LawToday Доп материалы

Portion 1
Exercise 1.
Read chapter 1, find the following words and word-
combinations in the text and learn their meanings.
p. 9 a descriptive law, a prescriptive law, a natural
phenomenon - phenomena, law of gravity, to impose limits upon
smb., to regulate relations, to enforce a law against smb
(принудительно осуществлять или взыскивать в
судебном порядке; применять правовую норму
или закон)., within one’s power, to suffer penalty
(понести наказание), to ridicule smb.;
p. 10 to create laws, to make laws, a rule carrying precise
penalties, to commit a crime, political corruption, to escape justice,
rules of conduct, to face punishment, a fine, to face
prosecution, to conduct a civil action against smb
(вести судебное дело против кого-то)., to enforce a
claim (придавать требованию исковую силу), a court
of law, to start/ to begin an action, a crime of violence, a danger to
the well being and order of society;
p. 11 social control, to establish the authority of the
government, to provide a framework for smth., interaction among
smb., to interfere in smb.’s life, to implement justice -
implementation of justice (отправлять правосудие),
to be fair to smb., to find smb. guilty /non-guilty of a crime,
an abuse, a notion of fairness, separation of powers, rising crime
rates, common sense, to provide financial support to smb., to desert
one’s family, to compensate smb. for losses, to retain power;
p. 12 to inherit traditions, to be common to smb., to focus
upon smth., to a large extent, to operate throughout a country (of a
law)
Comprehension Check
1. 1) What does the word “law” refer to?
2. 2) Give your own example of a descriptive and a
prescriptive law.
3. 3) Name the three kinds of rules governing the relations
between people.
4. 4) How are customs, rules of social institutions and laws
made?
5. 5) If we break a custom we shall face
.............
a rule of a social institution … .............
a law … .............
1. 6) What hampers the law enforcement?
2. 7) What kinds of prosecution are available to, say, a
referee hit by a player of a rugby club?
i. i. Are you a legally active person or do you
prefer informal ways of settling disputes?
ii. 8) Name at least three motives in making and enforcing
laws.
iii. 9) “The laws of one country are often different from the
laws of another country...”. (p. 12) What factors shape a
country’s law?
Exercise 2.
Study the following patterns and notes and translate the
sentences into English. Use the active words.
I.
p. 10 “... he might be made to pay a fine...”
but: to make smb. pay a fine
Translate into English:
1. В курсовой работе преподаватель заставил
студента сконцентрироваться на законах,
действующих на территории Великобритании. 2.
Его заставили заплатить штраф, иначе его бы
исключили из клуба за нарушение правил
поведения. 3. Многочисленные случаи
злоупотребления властью заставили его
выступить против директора компании. 4.
Несомненно, его заставили вмешаться в жизнь
сына, иначе тот понес бы наказание. 5. Хотя он и
пытался избежать правосудия, его заставили
действовать в рамках закона. 6. Обстоятельства
заставили его применить закон против
сотрудников его собственной фирмы.
II.
Analyse the meaning and use of the modal verbs in the
following examples:
p.10 “... the player might also face prosecution...”
“... the referee could conduct a civil action against the
player...”
1. Если вы подадите иск, возможно, его
признают виновным в совершении данного
преступления. 2. Возможно, ему придется
обеспечивать финансовую поддержку детей и
после того, как они перестанут быть
несовершеннолетними. 3. Возможно, директору
удастся сохранить власть, несмотря на ряд исков
возбужденных против него. 4. Может быть,
растущий уровень преступности заставит
правительство создать новые законы, нарушение
которых влечет за собой конкретные наказания. 5.
Возможно, данный закон сможет наложить
ограничения на рост политической коррупции в
обществе.
III.
to bring an action, to take an action, to enter an
action, to lay an action - заявить, предъявить,
вчинить, возбудить иск
to lose an action - проиграть дело
to overthrow an action - предъявить по иску
достаточные возражения
to win an action - выигрыть дело
to take legal action - обратиться в суд
1. Возможно, он обратится в суд, если его
соседи будут продолжать высмеивать его
ребенка. 2. Если бы он не смог предъявить
достаточные возражения по иску, ему бы
пришлось предстать перед правосудием. 3. Если
ее бывший муж не будет обеспечивать
финансовую поддержку ее и ее детей, она подаст
гражданский иск. Несомненно, она выиграет дело.
4. Адвокат хотел, чтобы его клиенту
компенсировали потери (ущерб), и сделал все
возможное, чтобы выиграть дело. 5. Зная, что он
проиграет дело, он все же решил возбудить иск,
чтобы создать прецедент и заставить своих
коллег задуматься об ограничениях, наложенных
на них.
IV.
p. 10 “... carrying precise penalties for those who break them.”
penalty 1) (U) punishment for wrongdoing, for failure to obey
rules or keep an agreement
2) (C) what is imposed (imprisonment, payment of a
fine, etc) as punishment
to assess the penalty - определить меру наказания
to impose a penalty, to inflict a penalty -
назначить наказание
to make a penalty conditional - назначить
наказание условно
upon penalty of death - под страхом смертной
казни
severe, grave, high penalty - строгое, суровое
наказание
lenient, mild penalty - мягкое наказание
money penalty - денежная санкция, штраф
1. Если пострадавший возбудит иск, какое
наказание будет назначено? - Я думаю, что
наказание будет назначено условно. 2.
Нарушение общественного порядка может
повлечь за собой суровое наказание. 3. Я не знаю,
какую меру наказания определит суд. Но
возможно, что будет назначен штраф. 4. Я думаю,
что это слишком мягкое наказание за то, что он
бросил семью и маленьких детей. 5. Если суд
признает его виновным в совершении жестокого
преступления, то ему будет назначено суровое
наказание.
V.
p. 10 “... the player ... would face punishment...”
punishment 1) (U) suffering or discomfort to smb for
wrondoing
2) (C) penalty inflicted for wrongdoing
to give punishment - наказывать
to commute punishment, to mitigate pushment -
смягчать наказание
to make punishment fit the crime - назначить
наказание соразмерно совершенному
преступлению
corporal punishment - телесное наказание
drastic, serious, severe, stiff, harsh punishment -
суровое наказание
lenient punishment- мягкое наказание
capital punishment - смертная казнь
Translate itno English:
1. Cуд должен тщательно рассмотреть все
детали этого иска, чтобы назначить наказание
соразмерно совершенному преступлению. 2.
Смертная казнь отменена во многих странах, этот
вид наказания не применяется даже в случаях
жестоких преступлений. 3. Хотя телесное
наказание в школах запрещено, в прессе
сообщается о некоторых случаях
злоупотреблений. 4. Учитывая ряд обстоятельств
дела, наказание было смягчено. 6. Какое
наказание присуждается за вмешательство в
частную жизнь?
VI.
speed limits, mercy-killing - noun + noun: the first one
characterises the second one- ограничения скорости,
убийство из сострадания
government-made laws - participle II + noun - законы,
созданные правительством
law-making bodies - participle I + noun -
законодательные органы
rules of conduct - prepositional phrase (noun + preposition +
noun)- правила поведения
When we want to give more specific information about
something or someone, we can make up noun phrases in several
different ways.
1. Иногда люди нарушают установленные
правила, не неся за это никакого наказания. 2.
Может оказаться, что игрок команды футбольного
клуба понесет наказание, установленное
вышестоящей организацией, регулирующей
поведение всех людей, которые играют в футбол.
3. Возможно, игрока заставят уплатить штраф в
суд за преступление против государства,
поскольку часто правительство рассматривает
антисоциальное поведение не только как вопрос
личных отношений отдельных граждан, но и как
угрозу благополучию и спокойствию всего
общества.
Еxercise 3.
From the list of legal terms that follows, select the one that
matches each definition.
1/ action a/ sum of money to be
paid as a penalty for breaking a
law or a rule
2/ penalty b/ penalty inflicted for
wrongdoing
3/ punishment c/ lawsuit or court
proceeding
4/ prosecution d/ what is imposed as
punishment
5/ fine e/ a criminal action. The
party by whom criminal
proceedings are started or
conducted; the state.
6/ law f/ law or custom which
guides or controls behaviour or
action
7/ rule g/ rule made by authority
for the proper regulation of a
community or society or for
correct conduct in life
Exercise 4.
Render the following text in English.
Большинство людей придает большое
значение понятию справедливости (notion of justice),
однако мало кто может дать ей точное
определение. Иногда мы называем решение
справедливым просто потому, что большинству
оно кажется таковым. Но создадим ли мы
общество со справедливыми законами,
прислушиваясь только к общественному мнению?
Если мы возьмем за правило принимать решения,
справедливые по отношению к большинству
людей, то часто обделим справедливостью
меньшинства; может случиться, что решения,
кажущиеся верными в настоящей ситуации
(применительно к настоящему времени), приведут
к несправедливому обращению с кем-либо в
будущем.
Или возьмем здравый смысл. Есть вещи,
очевидные для всех, например, санкции к
водителям, создающим опасные ситуации на
дороге, необходимость возмещения убытков
лицом, нарушившим договор, и многие другие
подобные действия и их последствия. Однако,
когда дело доходит до изложения их в виде
законов, формулировок и определений, здравый
смысл перестает казаться таким простым и
очевидным понятием. Часто для определения
того, что разумно, требуется высочайшее
мастерство, подкрепленное длительным
изучением и наблюдением за поведением людей в
различных ситуациях. И часто законы, основанные
на здравом смысле, отнюдь не звучат как
таковые!
Exercise 5.
Read the text and make up two or three sentences to sum up
the message. Decide which facts can and which facts can not be
omitted.
Use linking devices: conjunctions, relative clauses, participles
etc. (e.g. “Potentially destabilizing sex imbalance has become the
unintended…”)
Before reading: as a class quickly suggest one most
reasonable and effective family planning policy. Now read the text.
China
Men without women
BEIJING
The consequence of family planning
IT HAS been more than 20 years since China implemented its
harsh yet effective family-planning policy. By limiting urban
couples to a single child and most rural couples to two, China has
managed to slow the growth of the world's largest population. Now,
however, the government must figure out what to do about the
policy's unintended consequence: a huge and potentially
destabilising sex imbalance. Statistics just released based on the
2000 census disclose that, in the country as a whole, about 117 boys
are born for every 100 girls. The imbalance is extraordinary in some
areas, exceeding 135 for 100 in southern Hainan province.
The reasons are easy to fathom. When couples were free to
have half a dozen children, there was a natural mix of boys and
girls. When limited to one or two, they worked the system to
produce sons. At the benign extreme, a girl's birth might simply not
be registered, in the hope that next time the couple would produce a
male. More worrying is widespread sex-selective abortion. Cheap
but effective ultrasound equipment is now available throughout
China and, though the practice is illegal, it is routinely used for pre-
natal sex determination. The abortion that apparently often follows
is devoid of taboo in China and extremely easy to arrange.
All this leads to worries about how society can function
without enough women. The prospect of a large surplus of single
men in China alarms Valerie Hudson, a professor at Brigham Young
University in the United States. In a study to be published in the
next issue of Harvard University's journal International Security,
she notes that societies with large numbers of unmarried males tend
to experience more crime, unrest and violence. While
acknowledging that sex imbalance is only one of many factors
influencing levels of violence, Miss Hudson points out that the 30m
unhappy unmarried men China is likely to have by 2020 could
become "kindling for forces of political revolution at home". There
could also be an impact outside China, she says. The government
may decide to use the surplus men as a weapon for military
adventurism and "actively desire to see them give their lives in
pursuit of a national interest". A terrifying thought indeed.
The Economist June 22th 2002
If your policy was different from that implemented by the
Chinese government, discuss its pros and cons and the possible
unintended consequence. Does it still seem reasonable?
Exercise 6.
Render the following text in English, consider the ethic and
legal problems of the issue in question:
Махнемся лицами не глядя?
Британский пластический хирург (plastic surgeon)
Петер Батлер стал автором научной сенсации.
Вместе с коллегами из лондонского Королевского
госпиталя ему удалось разработать технологию,
которая позволяет пересадить (to transplant smth)
человеку... чужое лицо. Не просто сделать
похожий нос или губы, а полностью снять кожу,
мускулы и даже кровеносные сосуды (blood-
vessels) лицевой части головы у донора и
пересадить новое лицо пациенту, удалив при этом
его собственное!
Доктор Батлер признался, что новый метод
связан с этическими проблемами. Представляете,
какая неразбериха (muddle, confusion) начнется,
если люди смогут запросто меняться лицами?
Тогда уж никакого бен Ладена точно не найдут:
только выследят, а он раз - и лицами с товарищем
по “Аль-Каиде” махнулся!
Впрочем, медики думают в первую очередь о
людях, у которых лицо сильно повреждено из-за
ожогов или несчастных случаев. Для них такой
прорыв (breakthrough) в пластической хирургии
сможет стать единственным спасением. Лица для
трансплантации, видимо, будут брать у мертвых
доноров, так же, как печень или сердце. Хотя и
здесь все непросто: а вдруг родственники
покойного случайно встретят человека с его
лицом?
Британские хирурги готовы провести первую
операцию по полной трансплантации лица в
ближайшие полтора года.
(Комсомольская правда)
Over to you
Case 1
Recently there was a case of a severely mentally ill person
who was tried for stabbing a girl of twelve to death and the
attempted murders of another two girls. Stephen Wilkinson entered
a school with a holdall filled with knives and an axe, a replica gun
and a balaclava. If two school teachers hadn’t disarmed him during
the attack, he would have injured or even murdered other children
staying in the classroom. He pleaded guilty to manslaughter and
denied murdering his victim. Four forensic psychiatrists described
his condition as paranoid schizophrenia which started in his early
teens.
What do you think? What decision as to his punishment
would you support if you were a member of the jury? You will find
the final decision on the case at the end of the unit.
Case 2
Discuss the following points:
A man has a right to live. Does he have the right to die if he
wants to(if he is physically ill, for example)? Should a person
suffering from a painful and incurable disease be mercifully killed
by a doctor? If the doctor did so, do you think he should be brought
to trial for murder?
Role-play
You’re participating in a parliamentary debate on a Dutch
government proposal to regulate both voluntary and involuntary
euthanasia under the same procedure.
Role 1 Your position is that under no circumstances can a
doctor be allowed to terminate a patient’s life (with or without his
explicit request).
Role 2 You are against legalising the practice. However, a
doctor who performed euthanasia or assisted in suicide following
certain guidelines shouldn’t be prosecuted.
Role 3 You are prepared to call euthanasia “normal medical
practice” provided the guidelines to be followed are strictly
observed.
*Stephen Wilkinson was sent to a mental hospital for the

