Tell something about each of the following chromosomal disorders.

A. Down syndrome
Answer:
Down syndrome (DS), also called Trisomy 21, is a condition in which extra genetic material causes
delays in the way a child develops, both mentally and physically. It affects about 1 in every 800 babies. The
physical features and medical problems associated with Down syndrome can vary widely from child to
child. While some kids with DS need a lot of medical attention, others lead healthy lives.
Down syndrome was named after John Langdon Down who first described the condition in 1987.
B. Phenylketonuria
Answer:
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder that is characterized by an inability of the body to
utilize the essential amino acid, phenylalanine. Amino acids are the building blocks for body proteins.
'Essential' amino acids can only be obtained from the food we eat as our body does not normally produce
them. In 'classic PKU', the enzyme that breaks down phenylalanine phenylalanine hydroxylase, is
completely or nearly completely deficient. This enzyme normally converts phenylalanine to another amino
acid, tyrosine. Without this enzyme, phenylalanine and its' breakdown chemicals from other enzyme routes,
accumulate in the blood and body tissues.
C. Tay-Sachs disease
Answer:
Tay-Sachs disease is a rare inherited disorder that progressively destroys nerve cells (neurons) in the
brain and spinal cord.
The most common form of Tay-Sachs disease becomes apparent in infancy. Infants with this
disorder typically appear normal until the age of 3 to 6 months, when their development slows and muscles
used for movement weaken. Affected infants lose motor skills such as turning over, sitting, and crawling.
They also develop an exaggerated startle reaction to loud noises. As the disease progresses, children with
Tay-Sachs disease experience seizures, vision and hearing loss, intellectual disability, and paralysis. An eye
abnormality called a cherry-red spot, which can be identified with an eye examination, is characteristic of
this disorder. Children with this severe infantile form of Tay-Sachs disease usually live only into early
childhood.
D. Huntington's disease
Answer:
Huntington's disease (HD) is an inherited disease that causes certain nerve cells in the brain to waste
away. People are born with the defective gene, but symptoms usually don't appear until middle age. Early
symptoms of HD may include uncontrolled movements, clumsiness or balance problems. Later, HD can
take away the ability to walk, talk or swallow. Some people stop recognizing family members. Others are
aware of their environment and are able to express emotions.

2. Compare and contrast the urinary system of a human male and a human female.
Answer:
Purpose:
In both males and females, the purpose of the bladder is identical: To hold and then expel fluid
waste in the form of urine. There is no difference in how the bladder connects to the kidneys for this
purpose, and since there is no difference in function, there really is not a difference in bladder size.
Location:
The differences in male and female reproductive organs force the bladder to sit in different positions
in both sexes. The bladder rests on the pelvic floor in either gender. In females, however, the bladder is
situated behind the uterus and most of the urethra is actually embedded in the top of the vagina.

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 Urethra:
The main difference between the male and female bladder is in the length of the urethra, the tube
that carries urine out of the body from the bladder. In females, the urethra is only in one section, which is
very short (about 1.5 inches). It extends only through the neck of the bladder, internal and external
sphincters, and the urogenital diaphragm. In males, the urethra is in 3 sections and is much longer than the
female version at about 8 inches. It travels through the prostrate, internal and external sphincters, urogenital
diaphragm, cowper's glad, and the entire length of the penis.
Reproduction:
In females, the bladder and urethra are not connected to reproductive function. In males, the urethra
serves double duty and carries seminal fluid as well as urine. This is why males may find it difficult to
urinate immediately after having intercourse. Furthermore, because the bladder, urethra, and prostate are all
connected, frequent urination is one of the primary indications of prostate disease in males.
Infections:
According to the Mayo Clinic, in women the length of the urinary tract and the short distance
between the urethral opening and anus means that there is less of a distance for bacteria and other pathogens
to travel before reaching the bladder. This may be one of the contributing factors to the high rate of urinary
tract infections in females, when compared to males. Both males and females can take antibiotics when a
urinary tract infection occurs.