criminally insane for a period without limit.
Portion 2
Exercise 1.
p.14 political structure, social values, political and social
upheaval, to revise a legal system, to originate, to codify smth,
a court ruling (постановление, решение суда) , а
statute, legislation, to apply the law to smb, a
precedent for smth, to administer law (отправлять
правосудие, применять нормы права)
p.15 to be bound to do smth, guilt, innocence, to be bound
by smth, to modify a law, to clarify a law, lord
chancellor, to solve disputes, to fulfil a contract, to
pay damages for doing smth (оплатить убытки), a
beneficiary of a trust (бенефициарий,
выгодоприобретатель), to prevail, a breach of
contract (нарушение договора), to unify systems
p.16 business fraud, computer theft, to require complex and
precise definitions, it is (im)permissible to do smth, political
divergence, to derive from smth, a criminal code, to break with
smth, corrupt and biased judgements, egalitarian social theories
p. 17 judiciary (суд, судебная система), to
eliminate smth, to replace the existing law, to have
little impact on smth, to exaggerate
p. 18. public law, to become out of date, to challenge the
constitutional legality of a law (оспаривать что-либо), to
conserve customs, secular ideology, to resemble, to
refrain from smth, to reinforce and justify property
relations, ownership of property, to become irrelevant
to smth
p.19 to seek legal redress (требовать, искать
правовой помощи), to question the legality, an obligation to
smb
Mind the terms:
The doctrine of precedent (доктрина
прецедента), eqity (справедливость, право
справедливости), specific performance (исполнение
в натуре, реальное исполнение) , judicial review
(судебный контроль, судебный пересмотр)
Comprehension check
А.
i. 1) What factors shape the legal system of a country?
ii. 2) What may prompt the revision of a legal system?
iii. 3) What two main traditions of law do most systems
of law represent? What are they based on and why?
What countries adopted them?
iv. 4) How do Common law systems differ from
Continental law systems?
v. 5) How did “common law” develop? How does the
doctrine of precedent work?
vi. 6) Why did equity system appear? Would an equity
ruling or a common law ruling about the same matter
prevail if they were different?
vii. 7) What problem resulted from the existence of 2
systems of justice?
viii. 8) What are the sources of English law?
ix. 9) What makes the government pass new legislation?
x. 10) Can a judge in one common law country directly
support his decisions by cases from another?
xi. 11) What did continental legal systems result from?
xii. 12) What led to the separation of legislature and
judiciary in continental systems?
xiii. 13) What shows the weakening of the clear
distinction between legislature and judiciary in many
countries nowadays?
xiv. 14) What are the peculiarities of Japanese law and
principles of administering justice?
B.
Law has its origins in the early developments of civilized
society, and through time there have been major influences on the
laws that we follow today.
I.Match these sources of law with the descriptions below.
Common law Roman law
Napoleonic Code The Ten Commandments
______________ , which evolved in the 8th century BC, was
still largely a blend of custom and interpretation by magistrates of
the will of the gods.
______________ evolved from the tribal and local laws in
England. It began with common customs, but over time it involved
the courts in law-making that was responsive to changes in society.
In this way the Anglo-Norman rulers created a system of centralized
courts that operated under a single set of laws that replaced the rules
laid down by earlier societies.
______________ formed the basis of all Israelite legislation.
They can also be found in the laws of other ancient peoples.
______________ refers to the entire body of French law,
contained in five codes dealing with civil, commercial, and criminal
law.
II. Are the following sentences about the sources of law true
or false?
1 The Ten Commandments are based on moral standards of
behavior.
2 In common law, judges resolve disputes by referring to
statutory principles arrived at in advance.
3 Roman law is based on the principle of deciding cases by
reference to previous judicial decisions, rather than to written
statutes drafted by legislative bodies.
4 The Napoleonic Code was introduced into a number of
European countries, notably Belgium, where it is still in force. It
also became the model for the civil codes of Quebec Province in
Canada, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, some Latin American
republics, and the state of Louisiana.
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 14 “In order to understand...”
Purpose is expressed in a number of different ways, for
example, with :
- to / in order to / so as to +infinitive
- so that +can/will (present/future reference)
- so that + could/would (past reference)
Negative purpose is normally expressed with the following
corresponding forms:
- so as not / in order not + to-infinitive
- so that + can’t/won’t (present/future reference)
-so that + couldn’t /wouldn’t (past reference)
1. Чтобы оспорить конституционную
законность любого закона в ряде стран,
достаточно обратиться в суд. 2. Студент
обратился к преподавателю, чтобы тот пояснил
механизм использования прецедента в общем
праве. 3. Чтобы заставить нарушившую договор
сторону исполнить обязательства, он обратился в
суд, который вынес соответствующее решение. 4.
Чтобы не упустить основные положения лекции,
он прочитал ряд статей об огромных социальных и
политических изменениях, связанных с
индустриализацией, а также об их влиянии на
юридические принципы и необходимость
пересмотра правовой системы. 5. Исполнение в
натуре - одно из средств судебно-правовой
защиты. Надо возбудить иск из нарушения
договора, чтобы суд вынес соответствующее
решение. 6. Лектор полностью заменил план
лекции, чтобы устранить возможную путаницу
относительно законов разных государств, и
студентам не пришлось обращаться к самим
законам.
II.
p. 14 “Despite civil wars...”
Concession is expressed in a number of different ways, for
example, with:
- Although / Even though / Though + a clause
- Despite / In spite of + noun / -ing form
- Despite / In spite of the fact + that-clause
1. Несмотря на политический переворот и
последовавшие за ним огромные социальные
перемены, им удалось порвать с прошлым,
сохранив обычаи и традиции, свойственные их
стране. 2. Несмотря но то, что он прочитал
несколько книг о кодифицированных правовых
системах, ему пришлось попросить
преподавателя объяснить ряд сложных и точных
определений. 3. Хотя он и понимал, что решение
суда может быть коррумпированным и
предвзятым, он решил возбудить иск. 4. Чтобы не
преувеличивать разницу между двумя правовыми
системами, необходимо отметить, что, несмотря
на существенные различия, между ними есть и
общие черты. 5. Несмотря на то, что многие
законы устарели и стали неприменимы к
современным условиям, недопустимо полностью
порвать с прошлым, необходимо тщательно
пересмотреть существующие правовые принципы
и учесть современные общественные ценности.
III.
“... since their interpretations may become precedents for other
courts to follow.”
English Adverbial Clauses of Cause are joined to the main
part of the sentence with the help of the conjunctions because, for,
as, once, since. They are translated into Russian as потому что,
так как, поскольку. Mind the difference between these English
conjunctions and similar in the form but different in the meaning
prepositions, conjunctions and adverbs (e.g. the preposition since).
1. Он обратился в суд, поскольку хотел, чтобы
нарушившая сторона выплатила компенсацию за
нарушение договора, а также чтобы суд вынес
решение об исполнении в натуре. 2. Сейчас истец
может подать иски по общему праву и праву
справедливости в один суд, поскольку две
системы были объединены в 1873 году. 3.
Поскольку он был связан существующими
договорными обязательствами, он решил
воздержаться от новых предприятий. 4. Он
поставил под сомнение законность и
непредвзятость решения, поскольку не был
удовлетворен его последствиями. 5. Чтобы
разрешить спор, он возбудил иск, поскольку все
попытки разрешить конфликт вне суда оказались
бесплодными.
IV.
p. 15 “...the general rule was that equity (should) prevail.”
The suggestion is that we (should) revise the existing by-laws.
The matter is that the lawyer (should) try to clarify the law.
The request was that the lecturer (should) explain all the
complex and precise definitions of the law.
1. Суд издал приказ о том, что виновная
сторона должна исполнить договор, а не просто
заплатить компенсацию за убытки. 2. Суть его
предложения состояла в том, чтобы обвиняемый
порвал с прошлым. 3. Хотя он и был связан
договорными обязательствами, он выдвинул
предложение, что стороны должны воздержаться
от данных действий. 4. Его просьба заключалась в
том, чтобы первокурсники сохранили обычаи и
традиции университета. 5. Общее правило
заключалось в том, что юристы этой компании
воздерживались от ведения дел, в которых они
были заинтересованной стороной. 6. Его совет
заключался в том, чтобы мы изучили законы,
появившиеся после политического переворота.
V.
p.16 “The spread of common law in the world is due ... to...”
Phrases of reason can be introduced by:
Because of / Due to + noun / -ing form;
Because of / Due to + the fact that ... .
1. Благодаря своевременным мерам,
принятым доверительным собственником,
бенефициар смог избежать банкротства. 2.
Благодаря своим правовым знаниям, он смог
подать иск из нарушения договора и выиграть
дело. 3. Благодаря его выдающейся способности
разрешать споры между сторонами, клиенты
всегда высоко ценили его профессиональные
услуги. 4. Из-за того, что он был связан
договорными обязательствами, он не смог уйти в
отпуск. 5. Из-за того, что он не хотел порвать с
прошлым, ему пришлось изменить свои планы.
VI.
p. 17 “... many countries can be said to have belonged to the
Roman tradition long before codifying their laws...”
p. 21 “... wrongs which, even when committed against an
individual are considered to harm the well-being of society...”
p. 75 “In some societies the family is thought to be so
important that there is very little intervention in family life.”
p. 75 “... the male head of the household in Switzerland was
deemed to represent the interests of everyone within that
household...”
The lawyer is said to exaggerate the differences between these
two traditions of law.
The lawyer is said to have exaggerated the importance of this
evidence.
The lawyer is said to be exaggerating the similarities between
the two plans.
1. Говорят, что целью законодателей было
пересмотреть существующий уголовный кодекс и
дать четкие определения новым преступлениям.
2. Считается, что такие теории уже давно
устарели. 3. Сообщается, что в структуре
компании происходят огромные изменения. 4.
Полагают, что его заставят компенсировать
убытки за нарушение договора. 5. Считается, что
он связан своими обязательствами перед
компанией, в которой проработал так много лет.
6. Известно, что нормандские короли посылали
судей по всей стране с целью отправления
правосудия.
Exercise 3.
1/ common law a/ method of putting right
smth that is wrong
2/ Continental law b/ the statutory and case
law used in England and the
American colonies before the
American revolution
3/ doctrine of precedent c/ or order by the court
ordering the breaching party to
do that which he or she agreed
to do under the terms of the
contract
4/ equity d/ that which is just and
fair
5/ remedy e/ the practice of making
legal decisions by following
the decision made in a previous
similar case
6/ specific performance f/ a system in which legal
decisions are usually made by
applying detailed written laws
to the case in question
7/ public law g/ those areas of law
which involve citizens within a
country
8/ private law h/ those areas of law
which involve the state as one
of the parties to an action
Exercise 4
Render the following text in English:
ЕВРОПЕЙСКОЕ ПРАВО
Справка: Европейский союз (European Union) –

межгосударственное объединение, сочетающее в
себе черты международной организации и
федеративного государства; возник в 1993 году
на базе Европейских Сообществ (European
Communities). Договор о ЕС (the Treaty on European
Union), подписанный в 1992 году в Маастрихте
(Нидерланды) главами государств и правительств
12 государств-членов Европейских Сообществ,
вступил в силу 1 ноября 1993 г. Договор вводит
гражданство ЕС дополнительно к национальному
гражданству.
Европейское право – интенсивно
развивающийся разветвленный комплекс
международных и наднациональных правовых
норм, относящихся к различным областям права.
В широком смысле под Европейским правом
понимается правовое регулирование (legal
regulation) всей совокупности (total combination)
экономических, социальных, политических,
научных и культурных отношений в Европе, в этом
смысле оно является составной частью (a component/
an integral part of) международного права в целом.
В узком смысле – это право Европейских
сообществ, дополненное в определенной мере
правовым регулированием всего Европейского
Союза. Такое право уже во многом отошло от
международного и представляет собой особый
правовой феномен, соответствующий
конфедеративной (confederative) природе ЕС.
Европейское право регулирует публично-
правовые, экономические, финансовые, трудовые,
экологические отношения, защиту прав и свобод
на европейском континенте и многие другие
вопросы.
Итак, помимо двух основных источников права
Великобритании – законодательство и прецедент –
существует третий -правовые акты Европейского
Сообщества. Они делятся на две категории:
международно-правовые акты (первичное право):
учредительные договоры, договоры-соглашения и
протоколы. Когда Великобритания стала членом
Европейского Сообщества в 1972 году, она дала
согласие на автоматическое внесение поправок
(to be amended automatically) в свои
законодательные акты в соответствие с этими
договорами, например, 1986 года, о Едином
Европейском Рынке, и вышеупомянутый договор
1992 г.. Английские суды обязаны применять (to
apply the articles embodied in…) статьи,
включенные в них.
Вторичное право (delegated or secondary legislation) –
акты, принимаемые основными институтами и
другими органами ЕС. Европейский Совет и
Комиссия ЕС издают директивы, постановления,
рекомендации, заключения. Постановления
(regulations) и решения являются обязательными
(binding on smb.), то есть исполняемыми точно и во
всей полноте(in their entirety & directly applicable), для
стран-членов, а директивы требуют от
законодательного органа (law-making body)
страны внесения изменений в свете (in the light of)
содержащихся в ней решений. Это значит, что,
несмотря на их обязывающий характер, такому
органу предоставляется право выбора формы и
методов достижения указанного результата.
Рекомендации и мнения не имеют обязывающей
силы (binding force).
Различные договоры предусматривают четыре
экономические свободы:
свобода передвижения товаров, (free movement)
свободное передвижение людей, (persons)
свободное движение капитала и
свобода движения услуг.
Договора также обеспечивают право людей
на свободу от дискриминации на основании
национальной принадлежности. Говоря простыми
словами, граждане любой из стран ЕС имеют все
права, предоставляемые этими странами своим
гражданам.
Например, турист, подвергшийся нападению и
ограбленный во время пребывания во Франции,
подал прошение о предоставлении ему
компенсации из-за ущерба, причиненного
преступлением (criminal injuries compensation). В
отличие от некоторых других стран, во Франции
жертве преступления может быть присуждена
денежная компенсация (to be awarded damages)
решением уголовного суда, поэтому в
соответствие со статьей одного из учредительных
договоров ЕС, он также имел право на эту
компенсацию.
Exercise 5
Read the text and be ready to discuss it.
Saudi Arabian justice
Cruel, or just unusual?
A look at Saudi Arabia's Islamic laws and the judges
who apply those laws
NEXT to Afghanistan, no country imposes tougher Islamic
laws than Saudi Arabia. The resort to beheading, hand-chopping and
whipping fuels tabloid gore and human-rights outrage. Yet, cruel as
the system often is, the deeper trouble may lie less with the letter of
the law than with the obtuse, opaque and clumsy ways it is applied.
Inefficiency, not excess, is what is now prompting belated efforts at
reform.
Most Saudis take pride in their legal system, or at least in the
fact that it can claim to be purely Islamic. The kingdom is the only
state to hold the Koran as its constitution, and the only one where
judges are trained solely in the sharia or Islamic jurisprudence.
These traditions, along with the 25O-year-old alliance between the
ruling al-Saud family and the arch-fundamentalist Wahabi sect,
form the core of the Saudi sense of identity.
This is why Saudis tend to bristle at western criticism of their
laws. Alarm over the recent sentencing of four Britons to be flogged
for dealing in alcohol moved the head of the kingdom's Supreme
Court, Sheikh Saleh al-Luhaidan, to accuse critics of trying to
"undermine Islam".
Ordinary Saudis were appalled this winter, says a Riyadh
businessman, not by seeing three westerners confess on television to
a series of local bomb atrocities, but by the fact that they were not
executed immediately, "as any Saudi would have been". When
Crown Prince Abdullah, the kingdom's de facto ruler, recently
cancelled a trip to Canada after charges there that one of the alleged
bombers, a Canadian, had been tortured, his popularity soared at
home.
A senior official explains that foreigners suffer under a basic
misconception. "People confuse our human-rights record with
government policy, but our laws were not instituted by the
government," he says. "They were already here."
Yet it is not only infidels who complain. Even the ultra-timid
Saudi press voices protest at muddled, shabby and hasty court
procedure, and at the small number of judges who must handle an
increasingly varied load — fewer than 700 for a country with 23m
inhabitants.
In private, Saudis familiar with the courts offer sharper
critiques. The main complaint is that judges, who have wide
discretion in interpreting the sharia, are ignorant, and often
contemptuous, of the modern world, issuing; restrictive fatwas to
preserve Saudi "purity". Recent examples include edicts banning the
children’s game Pokemon, telephones that play recorded music on
hold, and the habit of sending flowers to hospital patients.
Such reactionary preoccupations may be understandable,
considering that, by one estimate, 80% of the kingdom's judges
come from the Oasim, a region in the deep centre of the country that
is a wellhead of Wahabi extremism. Senior judges will admit only
like-minded graduates of select religious institutes into what is in
effect a priestly fraternity. One lawyer reckons that even a Oasimi
jurist may be barred entry if he happens to have trained at Mecca, a
place considered tainted by foreign influence. A judge who strays
from the rigid conservatism of his elders risks being fired.
The narrow doctrinal outlook of Saudi judges explains the
survival of legal tenets that most Muslims consider outmoded or
misguided. Virtually nowhere else are women banned from driving
cars, or obliged to secure a male guardian's permission to travel
locally or be admitted to hospital. Nowhere else are the qisas, or
retaliatory punishments allowed under Islam, applied with such
punctilio: last August, an Egyptian worker's eye was surgically
removed at the insistence of a man who lost the use of his own eye
after the Egyptian had thrown acid in his face.
The Economist June 16 th 2001
Vocabulary to the text:
Whipping – порка (вид уголовного наказания)
Obtuse, opaque (way of doing smth) – глупый,
непонятный способ
Belated efforts at smth – запоздалые попытки
To bristle at smth – ceрдиться на что-то (свирепеть,
ощетиниваться)
To soar (ab. popularity) – стремительно расти,
повышаться
Muddled and shabby (court procedure) – беспорядочная,
запутанная и устаревшая
A wellhead of smth – (перен.) источник, кладезь
чего-то
To be barred entry –получают отказ в…
To be tainted by smth – б. испорченным,
зараженным
Legal tenets – юридические нормы, принципы
To secure a permission – добиться разрешения
Retaliatory punishments – примененные в порядке
репрессалии (меры возмездия)
Answer the questions:
i. 1. What prompts efforts at reforming the legal system
of Saudi Arabia?
ii. 2. What forms the Saudi sense of identity?
iii. 3. What is the foreigners’ “basic misconception”?
iv. 4. What does the press criticize?
v. 5. What critiques do other Saudis offer?
vi. 6. What accounts for the “survival of legal tenets”?
Give some examples of them.
vii. 7. What are the key factors shaping the legal system
of Saudi Arabia?
viii. 8. Are these factors as important in your
country?
Over to you
Gerard Groce is French and lives in eastern France. He is a
qualified motor mechanic having studied at a local college and
gained his CAP and BP in motor vehicle technology. Gerard’s
mother is English and he speaks English well. He works for a large
Peugeot garage. He decides to apply for the position of a senior
mechanic at a large Peugeot garage in London. He receives a letter
from the manager of the English company which owns the garage
stating that it is company policy only to employ English staff and
that local job centre has issued a directive that local firms should not
consider nationals from other European Union countries. It goes on
to say that the company might be willing to employ him at a non-
skilled rate of pay.Will Gerard win the case if he takes it to an
industrial tribunal?
Portion 3
Exercise 1.
p. 21 private law (частное право), civil law, public
law, a binding agreement (обязывающее, имеющее
обязательную силу), a tort (деликт), to commit a
wrong, to administer property for smb’s benefit
(управлять имуществом), probate (утверждение
завещания), to harm the well-being of society,
inheritance, unjust enrichment (неосновательное
обогащение), the law of persons, a legal remedy (ср-
во правовой, судебной защиты);
p. 22 the legal costs of the prosecution (издержки уг.-
суд. преследования), to pursue a claim (вести дело),
to award damages, to execute, to prove the guilt, to
weigh the evidence, careless driving, to be liable,
damages;
p. 23 a point of contact, to comply with
(соответствовать чему-то), to disobey the court, to
avoid civil liability, to challenge government decisions.
Mind the terms:
A defendant -ответчик, a plaintiff – истец,
prosecution -судебное\уголовное преследование,
обвинение (как сторона в уголовном
процессе)
Comprehension check
A.
i. 1. What does civil law concern? What does public
law concern?
ii. 2. What are the 4 main categories of English civil
law? The 3 main categories of public law?
iii. 3. What do codified systems use to regulate these
areas of relations?
iv. 4. What differences exist between civil and criminal
procedures? (Courts, parties involved, actions are started
by…, standards of proof, types of punishment.)
v. 5. Why will a criminal case be described as “The
people” or “Regina” versus a defendant?
vi. 6. Will the guilty defendant in a criminal case be
automatically found liable in a civil action about the
same matter?
vii. 7. Will the acquitted defendant of a criminal case be
automatically regarded as winner of a civil case about
the same matter?
viii. 8. Can you give other examples of people being
mistreated by the police? Did it result in a civil action?
B.
Complete the following text contrasting criminal and civil law
by choosing from the following words / phrases :
compensation contract crime damages family law
intellectual property plaintiff police private individual
prosecution the accused the defendant theft to
bring a case to bring an action to fine to charge smb.
with smth.
Criminal Law vs Civil Law
One category is the criminal law - the law dealing with
________. A case is called a ________ . The case is instituted by
the prosecutor, who takes over the case from the ____________
who have already decided ________ the defendant (or ________ )
with specified crimes. The civil law is much more wide-ranging.
The civil law includes the law of ___________ and ________
________
In a civil case, the ________ , normally a ________ ________