3. What are the roles of testosterone and estrogen?

Answer:
Testosterone’s Roles
Testosterone is the major sex hormone in males and plays a number of important roles, such as:
 The development of the penis and testes
 The deepening of the voice during puberty
 The appearance of facial and pubic hair starting at puberty; later in life, it may play a role in balding
 Muscle size and strength
 Bone growth and strength
 Sex drive (libido)
 Sperm production

Estrogen’s Roles
 Sexual Development
Estrogen helps in the development of breasts, the vagina, the menstrual cycle, body shape,
and hair growth under the arms and around the pubic region.
 Pregnancy
Estrogen regulates the release of ovarian eggs. If pregnancy occurs, estrogen works with
progesterone to stop the ovulation cycle. Research shows that birth control pills, which use estrogen,
may reduce the risk of ovarian, uterine and colorectal cancer.
 Deficiencies
Estrogen helps prevent bone loss. When estrogen levels decline during menopause,
osteoporosis, the weakening of bones, becomes more of a possibility.
 Estrogen Blockers
In some cases, like breast cancer, estrogen is more harmful than good. Because breast cancer
is highly sensitive to hormones, estrogen blockers are used to lower the levels. Estrogen blockers are
also used by men who build up too much estrogen.
 Estrogen Therapy
Estrogen therapy is used to treat menopause symptoms and prevent osteoporosis. Estrogen
therapy also revitalizes the body, since estrogen levels begin to decline in later years.

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4. Explain the roles of pancreas and liver in the digestion of food.
Answer:
Pancreas
The pancreas has two main functions
1. It is the source of powerful digestive enzymes required to chemically break down fats, carbohydrates and
proteins. The pancreas also secrete another substance to help neutralize stomach acid
2. The hormone insulin is made by the pancreas - insulin helps to balance blood sugar levels in the body
When food reaches the lower stomach and then the duodenum, these organs give off signals to the
pancreas telling it to secrete its many digestive enzymes. These enzymes and other substances are produced
within the pancreas and then transferred to the duodenum where they neutralize acid and break down fats,
carbohydrates and proteins into smaller molecules (nutrients) that can be used by the body.
Liver
Three Functions
 The liver is the largest organ in the body other than the skin. It performs several functions, three of
which have something to do with the digestive system. The liver is located on the right side of the
stomach below the diaphragm. It can weigh as much as 4 lbs.
1. Bile Production
One of the functions of the liver as it relates to the digestive system is that it produces bile. Bile is
necessary for the breakdown of fats. The liver makes bile and stores it in the gallbladder. When a person
consumes fatty foods, the gallbladder will release bile into the stomach in order to help the acids of the
stomach breakdown the fat.
2. Nutrients and Toxins
The liver also processes nutrients and toxins. When a person eats, the stomach and small intestine
digests the food (or liquids or medications and vitamins). The broken-down substances are absorbed by the
intestine walls and travel to the liver. The liver then breaks them down further.
Molecules that are nutritional are transformed in such a way that become the most beneficial for what the
body needs at the time. Toxins are broken down into molecules that are the least harmful possible.
3. Glucose
The liver also receives and produces glucose. Most of the glucose the liver receives is produced during
the digestive process in the small intestine. The enzymes in the small intestine break down the molecules in
carbohydrates and sugar, producing glucose molecules, which then travel from the small intestine to the
liver. The liver stores it as glycogen. When you need energy, the liver will transform the glycogen back into
glucose, which is then sent into the bloodstream.