or company, ________ ________ ________ to win ________ . If
the case is proven (on the balance of probabilities, meaning that one
is more sure than not), the defendant normally pays the plaintiff
________ (money).
Exercise 2.
I.
claim for damages - иск о возмещении убытков
claim for relief - требование о защите прав
to admit a claim - признавать претензию
to deny / to disallow a claim - отказывать в иске
to pay a claim - удовлетворять иск (об ответчике)
to establish a claim - обосновать исковые
требования
to settle a claim - урегулировать претензию
to pursue a claim - вести дело
1. Поскольку действия ответчика были
признаны приносящими вред благополучию истца,
иск был удовлетворен. 2. Истцу удалось
обосновать исковые требования и его претензия
была урегулирована. 3. Поскольку вторая сторона
по договору уклонилась от своих договорных
обязательств, он подал иск о возмещении
убытков, который был признан. 4. Ему отказали в
иске, т.к. он не смог обосновать исковые
требования. 5. Жертва преступления вела дело по
гражданскому, а не уголовному иску, и сторонам
удалось урегулировать претензию.
II.
p. 22 “... a victim of a crime may be awarded damages by a
criminal court judge.”
damages (pl) - money claimed from or paid by a person
causing loss or injury (Eg. He claimed $5000 damages
from his employers for the loss of his right arm while
at work.) - возмещение убытков, убытки (в
значении “возмещение убытков”)
damage - (U) harm or injury that causes loss of value (Eg. The
insurance company will pay for the damage to my car.) -
ущерб, убыток, вред
Translate into English.
1. Авария, вызванная неосторожным
вождением, нанесла большой ущерб
собственности истца. 2. Машине был нанесен
большой ущерб? Заплатит ли страховая компания
за ущерб, причиненный машине? Сколько он
потребовал в качестве возмещения убытков? 3.
Насколько я знаю, ущерб причиненный ураганом,
был незначительным. Я не думаю, что он
потребует большое возмещение убытков. 4.
Статья, опубликованная в этой газете, содержит
информацию, порочащую его репутацию.
Несомненно, он потребует компенсацию убытков
за моральный ущерб.
III.
p. 22 “... the loser risks not only financial penalties but also
being sent to prison.” Pay attention to the absence of the article in
the following expressions:
- to go, be sent, be sentenced to prison,
- to spend time in prison,
- to be released from prison,
- to break out of, escape from prison.
1. После того как он отбыл тюремное
заключение за неосторожное вождение, ему было
трудно найти работу в качестве водителя. 2.
Заключенным удается сбежать даже из тюрем со
строгим режимом охраны. 3. Зря он пытался
сбежать из тюрьмы, его все равно скоро бы
отпустили, а теперь его приговорят к новому
сроку тюремного заключения. 4. Насколько я
знаю, еще никогда никому не удавалось сбежать
из этой тюрьмы, хотя за годы ее существования в
ней отбыли срок несколько сотен заключенных.
IV.
p. 22 “But in a civil case, the court will weigh all the evidence
and decide what is most probable.”
In English the nouns evidence, information, knowledge,
advice, progress, news are uncountable and are only used in the
singular, whereas in Russian they can be used in the singular and in
the plural.
1. Чтобы доказать вину подсудимого,
необходимо было предоставить суду и взвесить
все доказательства. 2. Знания, полученные им в
процессе изучения гражданского права,
несомненно полезны в его настоящей работе. 3. В
данном деле много данных, указывающих на
неосновательное обогащение. 4. Советы его
адвоката всегда были очень полезны, поэтому он
и сейчас решил обратиться к нему за советом о
том, как избежать гражданской ответственности.
5. Новости о том, что он не смог управлять
собственностью в интересах своих же детей,
шокируют, их надо проверить.
Еxercise 3.
1/ damages a/ a person against whom
a legal action is brought
2/ contract b/ anything that gives
reason for believing smth., that
makes clear or proves smth.
3/ tort c/ the monetary loss
suffered by a party as a result
of a wrong
4/ trust d/ offence for which there
is severe punishment by law, a
wrong against society
5/ probate e/ a wrong against an
individual
6/ crime f/ a right to payment
7/ prosecution g/ a right of ownership to
property held by one person for
the benefit of another
8/ plaintiff h/ in a criminal action,
the party by whom criminal
proceedings are started or
conducted, the state
9/ claim i/ arrangements for
dealing with property after the
owner’ death
10/ evidence j/ a person who brings a
legal action against another
11/ defendant k/ any agreement that is
enforceable in a court of law
Exercise 4
Существует множество точек
соприкосновения между уголовным и
гражданским правом. Если сторона, проигравшая
гражданское дело, отказывается исполнить
приказ суда, например, о выплате компенсации
другой стороне, то в большинстве стран для
принуждения ее к подчинению может
использоваться уголовное преследование.
Неподчинение любому суду может
расцениватся как преступное поведение, поэтому
такому ответчику, возможно, придется
выплачивать и саму компенсацию, и штраф.
Ответчик по уголовному иску, признанный
виновным, не будет автоматически признан
таковым и по гражданскому иску по тому же делу.
Однако, его шансы избежать гражданской
ответственности невелики. Причина этого в том,
что стандарт доказательства в гражданском деле
ниже, чем этого требует решение по уголовному
делу. А истец, безусловно, позаботится о том,
чтобы в гражданский суд была передана вся
информация о соответствующем уголовном деле.
Еxercise 5
Read the text “Civil proceedings” for 7 minutes and give the
annotation of it in Russian. Answer the questions after the text.
CIVIL PROCEEDINGS
An action in a magistrates’ court is begun by a complaint on

which the court may serve the defendant with a summons. This
contains details of the complaint and the date on which it will be
heard. Parties and witnesses dive their evidence at the court hearing.
Domestic proceedins are normally heard by not more than three lay
justices including, where practicable, a woman; members of the
public are not allowed to be present. The court may order provision
for custody, access or supervision of children, as well as
maintenancepayments for spouses and children.
Judgements in civil cases are enforceable through the authority
of the court. Most are for sums of money and may be enforced, in
cases of default, by seizure of the debtor’s goods or by a court order
requiring an employer to make periodic payments to the court by
deduction from the debtor’s wages. Other judgements can take the
form of an injunction restraining someone from performing an
illegal act. Refusal to obey a judgement may result in imprisonment
for contempt of court. Arrest under an order of committal may be
effected only on a warrant.
Normally the court orders the costs of an action to be paid by
the parties losing it, but, in the case of family law maintenance
proceedings, a magistrates’ court can order either party to pay the
whole or part of the other’s costs.
In Scotland proceedings if the Court of Session or ordinary
actions in the sheriff court are initiated by serving the defender with
a summons (an initial writ in the sheriff court). In Court of Session
actions the next step is the publication of the action in the court lists.
A defender who intends to contest the action must inform the court;
if he or she does not appear, the court grants a decree in absence in
favour of the pursuer. In ordinary actions in the sheriff court the
defender is simply required to give a written notice of intention to
defend within a certain number of days after service of the initial
writ, and this is followed by a formal appearance in court by the
parties to the dispute or their solicitors.
In summary cases (involving small sums) in the sheriff court
the procedure is less formal. The statement of claim is incorporated
in the summons. The procedure is designed to enable most actions
to be carried through without the parties involved having to appear
in court. Normally they (or their representatives) need appear only
when an action is defended. A new small claims procedure is about
to be introduced.
Proceedings in Northern Ireland are similar to those in
England and Wales. County court proceedings are commenced by a
civil bill served on the defendant; there are no pleadings in the
county court. Judgements of civil courts are enforceable through a
centralised procedure administered by the Enforcement of
Judgements Office.
domestic proceedings – местные дела

lay justices – назначенные юристы
default – невыполнение денежных обязательств
seizure of the debtor’s goods – арест имущества
должника
by deduction from the debtor’s wages – путем
вычета\удержания из зарплаты должника
contempt of court – неуважение к суду
to contest an action – оспаривать иск
the pursuer - истец
service of the initial writ – подача повестки
pleadings – судебные прения
the Enforcement of Judgments Office – принудительный
аппарат судопроизводства
1. 1) Who initiates ordinary actions in this
country?
2. 2) Who hears domestic proceedings?
3. 3) Is the presence of a defendant obligatory at
every hearing?
4. 4) How are judgements enforced?
5. 5) Is the procedure different when small sums
are involved?
Portion 4
Exercise 1.
p. 25 to abolish a law (отменять закон), a hierarchy
of courts, a juvenile court (по делам
несовершеннолетних), to appeal to a higher court
for reassessment, a supreme lawmaking body, to
suspect smb. of smth., to charge smb. with smth.;
p. 26 to release smb., to remain in custody (остав.под
стражей), to hold smb. in custody, to grant (а) bail
(удовлетворить ходатайство о передаче на
поруки), to put up money as security, to surrender
one’s passport, to be empowered to do smth., to hear
a case, a minor case, a parking violation, an offence,
to select smb. at random, to give expenses, to be on
jury service, a question of law, a question of fact, to
be compulsory, a solicitor (солиситор, адвокат), to
be on trial , to conduct a trial, to summarize the evidence;
p. 28 to bribe smb., to stand trial, to appeal against the finding
or the punishment, a hereditary peer, a bishop, a law lord, to
overturn a decision;
p. 29 to have authority to do smth., to grant a divorce, an
industrial tribunal, to suffer sexual abuse
Mind the terms:
an appellant – апеллянт, податель апелляции
(un)conditional) bail – поручительство, залог
Comprehension check
A.
a. 1) What are the functions of courts?
b. 2) Name 2 reasons for having a variety of courts.
c. 3) How do English courts relate to one another?
d. 4) How is a suspect dealt with since the moment of
the arrest? (arrest, charge, unconditional bail or custody
(Where?), or conditional bail, trial)
e. 5) What are the advantages and disadvantages of
having one’s case heard in a Crown Court?
f. 6) Who does a jury consist of? Is the job well-paid? Is
it voluntary?
g. 7) A judge’s responsibility is to…
h. 8) What is the difference between questions of fact
and questions of law?
i. 9) How does jury service vary from country to
country?
j. 10) Trace the way of an appeal from the lowest court to
the top of the hierarchy.
k. 11) What does the defence usually appeal for? And the
prosecution?
l. 12) Which courts hear cases involving large amounts
of money?
m. 13) When are proceedings closed to the public?
B.
Every jurisdiction organises the administration of justice in
different ways. In England, the basic division between criminal and
civil law is reflected in the court system. Complete the description
that refers to each court.
1 Claims of lesser value will start in a __________. There are
250 of these around the country. They can also deal with divorce
and bankruptcy matters.
2 Matters of important legal dispute arising in the Crown
Court may be appealed to the __________ .
3 From the Court of Appeal, there can be an appeal to the
__________ on fact or law, but usually appeal is only allowed on
matters of legal importance.
4 If the case involves a serious crime, it is heard in the
__________ (there is only one _________ but it has about 70
centres around the jurisdiction).
5 In less serious criminal cases (which comprise over 90% of
criminal cases), the case is sent for trial in one of over 400
____________________ .
6 More substantial civil claims (over around $25,000) are
heard in the __________ .
7 The ____________ was set up under the Treaty of Rome of
1957, by which the European Community was established. The
court can overrule all other courts on matters of Community law.
8 Under the system of appeals in civil cases, it is possible to
appeal from a County Court or the High Court to the __________ .
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 25 “... a person ... can appeal to a higher court for
reassessment (although the right of appeal usually depends upon the
appellant being able to show certain reasons for dissatisfaction).”
“... the Magistrates Courts, while mostly concerned with
criminal cases, also deal with some civil matters.”
Concession in English can be expressed in a number of ways.
Among them:
- Although / Even though / Though (informal) + clause;
- While / Whereas / but / on the other hand / yet + clause
(but / yet always come between the two clauses).
1. Хотя он не был удовлетворен решением
суда, он решил не подавать апелляцию в
вышестоящий суд. 2. В то время как он
великолепно разбирался в системе иерархии
судов ряда стран, он ничего не знал о судебной
системе своей страны. 3. Хотя отправление
функций присяжного заседателя является
обязательным, он все же надеялся найти какую-
нибудь лазейку, чтобы избежать этой
гражданской обязанности. 4. Любой гражданин
имеет право присутствовать на слушаниях в суде,
хотя он и не имеет права выступать в суде. 5. Хотя
теперь у него было гораздо больше полномочий,
все же у него нет права принимать ряд важных
решений самостоятельно.
II.
p. 25 “Having arrested someone suspected of committing a
crime, the police must decide if they have enough evidence to make
a formal accusation, or charge.”
Study the forms of Participle I and the way they are rendered
in Russian.
1/ He listened to the radio, 1/ Он слушал
sitting in an armchair. радио, сидя в кресле.
2/ Coming home he went 2/ Придя домой, он
to the kitchen at once. сразу же пошел на
кухню.
3/ He went away saying 3/ Он уехал, сказав
good-by. до свиданья.
4/ She gave me the photo 4/ Она дала мне
showing her in her hayday. фотографию,
изображавшую ее в
лучшие годы.
5/ A crowd watched the 5/ Толпа
defendant being interrogated. наблюдала, как
допрашивали
обвиняемого.
6/ Having released him on 6/ Отпустив его
bail, the police contacted his под залог, полиция
relatives. связалась с его
родственниками.
7/ Having been released 7/ После того как
on bail, he went straight home. его отпустили под
залог, он сразу же
пошел домой.

1. Обсуждая этот случай, присяжные
заседатели долго не могли прийти к единому
мнению. 2. Обратившись в вышестоящий суд с
целью пересмотра дела, он решил еще раз
проконсультироваться у своего адвоката. 3. Она
показала мне схему, изображающую систему
судов в Великобритании. 5. Выдвинув против
подозреваемого официальное обвинение, полиция
отпустила его под залог. 6. Попытавшись еще раз
дать взятку чиновнику, он решил прибегнуть к
другому способу добиться своего. 7. После того
как он предстал перед судом, он не мог найти
работу, хотя и был признан невиновным.
III
p. 26 “And there are some offences where the defendant is
given the choice of having his case heard in the Magistrates Court
or the Crown Court. It takes much longer to have a case heard in the
Crown Court.”
p. 31 “... They must have a barrister argue their client’s case.”
The causative verbs to have, to get are used to indicate that
one person causes a second person to do something for the first
person. The clause following to have, to get may be active or
passive. Study the following rules:
1/ Subject + have (any tense) + complement (usually a person)
+ Bare Infinitive
2/ Subject + get (any tense) + complement (usually a person) +
to-Infinitive
3/ Subject + have / get + complement (usually a thing) + Past
Participle
Translate into English using these constructions.
1. Барристер подготовил ему все необходимые
для суда документы. 2. Он знал, что, если его
дело будут слушать в Суде короны, то на это
уйдет больше времени, но тогда его дело будут
слушать присяжные заседатели. 3. После того как
его осудили, по его просьбе отец связался с его
бывшими коллегами. 4. Выполнив обязанности
присяжного заседателя, ему компенсировали его
транспортные расходы. 5. Он предпочел нанять
адвоката, чтобы тот представлял его в ходе
судебной тяжбы. 6. Она попросила однокурсника
связаться с преподавателем и получить
материалы о высшем законодательном органе
Франции.
IV.
to put smb. on trial, to bring smb. to trial -
предать суду
to face trial, to go to trial, to stand trial, to be on
trial - предстать перед судом
to hold a trial, to conduct a trial - вести судебный
процесс
public trial - открытый судебный процесс
1. Если человек предстает перед судом за
убийство, судья объясняет присяжным
заседателям положения закона об этом виде
преступления. 2. Судья ведет судебный процесс,
рассматривает все доказательства и объясняет
присяжным заседателям, что они должны принять
во внимание при вынесении вердикта. 3. Чаще
всего судебные процессы являются открытыми, но
иногда в интересах соблюдения тайны или в
интересах свидетелей или присяжных, их
объявляют закрытыми. 4. Какие улики удалось
собрать против человека, который завтра
предстанет перед судом? 5. После того как он
совершил ряд преступлений, его предали суду.
V.
p. 26 “ ... whether the defendant did in fact commit murder or
not is a question of fact...”
We can use whether when we want to indicate that smth. is
possible, but that other things are also possible. Whether (not if) can
usually be followed directly by or not. ( I didn’t know if Tom was
coming or not, BUT: I didn’t know whether or not Tom was coming
(or ... whether Tom was coming or not)). Pay attention to the way
English clauses introduced by the conjunction whether are
translated into Russian:
Economists disagree on whether or not unions have
significantly effected workers’ wages. - Экономисты
расходятся во мнениях по поводу того, оказали ли
профсоюзы значительное влияние на размер
заработной платы. (бессоюзное придаточное,
начинающееся со сказуемого с частицей “ли”).
1. Студент не знал, имеют или нет
магистерские суды право рассматривать
гражданские дела. 2. Присяжные так и не смогли
прийти к единогласному решению о том, брал или
нет обвиняемый взятки. 3. Разведут их или нет на
этом заседании суда, зависело от ряда
обстоятельств. 4. Он не был уверен, отменит или
нет правительство решение Палаты лордов. 5. Его
решение подавать или нет апелляцию по поводу
решения суда в вышестоящий суд будет зависеть
от результатов его разговора с адвокатом.
VI.
p. 28 “... it is only the law lords and certain other government -
appointed officials who hear cases.”
We use emphatic structures when we wish to emphasise a
particular part of a sentence in spoken or written English. Among
other emphatic structures we can use
it is / was (not) + subject / object + that or who(m ). If the
object is a person we use that, who or whom, otherwise that is the
correct form.
e.g. It was the judge who read the verdict.
It’s me that / who announced the news to you.
1. Он обратился с иском именно в Суд короны,
чтобы его дело рассматривали присяжные
заседатели. 2. Присяжные заседатели решают
именно вопросы факта, а не вопросы права. 3.
Именно его адвокату пришла в голову мысль
обжаловать решение суда. 4. Именно
правительство может отменить решение Палаты
лордов. 5. Именно полиция может отпустить
подозреваемого под залог после предъявления
ему обвинения.
Еxercise 3.
1/ appeal a/ money or property that
is left with the court to assure
that the person will return to
stand trial
2/ appellant b/ anything that gives
reason for believing smth, that
makes clear or proves smth
3/ charge c/ the duty to attend court
for a limited period of time and
without payment as a member
of Jury
4/ suspect d/ a request to a higher
court to review the decision of
a lower court
5/ bail e/ accusation; statement
that a person has done wrong,
esp. that he has broken a law
6/ jury f/ a party bringing an
appeal
7/ jury service g/ a group of people
selected according to law and
sworn to determine the facts in
a case
8/ evidence h/ person suspected of
wrongdoing, disloyalty, etc.
Exercise 4
Assignment A
Read the note:
THE COURT SYSTEM OF THE USA
The American court system is complex. It functions as part of