5. How does gas exchange in a human body occur?

Answer:
We draw oxygen into our respiratory system through the mouth or nose, which warm up the gas
and moisten it before it enters the rest of the body. The oxygen then travels through the larynx (voice box)
and down the trachea (windpipe) into the two bronchi, which are branch-like tissues that enter the lungs.
Cilia, which are very fine hairs, grow in the larynx, trachea and bronchi. These hairs are coated with mucus
that captures any germs and pollution that are in the air we breathe before it enters the lungs. This foreign
matter is then expelled from the body through swallowing, coughing or sneezing.
Once the oxygen enters the lungs, it's sent to the rest of the body's organs and tissues through a
network of blood vessels. These blood vessels also capture any carbon dioxide emitted by the tissues as a
metabolic waste. The lungs are made up of bronchioles, small tubes that have alveoli at their tips. Alveoli
are very small round air sacs made up of capillaries, which are tiny blood vessels.
Blood is delivered around the body through a network of arteries, veins and blood vessels. The
pulmonary artery delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. It sends blood containing carbon dioxide to
the alveoli, which expel the gas through exhalation. The alveoli replace the carbon dioxide with oxygen
through inhalation. This oxygen-rich blood then travels to the heart, which pumps it to the rest of the body.
Respiration is the means for breathing in and out. As we breathe in, our chest muscles contract. This
lifts the ribs out and moves the diaphragm down, expanding our chest cavity. This expansion decreases the
air pressure in our lungs and allows them to be filled with air. As we breathe out, we reverse this process,
which allows the lungs to push air containing waste products and foreign particles from our bodies.
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6. Give the functions of lymph node, tonsils and spleen.
Answer:
Lymph nodes
 Defense functions--filtration and phagocytosis
o The structure of the sinus channels within the lymph nodes slows the lymph flow through
them.
 This gives the reticuloendothelial cells that line the channels time to remove
microorganisms and other injurious particles (soot) from the lymph and phagocytose
them.
 Sometimes such large numbers of microorganisms enter the node that the phagocytes
cannot destroy enough of them to prevent their injuring the node.
Tonsils
 Masses of lymphoid tissue located in a protective ring under mucous membranes in the mouth and
back of the throat.
 Help protect against bacteria that may invade tissues in the area around the openings between the
oral and nasal cavities.
Spleen
 Defense
o As blood passes through the sinusoids, reticuloendothelial cell (macrophages) lining these
venous spaces remove microorganisms from the blood and destroy them by phagocytosis.

7. What is blood pressure? What are the factors affecting it?

Answer:
Blood pressure is a measurement of the force applied to the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps
blood through the body. The pressure is determined by the force and amount of blood pumped, and the size
and flexibility of the arteries.
Blood pressure is continually changing depending on activity, temperature, diet, emotional state,
posture, physical state, and medication use.

8. How does blood flow through the heart?

Answer:
The right and left sides of the heart work together. The pattern described below is repeated over and
over, causing blood to flow constantly to the heart, lungs and body.
Right side
 Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying
oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium.
 As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through the
open tricuspid valve.
 When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into
the atria while the ventricle contracts.
 As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary valve, into the pulmonary
artery and to the lungs where it is oxygenated.
Left side
 The pulmonary vein empties oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium.
 As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open
mitral valve.
 When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into
the atrium while the ventricle contracts.

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  As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta and to the
different parts of the body.

9. Explain the general structure of the blood.

Answer:
General Structure of Blood
 Red Blood Cells
Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, contain no nucleus and only live about 120
days. These small doughnut-shaped cells contain the pigment hemoglobin, which gives the cells their
reddish color.
 White Blood Cells
White blood cells, or leukocytes, also have no nucleus, but are larger than erythrocytes.
Leukocytes lack hemoglobin and so appear white.
 Platelets
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are the smallest of the blood cells. They are actually
fragments of cells, not complete cells.
 Plasma – liquid extracellular substance, it is a product of many cells of the body.
It takes up 55% of mammals' blood volume. It consists of:
o water – 92%
o proteins – 7% - albumins, globulins,
o fibrinogen
o other organic compounds: glucose, amino acids, lipids

10. If you are pregnant and a genetic test indicates the potential of debilitating abnormality in the fetus, would you consider
induced abortion? What would you want to know before making your decision? Explain.
Answer:
I will definitely not consider induced abortion even if the results of the genetic test indicate that there
is a possibility that my child would be abnormal.
God gives us all the gift of children. Sometimes we are given a test to see how we will react and
what we will do in response to that child. It is so easy to think of ourselves first and just say "kill it"....it is
not really a child yet, it is nothing, so lets just kill what God gave us and try again. God is testing to see if we
will love that child no matter what, if we will put the needs of that child first, instead of our own needs. This
is a child that God created, He is giving the child to you as your personal test to see how faithful and strong
you are to deal with it. So whether, my child is abnormal or not I would never think of having an induced
abortion.

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