the federal system of government. Each state runs its own court
system, and no two are identical. In addition, they have a system of
courts for the national government. These federal courts coexist
with the state courts.
Individuals fall under the jurisdiction of two different court
systems, their state courts and federal courts. They can sue and be
sued in either system, depending mostly on what their case is about.
The vast majority of cases are resolved in the state courts.
The federal courts are organized in three tiers, like a pyramid.
At the bottom of the pyramid are the US district courts, where
litigation begins. In the middle are the US courts of appeals. At the
top is the US Supreme Court. It is an appellate court, with few
exceptions it reviews cases that have been decided in lower courts.
The judges in federal courts are known as generalists.
Assignment B
Самый распространенный тип судов в Англии
и Уэльсе – магистратский или мировой суд.
Насчитывается около 700 таких судов и около
30000 мировых судей. Дела по более тяжким
уголовным преступлениям передаются в Суд
Короны, а гражданские дела (по разводу, о
банкротстве) рассматриваются в судах графств.
Апелляции разбираются в судах более высокой
инстанции. Например, апелляции из мировых
судов рассматриваются в Суде Короны, при
условии, (unless) что они подаются не по вопросам
права. Высшим апелляционным судом Англии и
Уэльса является Палата Лордов (Шотландия имеет
собственный Высший Суд (High Court) в Эдинбурге,
который рассматривает все апелляции,
поступающие из шотландсих (Scottish) судов.)
Некоторые дела могут быть переданы (referred)
в Суд Европейских Сообществ (European Court of
Justice)в Люксембурге. Кроме того, Британское
Правительство было вынуждено изменить свою
политику (practices)в ряде областей в результате
петиций, поданных отдельными лицами в
Европейский суд по правам человека (European Court
of Human Rights).
Правовая система включает в себя и суды по
делам несовершеннолетних (лиц, не достигших
возраста 17 лет), и коронерские суды (coroners’ courts
- проводящие расследования случаев
насильственной (violent), внезапной или
неестественной смерти.) Существуют также и
органы административной юстиции (administrative
tribunals), выносящие быстрые, справедливые
решения, не требуя при этом больших финансовых
затрат и формальностей. Трибуналы
рассматривают дела, связанные с
профессиональными нормами (professional standards),
спорами между частными лицами и тяжбы между
отдельными лицами и правительственными
ведомствами (departments).
Exercise 5
Role play:
Jane Mildred is arrested for shoplifting. She is an unemployed
single mother of Judy, 5 and Mike, 7. She does not have to speak in
her defence. “Everyone is innocent unless proved guilty”.
You are free to invent any information.
Role 1 You are the policemen who arrested Jane Mildred. You
are to read details from a small black notebook that you always
carry with you. You tell the court when & why you arrested her and
what you said to each other.
Role 2: You are Jane Mildred’s solicitor. You “cross-
examine” the policemen. Prepare the arguments in favour of your
client.
Role 3 You are the Magistrate who asks questions and speaks
for all the three of them. Ask the questions and be ready to tell Jane
the verdict of the jury.
Roles 4,5,6 etc… You are members of the jury. You are free
to express your opinion on Jane’s case and choose the adequate
punishment (if you decide it is necessary).
Suggested types of punishment: prison (not more than 6
months), probation, suspended sentence, community service, fine
Portion 5
Exercise 1.
p. 31 to gain professional experience, to argue a case
(обсуждать дело), to do the initial preparation for a
case, to handle legal work, to draw up a will
(составлять,оформлять), to deal with litigation, to
settle litigation out of court, to make an investigation,
range of work, consumer affairs, a traffic accident dispute;
p. 32 tend to do smth., to restrict oneself to
smth., to work on a highly specific area of law, to
advise smb. on smth., libel (клевета письменно или
через печать), a transaction, a secure life, welfare
rights, a fee-paying client, a citizens’ rights group, human
rights, to have access to smth., in an emergency, to pay for smth. out
of one’s own pocket, to enjoy a high level of trust;
p. 33 to take a preparatory course, to memorize smth., an
articled clerk, to supervise smb’s work, a pupil, to sue smb.
(предъявить иск против кого-то), to set rules for
accounting procedures, to suspend a solicitor, to
disqualify / to strike off a solicitor, to be impartial,
privileged conversations (защищенные привилегией
отююю), to pose a problem;
p. 34 to point out weaknesses, to contradict, legalese, a
laceration, a contusion, a bruise, metalanguage, a wig;
p. 35 painstaking, to cover every eventuality, to look for a
legal loophole, to avoid a legal duty, to make use of an ambiguity or
an omission in law, consequently, to draw up a law,
valid (юридически действительный);
p. 36 a testator (завещатель), in smb’s presence,
to give effect to the will, to acknowledge a signature
(признать подлинность), to attest a will
(заверить,подтвердить)
Mind the terms:
an attorney –aтторней, адвокат, прокурор; a
barrister –барристер(англ.- адвокат, имеющ.
право выступать в высших судах), the right of
audience - право выступать в суде; replevin –
виндикационный иск; cy-pres – “близко к этому”
(настолько близко к желанию учредителя,
наск. возможно), nuisance – ньюснс (нарушение
покоя, вред;negligence – небрежность; consideration
– встречное удовлетворение
Comprehension Check
A.
a. 1) What person can be referred to as a lawyer?
b. 2) What groups of lawyers are distinquished in Japan?
In England?
c. 3) Who employs barristers and pay them?
d. 4) Who can become a judge?
e. 5) What are solicitors occupied with? Do they have
the right of audience?
f. 6) Do you think the division between barristers and
solicitors should be removed?
g. 7) Lawyers now tend to become more specialized.
What does it mean? What other aspects of the legal
profession vary?
h. 8) Who subsidizes the Legal Aid Board?
i. 9) Is a degree necessary to enter the profession in
Britain?
j. 10) Can a person without a degree at all take the Final
examinations?
k. 11) What do you become after passing the Law Society
Final exam? The Bar Final Exam?
l. 12) What must an articled clerk do to qualify?
m. 13) What are insurance provisions for?
n. 14) Why may not barristers be sued?
o. 15) What ethical problems may a lawyer face?
p. 16) Why is legalese likely to survive for a long time to
come? Give 3 reasons.
B.
Every legal system needs professionals to provide legal
services. These systems are organized in many different ways. In
England this work is carried out by two groups of professionals -
solicitors and barristers.
Below is a list of tasks carried out by solicitors and barristers.
Classify them into the appropriate column.
advising clients on general legal issues
advising clients on specialist legal issues
advising on litigation
advising on tax matters
advocacy in all courts
advocacy in the lower courts
commercial work
conveyancing of houses
dealing with commercial transactions
drafting of documents in connection with litigation
making wills
preparing cases
share and other property dealings
Solicitors Barristers
Advocacy in the lower Advocacy in all courts

courts
C.
Comment on the following saying:
'A solicitor is a man who calls in a person he doesn't know to
sign a contract he hasn't seen to buy property he doesn't want with
money he hasn't got.' Attributed to: Dingwall Bateson (1898 -
1967), British lawyer
D.
Legal training
The legal training for solicitors (who provide general legal
advice to clients) and barristers (who present cases in the upper
courts) is different. The following short texts describe the stages in
legal training, but they are mixed up. Put the steps into the correct
category and order.
1 PRACTICE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION
The next stage is to obtain a 'tenancy': becoming an assistant
to a practising barrister.
2 GETTING THE QUALIFICATIONS
The next step is to acquire some legal training specific to the
work of a barrister.
3 DEVELOPING PRACTICAL SKILLS
Next the intending solicitor has to enter a two-year training
contract with a firm of solicitors to gain practical experience in a
variety of areas of law.
4 GETTING THE TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE:
PUPILLAGE
This is the 'apprenticeship' served by trainee barristers, who
are known as pupils. It usually takes a year and consists of a mixture
of assisting and observing experienced barristers, as well as more
practical experience.
5 GETTING THE ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS
The quickest and most common route to qualification is by
means of a qualifying law degree.
6 GETTING THE VOCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
You will have to undertake the Legal Practice Course, which
is the professional training for solicitors. The course teaches the
practical application of the law to the needs of clients.
7 GETTING THE ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS

The first part of training to become a barrister is known as the
academic stage, which provides a general theoretical introduction to
the law.
Tr Training for barristers
aining
for
solicitor
s
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 31 “Some may also prepare defences for clients accused of
crimes.”
to accuse smb. of smth. - to say that smb has done wrong,
broken the law, is to be blamed
the accused - the person(s) charged in a criminal case
accusation - charge of doing wrong, of having broken the law
to make an accusation against smb.
to charge smb with smth - to accuse, to bring a charge against
smb
1. Рассказав студентам о том, что является
преступлением, профессор начал рассказывать о
ситуациях, когда человека можно обвинить в
совершении преступления. 2. Если человека
обвиняют в не очень серьезном преступлении, в
каком суде рассматривается его дело в
Великобритании? 3. В чем его обвиняют? - В
предумышленном убийстве. Он убил своего
одноклассника, спланировав свои действия
заранее. 4. Обвиняемого ввели в зал суда в
сопровождении охраны. 5. Всех ли людей,
обвиняемых в совершении правонарушений,
арестовывает полиция?
II.
p. 32 “... business with fee - paying clients subsidizes the wotk
they agree to do for little or no payment ...”
fee ( C ) - charge or payment for professional advice or
services, e.g. private teachers, doctors, lawyers, surveyors
to charge a fee - взимать плату
to split fees (as of laywers, doctors) - делить
гонорар
a fat, large, considerable, nominal fee - большой,
условный гонорар
a fee for services - плата за услуги
for a fee ( for a nominal fee) - за плату (за
условную плату)
1. За консультацию у этого адвоката нужно
платить довольно дорого. 2. Вы случайно не
знаете, сколько он берет за свои услуги? - Нет, но
поскольку он профессионал высшего класса,
думаю, он берет значительный гонорар. 3.
Поскольку он не мог заплатить гонорар адвокатам
из своего собственного кармана, он обратился в
специальную правительственную организацию,
которая предоставила ему адвоката, не взимая за
это плату. 4. Вы можете получить консультацию у
этого специалиста, но только за плату, хотя и
чисто условную. 5. Поскольку они были
партнерами, то всегда делили гонорар,
полученный за услуги, предоставленные своим
клиентам.
III.
p.32 “Amnesty International research shows that more than 60
lawyers investigating cases against people accused of political
crimes were murdered in 1990.”
research (U, C) - (not usu with many or numerals)
investigation undertaken in order to discover new facts, get
additional information, etc.
to be engaged in research
to be busy with research work
to carry out (a) research / researches into the causes of the
desease
to do, conduct, pursue research
detailed, laborious, painstaiking, thorough, independent,
original research
animal, market, medical, scietific research
His reseaches have been successful.
1. Детальное исследования рынка
юридических услуг показало, что не все
желающие получить профессиональную помощь
могут обратиться к специалистам, т.к. не все
могут позволить заплатить гонорар за их услуги.
2. Он способный ученый. Все его исследования,
связанные с экономическими преступлениями,
были очень успешными. 3. Пытаясь понять
механизм мошеннических операций с ценными
бумагами, он провел тщательное исследование
рынка ценных бумаг. 4. По просьбе
правительственных организаций консалтинговая
компания занята исследованием объема
юридических услуг, предоставляемых клиентам,
которые не могут воспользоваться ими за плату. 5.
Независимое исследование развития рынка
профессиональных услуг показало, что
существуют огромные резервы для его
дальнейшего развития.
IV.
p. 32 “... lawyers are subject to standardised examination...”
Study the following examples:
- “... when goods are delivered subject to a condition...” -
когда товар доставляется в зависимости от
соблюдения условия...
- “... if the contract is subject to the condition to be
fulfilled by one of the parties...” - ... если договор
подпадает под действие какого-либо условия,
которое должно быть выполнено одной из
сторон...”
- “What is the subject of this contract? - Что является
предметом данного договора?
“... subject to the provisions of the above-mentioned
law, there’s no other law on the subject.” - за
исключением положений вышеупомянутого закона
не существует никакого другого закона по
данному предмету.
Translate into Russian.
1. A solicitor in England must spend two years as an articled
clerk, during which time his work is subject to close supervision by
an experienced lawyer. 2. Solicitors are subject to the accounting
procedures set by the Law Society. 3. This litigation is subject to
out-of- court settlement. 4. “Even Antarctica and outer space are
subject to several peices of legislation to prevent them becoming as
dirty and dangerous as the rest of the world.” 5. The common law
procedure was subject to some abuse by plaintiffs. 6. Under the
original codes, persons could be joined only if they each had “an
interest” in the subject of the action and the relief sought. 7. He is
not subject to the court’s jurisdiction.
V.
Prefixes are often used to give adjectives a negative meaning.
There is no easy way of knowing what prefix will be used to form
an opposite. Here are some general notes:
if a root begins with “m” or “p”, in- becomes im-; if it begins
with “r”, “l”, in- becomes ir-and il- respectively. Note other
prefixes: dis-, un-,which form the opposites of verbs too.
p.32…”a degree may be insufficient”…
p.34…”incomprehensible language”…
p.33…”disqualify a solicitor”…
p.35…”professional incompetence”…, “unambiguous laws”,
…”illegally removed”…etc.
Translate into English using the prefixes:
1. Ваши аргументы к делу не относятся. 2. Он
умеет мастерски опровергать любые, даже самые
очевидные доводы. 3. Вряд ли он сдаст этот
экзамен. 4. Подпись на завещании неразборчива.
5. Нам недвусмысленно дали понять, что этот
заговор раскрыт. 6. Он был подвергнут осуждению
за непристойное поведение в общественном
месте.7. Ваш паспорт недействителен. 8. Эта
политика привела к непредусмотренным
результатам. 9. Это неэтично! 10. Ее нельзя
назвать беспринципной, у нее есть свой “кодекс
чести”.
(undue, unequivocal, invalid, unethical, illegible,
unscrupulous/unprincipled, unlikely, disprove, irrelevant, unmask,
unintended)
VI.
p. 33 “... lawyers will tell you that the time they spent studying
for their law finals was one of the worst periods of their life!”
He is the best lawyer in the firm.
After superlatives we use in with places, organisations and
groups of people, but we normally use of for a period of time.
1. Он сказал, что это дело о клевете,
возможно, будет самое сложное в его
профессиональной карьере. 2. Руководство
компании только что установило новые правила,
которые, как полагают, будут самыми строгими в
отрасли. 3. На днях солиситер составил завещание
для своего клиента, который является самым
богатым человеком в их городе. 4. Хотя он и
работал в узко специализированной отрасли
права, он хорошо разбирался во многих законах,
но этот закон оказался самым сложным для
применения в его практике. 5. Хотя он всю жизнь
работал с клиентами, оплачивавшими его услуги,
именно дела, которые он вел для групп по защите
прав человека, казались ему самыми важными в
его жизни.
VII.
p. 33 “... some people fear that it may not be completely
impartial.”
After expressions of fear, such as to be afraid, to be terrified,
to be nervous, to be troubled, to be in terror, to fear, to tremble, to
have apprehension and others, we commonly find the Indicative
Mood in the object clause. Care should be taken to observe the rules
of the sequence of tenses.
I am afraid nothing has been done yet.
I was afraid she was going to strike him.
Occasionally we also find may + infinitive in object clauses
after expressions of fear. The rules of the sequence of tenses are also
observed in this case.
She’s afraid she may miss her only chance.
She was afraid she might miss her only chance.
1. Он боялся, что руководству придется
ограничить рост заработной платы, чтобы
остаться в бизнесе. 2. Он опасается, что новые,
только что установленные, правила
бухгалтерского учета повлияют на эффективность
его работы. 3. Он был в ужасе от того, что в
экстренном случае ему придется искать доступ к
услугам адвоката, а он не сможет их оплатить из
собственного кармана. 4. У нее было смутное
опасение, что он уже никогда не будет
пользоваться высоким уровнем доверия у своих
клиентов. 5. Боюсь, что даже несмотря на то, что
он прошел специальный подготовительный курс,
ему придется еще несколько лет учиться, прежде
чем он сможет стать солиситором.
VIII.
p. 33 “But members of the public do, of course, have the right
to sue their solicitor.”
The verb do can be used to emphasise the folloing verb. It is
translated into Russian by the words действительно,
фактически, на самом деле, все же.
The problems of national sovereignty do arise
whenever the multinationalsts operate. - И
действительно, проблемы национальной
независимости возникают повсюду, где действуют
многонациональные корпорации.
1. Действительно, у многих юристов жизнь
вполне обеспеченная. 2. Фактически ему
пришлось заплатить за услуги адвоката из своего
собственного кармана. 3. Хотя он высоко
квалифицированный юрист во многих отраслях
права, все же ему приходится работать в узко
специализированной отрасли права. 4. Несмотря
на двусмысленность многих доказательств,
дисциплинарный трибунал все же
дисквалифицировал обоих солиситеров. 5. Хотя
данное дело оказалось очень сложным, он все же
урегулировал эту тяжбу вне суда.
Exercise 3.
Match the terms with their definitions in each group of six:
1/ fee a/ someone who has
passed an examination to
become a solicitor but is
receiving training from another
solicitor so that he or she can
become qualified
2/ libel b/ public officer with
authority to hear and decide
cases in a law court
3/ articled clerk c/ something given or
given up on making a contract
4/ consideration d/ legal official who
prosecutes criminal cases on
behalf of the State or the public
5/ public prosecutor e/ charge or payment for
professional advice or services
6/ judge f/ defamation that is
communicated by a writing,
drawing, photograph,
television programme, or other
means that is directed toward
the sense of sight
7/ replevin g/ person with legal

authority to act for another in
business or law
8/ solicitor h/ the right to be heard in

court
9/ the right of audience i/ a lawyer whose main
job is to advise clients and
prepare cases before a court
hearing takes place
10/ attorney j/ the right to take goods
which were legally removed
11/ share k/ originally, a legal
instrument stating a person’s
wishes as to the disposition of
real property at death, but now
referring both to real and
personal property
12/ will l/ one of the equal parts
into which the capital of the
company is divided, entitling
the holder thereof to a
proportion of the profits
13/ barrister m/ as near as possible

14/ pupil n/ a lawyer who
specialises in arguing on behalf
of the defendant, the plaintiff,
or the prosecution, in court
15/ cy-pres doctrine o/ the principle that a
person has no right to property
acquired from a person who
didn’t legally own it
16/ nuisance p/ language of lawyers
17/ nemo dat q/ interference with
someone’s enjoyment of land
18/ legalese r/ someone who has
passed an examination to
become a barrister but is
receiving training so that he or
she can become qualified
Exercise 4.
Render the following text in English and discuss it.
В наши дни в Великобритании все чаще
применяется практика, когда после судебных
разбирательств по особо жестоким делам судьям,
присяжным и адвокатам предлагается
психологическая помощь.
Доказано, что все эти категории являются
потенциальными жертвами пост-травматического
стресса, симптомы которого могут появиться
спустя значительное время после события,
вызвавшего стресс. Если люди держат эмоции в
себе, то существует ряд путей проявления
стресса: это и депрессия, и алкоголизм, и
финансовые проблемы, и проблемы в семье.
Однако многие профессиональные юристы
предпочитают не говорить о своих проблемах,
боясь таким образом продемонстрировать свою
слабость.
Exercise 5
Assignment A
Read the note: (Большой юридический словарь
ред.Сухарева, Крутских 2000г. ИНФРА-М)
“Атторней – в англоязычных странах - 1)
доверенный представитель, оказывающий
юридические услуги какому-либо лицу или
компании. 2) государственное должностное лицо,
выполняющее функции обвинителя или
защитника.
Генеральный Атторней – в Великобритании,
США, Бразилии, Венесуэле и нек. других странах
одно из высших должностных лиц юстиции. В В.Б.
Г.а. – член кабинета министров, главный
юрисконсульт правительства, который ведет
судебные и другие юридические дела,
затрагивaющие интересы государства,
поддерживает в суде обвинение по делам,
имеющим особое политическое значение. В США –
глава департамента (министр) юстиции;
одновременно является главным юрисконсультом
федерального правительства. Должность Г.а. есть
и в некоторых штатах США.”
Assignment B
Ответственностью Министерства Юстиции (the
Justice Dept.) США является добросовестное
исполнение (faithful execution) законов на основании
указов президента. Административными
должностными лицами (administrators of law enforcement)
правоприменяющего органа являются 94
атторнея, назначаемых президентом по совету и с
согласия Сената (with the advice & consent…). В отличие
от федеральных судей эти назначенцы (appointees)
исполняют обязанности по усмотрению
президента (at the pleasure of…) и должны оставлять
свою должность (relinquish their positions) с переходом
власти в другие руки. В каждом федеральном
судебном округе (district) есть свой атторней.
Количество помощников атторнея зависит от
количества тяжб, возникающих в округе. Атторнеи
наделены широкими полномочиями
(дискреционным правом - discretion), что делает их
влиятельными политическими фигурами. От их
решения поддержать или не поддерживать
обвинение (to prosecute or not) зависит
благосостояние, свобода, права и репутация
отдельных лиц и судьба предприятий в округе.
Позиция атторнеев находится в центре внимания
СМИ и может использоваться для достижения
политических целей. В 1983 году президент
Рейган назначил Рудольфа Гильяни (Giuliani)
Атторнеем Южного Округа Нью Йорка
(включающего в себя большую часть
муниципальной территории (metropolitan area)) Через
5 лет на его “счету” были десятки успешно
проведенных судебных преследований
чиновников, судей, активных членов
организованных преступных группировок и . Его
деятельность вызывала самые положительные
отзывы прессы, его фотография была даже
помещена на обложке Ньюсуик (appeared on a cover…)!
Такое положение в обществе (public exposure) может
помочь атторнею начать успешную карьеру в
выборной должности. Перспектива встречи с
Гильяни в качестве обвинителя или оппонента
заставляла содрогнуться не одного политического
деятеля!
Assignment C.
Read the note:
Judges in England are independent, their salaries are fixed by
statute, they hold office for life. Judges of the High Court must
retire at 75, but they can only be removed by the Crown on
presenting an address to both Houses of Parliament. Judges are
appointed by the Queen, on advice from the Prime Minister. Puisne
(pju:ni) or the High Court Judges are also appointed by the Queen,
but on recommendation by the Lord Chancellor, as are circuit
Judges and recorders.
The Prime Minister appoints an Attorney – General and his
deputy, the Solicitor – General. The latter must be a barrister. Both
must be MPs. The Attorney General is Head of the English Bar and
must be told of certain offences. He acts for the Government.
The Home Secretary appoints a Director of Public
Prosecution, who must be a lawyer of 10 years standing. He
prosecutes very serious cases.
What senior and junior justice officials exist in this country?
Are they appointed or elected?
Exercise 6
Read the article about legalese and answer the questions after
it:
Tax for the simple man
Martin Cutts says the legal language that has gone heretofore
must go for ever more
When Edward VI grumbled "I would wish that the superfluous
and tedious statutes were made more plain and short, to the intent
that men might better understand them", he could not have foreseen
a delay of 450 years. Only in the past few months has the
Government responded, with the Chancellor's, announcement of a
five-year Inland Revenue effort to rewrite all 6,000 pages of tax law
in plain English. The price: £26 million. The aim: to cut compliance
costs for business and individuals, said to run at £4 billion a year.
It must not stop at tax; other government departments must get
cracking. Eventually, all law could become clearer to MPs, judges,
lawyers — and the rest of us who pay through taxes and legal fees
for the creation and interpretation of texts that very often we cannot
understand.
The Chancellor has responded to pressure. In 1992 the Law
Society called for laws to be "clearly drafted in plain English and
intelligible both to the lawyer and the layman". My book Lucid Law
showed how an Act could be clarified without loss of certainty,
cutting the number of words by a quarter and average sentence
length by a third — law students and lay people found the revised
version clearer and easier to use. Two independent groups of tax
experts have now followed suit by redrafting chunks of tax law.
And the Revenue itself has had to act after Tim Smith, MP, added
clauses to the 1995 Finance Bill requiring a rapid report on the
"scope for tax law simplification.
The idea of writing plain law has hitherto been scorned by the
Parliamentary Counsel's office, which considers that it already
produces the plainest words possible, given the tough constraints it
faces. On The Times law page on January 24 last year Francis
Bennion, a former parliamentary counsel, condemned Lucid Law,
saying that plain English could do little to make the law easier for
even lawyers to follow.
But a few months is a long time in statutory drafting, and it is
good that Mr Bennion and Sir Peter Graham (who retired as first
parliamentary counsel in 1994) have since served on Lord Howe of
Aberavon's Tax Law Review Committee which, in November,
advocated the plain English path. As Lord Howe said: "[We] have
proved beyond doubt that it is possible for tax legislation to be
drafted in a form the citizen ... can actually understand."
Making the law lucid will be a fearsome task for the 40-strong
Revenue team of lawyers, tax experts, typographers and plain-
language specialists who could be needed. They will be redrafting
some of the most turgid, intractable prose ever to be called English.
They should cleave to these simple ideas:
• make the purpose of the law clear at the outset;
• cut sentence length by using full stops within subsections;
• use more headings, helping readers to navigate better;
• reduce cross-references;
• consult widely and test drafts with potential readers.
Law prose will never be as popular as Catherine Cookson's
novels, but if it can become less delphic, we will all benefit. As
Lord Denning said: "It is better to be clear and brief than to go
drivelling on."
• The author is director of the Plain Language
Commission, an independent research firm. His paperback,
Plain English Guide, is published by Oxford (£4.99); Lucid
Law by the Plain Language Commission, 29 Stoneheads,
Whaley Bridge SK12 7BB (£10). The Inland Revenue's work
is summarised in The Path to Tax Simplification (HMSO, £7.95)
and The Path to Tax Simplification: a background paper (HMSO,
£11).
Heretofore – до этого, до сих пор

Superfluous – излишний, ненужный, обильный
Tedious – скучный, утомительный
Inland revenue – внутренние госдоходы,
внутренние бюджетные поступления
Delphic – туманный, непонятный
Lucid – ясный, понятный, легкий,
Turgid – напыщенный (о стиле)
Intractable – плохо поддающийся обработке,
неподатливый
А clause – статья, пункт, оговорка
To advocate a path – отстаивать, выступать в
защиту
To cleave to smth – оставаться верным
At the outset - вначале
Cross-reference – перекрестная ссылка
What prompted efforts at rewriting the texts of tax law?
What are the considerations for and against it? Who has
voiced them?
TALKING LEGALESE:
Translate into Plain English this passage of Typical Statute
English from the Timeshare Act, 1992:
The offeree’s giving, within the time allowed under this
section, notice of cancellation of the agreement to the offeror at a
time when the agreement has been entered into shall have the effect
of of cancelling the agreement.
*The Plain English alternative is given at the end of the
portion.
Exercise 7
Role-play
Thus, “making the law lucid is a fearsome task”, as it is time-
consuming and costly.
Role 1: You “scorn the idea of writing plain law” as the
process is cumbersome but useless for laymen and lawyers as well
for many reasons.
Role 2: You “advocate the plain law language path.” It will
benefit us all. Prove your point.
*The Plain English alternative:

An agreement is cancelled if the customer gives the seller
notice of cancellation within the time this section allows
Portion 6
Exercise 1.
p. 38 to supply smth., to draw up a contract, a
clause (статья, пункт, оговорка), a contractor
(контрагент, сторона в договоре), to rely on trust
and common sense, a supplier, to be in breach of
contract;
p. 39 to charge smb. мoney, transport costs, to
purchase smth., to show evidence, to disprove smb.’s
claim (опровергнуть заявление);
p. 40 to pass an act, to be binding in law, to contract on certain
terms, valuable consideration;
p. 41 to reject an offer, an empty promise, to compel smb. to
do smth., to pay smb. the taxi fare;
p. 42 to be legally entitled to smth., insane
(душевнобольной, невменяемый), to pressure or
trick smb. into making an agreement, a monetary
compensation, to suffer losses, to claim damages for
mental distress (компенсация за моральный
ущерб), to award damages, to enable smb. to do
smth.,
p. 43 to carry out a contract, a remedy (средство
судебной защиты), to cause hardship, contract law,
contractual, to be accustomed to (doing) smth., a
contract of employment, to resolve differences, to sort
out disagreements.
Mind the terms:
an offer –оферта; an acceptance – акцепт; valuable
consideration – достаточное, ценное встречное
удовлетворение; capacity –правоспособность,
дееспособность; remoteness – отдаленность
причинной связи; an injunction – судебный запрет
Comprehension Check
a. 1) What do many people think a contract is ?
b. 2) Give examples of unwritten contracts. What do
parties to them rely on?
c. 3) What 2 facts must be proved when a party to a
contract starts an action for breach of it? What problems
arise quite often?
d. 4) What sources of law defining the elements of a
contract are available to lawyers in different countries?
e. 5) What agreement is described as a contract in
English law textbooks? Name and explain the 5 essential
elements of a contract.
f. 6) The most important legal principle guiding a judge
in a common law country is …, if the case has no
precedents.
g. 7) Is an advertisement to sell something an offer?
Who should I contact if I want to make an offer to buy
the advertised article?
h. 8) What advertisement was considered to be a specific
offer and thus a contract?
i. 9) The law will not enforce an empty promise. What
must be done to make it an enforceable agreement?
j. 10) What forms of consideration do you know?
k. 11) What makes a contract illegal?
l. 12) What is damages? How is the amount of damages
decided on?
m. 13) What is remoteness?
n. 14) What other remedies were developed by the courts
of Equity?
o. 15) Does our society tend to rely on lawyers or on
custom and social obligation in sorting out
disagreements?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 38 “Many people think of a contract as a written agreement
between people...”,
p. 38 “There are many kinds of unwritten agreements between
people which the law of most countries describes as contracts.”
p. 41 “English law does consider some kinds of
advertisements as offers.”
p. 45 “... crime was categorized as a part of public law...”
As is used :
a) to say that somebody or something really is (jobs / roles):
She works as an articled clear.
b) after accept, be known, class, describe, refer to, regard, use
and some other verbs: He’s known as an expert on contract law.
c) in the expressions as usual, as ... as, as much, the same as:
Certain clients such as citizens’ rights groups can’t afford to pay for
legal services.
d) in clauses of manner to mean “in the way that.”: Do it as the
lawyer tells you.
Like is used:
a) for similarities: This pupil works like a slave.
b) after feel, look, smell, taste, sound + noun: He sounds like
the old lawyer I told you about.
c) with nouns, pronouns on the -ing form to express similarity:
It’s like losing a third case running.
1. Как всегда ему удалось
продемонстрировать доказательства
существования договора между ними. 2. Его
поведение в данном случае рассматривается как
нарушение договора с поставщиком. 3. Договор,
только что составленный сторонами, считается
одним из наиболее удачных в этом году. 4. Хотя он
работает всего лишь помощником барристера, он
уже считается специалистом по договорному
праву. 5. Голос адвоката звучал так, словно он
уже выиграл дело. 6. Похоже на то, что он
заставит своего клиента заключить договор на
поставку машин последней марки. 7. Его, похоже,
все же принудили или обманом заставили
подписать это завещание.
II.
p. 40 “... a contractor may avoid being obliged by some parts
of a contract.”
p. 43 “... people are accustomed to signing written contracts
connected with daily life.”
p. 82 “... people are accustomed to asserting their rights ...”
p. 88 “... legislation which prevents employees from being
dismissed without some reason ...”
Translate into English using gerunds.
1. Во многих развитых странах люди привыкли
к тому, что их потребительские права
защищаются рядом законов, и в случае нарушения
договоров они претендуют на денежную
компенсацию за понесенные убытки. 2.
Отсутствия диплома помешало ему получить
работу нотариуса. 3. Как он ни старался избежать
заключения договора на прошлой неделе, у него
не было другого выхода. 4. Он привык полагаться
на доверие и здравый смысл в своих отношениях с
поставщиками. 5. Его попытка помешать члену
товарищества выполнить данный договор
рассматривалась как противозаконная.
III.
p. 40 “... they must know what they are agreeing to.”
to agree with smb. about smth.
to agree on / to a compromise

1. Он был вынужден преодолеть разногласия
с адвокатом и согласиться на линию защиты,
которой тот будет придерживаться на суде. 2.
Поскольку им не удалось заключить договор на
собственных условиях, пришлось согласиться на
компромиссный вариант. 3. Ты должен был знать,
на что соглашаешься. Теперь тебе придется
предстать перед судом. 4. Он согласился на
предложение защищать клиента, которого
обманным путем вынудили согласиться подписать
договор. 5. Хотя он не был согласен с
поставщиком по вопросу цены, ему пришлось
вступить в договорные отношения на его
условиях, т.к. он не мог найти других
поставщиков.
IV.
p. 40 “The most important principle guiding a judge is
whether a reasonable observer of the agreement would decide that it
was a contract.”
Mind that English subordinate clauses with the conjunction
whether are translated into Russian by a subordinate clause starting
with a predicative with a particle ли.
1. Прокурор задавал все больше и больше
вопросов о том, занимался ли подсудимый на
самом деле научными исследованиями в данной
области. 2. Результат этого расследования
должен показать, на самом ли деле одна из
сторон нарушила договор, который стороны
заключили на необычных условиях. 3. Чем
руководствуются присяжные заседатели, решая,
виноват ли подсудимый: фактами дела или
прошлым подсудимого? 4. Страдает ли какая-либо
группа населения от несоблюдения закона,
принятого в прошлом году, станет очевидным
после изучения общественного мнения. 5. Вердикт
присяжных заседателей будет зависеть от того,
сможет ли адвокат представить на суде все
факты по данному делу о нарушении договора
найма.
V.
p. 42 “... I could choose to take action against her either for
breach of contract, or for the original tort.”
Neither solicitor nor the articled clerks were in the office at the
moment.
1. Должно быть, он не смог заставить ни свою
семью, ни своих друзей поверить в свою
невиновность. 2. Ты должен либо покрыть мои
непредвиденные расходы, либо выполнить свои
обещания. 3. Вы можете либо принять его
предложение, либо выступить со встречным
предложением. 4. В данном случае вы можете
либо подать иск, либо попытаться урегулировать
дело вне суда. 5. Казалось, что его не
удовлетворяла ни денежная компенсация, ни
компенсация за моральный ущерб. Он хотел
добиться исполнения в натуре, хотя понимал, что
это может вызвать сложности.
VI.
Here is a brief summary of the law of contract. Complete the
texts using the words given below:
agreement breach capacity consideration damages fraud
illegal obligation oral performance property signed terms
What is a contract?
It is an agreement that creates a binding (1) __________ upon
the parties. The essentials of a contract are as follows: mutual (2)
________ ; a legal (3) ________ , which in most instances need not
be financial; parties who have legal (4) ________ to make a
contract; absence of (5) ____________ or duress; and a subject
matter that is not (6) ________ or against public policy.
What form does a contract take?
In general, contracts may be either (7) ________ or written.
Certain types of contracts, however, in order to be enforceable, must
be written and (8) ________ . These include contracts involving the
sale and transfer of (9) ________ .
How does a contract end?
In case of a (10) ________ of contract, the injured party may
go to court to sue for financial compensation (or (11) ________ ), or
for rescission, for injunction, or for specific performance if financial
compensation would not compensate for the breach. Specific (12)
________ of a contract is the right by one contracting party to have
the other contracting party perform the contract according to the
precise (13) ________ agreed.
Exercise 3.
1/ contract a/ a proposal made by an
offeror
2/ breach of contract b/ legal competency
3/ offer c/ an exchange of
benefits and detriments by the
parties to an agreement
4/ acceptance d/ any agreement that is
enforceable in a court of law
5/ capacity e/ a written order from a
law court , demanding that
smth shall or shall not be done
6/ valuable consideration f/ the failure of a party to
a contract to carry out the
terms of the agreement
7/ remoteness g/ an order by the court
ordering a breaching party to
do that which he or she agreed
to do under the terms of the
contract
8/ specific performance h/ the assent to the terms
of an offer
9/ injunction i/ the state of being
distant
Exercise 4.
Если сторона, несущая убытки из-за
нарушения договора другой стороной,
заинтересована не в денежной компенсации
ущерба, а в предмете договора (например, в
случае отказа продавца исполнить свои
обязательства из сделки купли- продажи), суд
вправе вынести решение об исполнении договора
в натуре, (т.е. принудить продавца к продаже
товара). Однако это средство защиты никогда не
применяется в делах о договоре личного
характера. Если человек заключил трудовое
соглашение, но затем решил расторгнуть его (to
rescind), потерпевшая сторона имеет право только
на возмещение ущерба.
Когда музыкальная группа сообщила об
отказе провести концерт в городе А., скажем, 1
августа, что было бы нарушением договора , из-за
более выгодного предложения о работе в другом
месте, было решено, что судебный запрет на
выступления 1 августа в любом другом месте
кроме города А может удержать их от
неисполнения обязательства. Однако в случае
отказа выступать они были бы обязаны
возместить любые издержки, понесенные городом
А.
Изучая постановления и условия (terms
&conditions) договора необходимо помнить, что
“условия” в праве различаются по степени
важности. “Постановление” приравнивается к
“простому условию” (a warranty), нарушение
которого дает право на взыскание убытков, но не
на расторжение договора, а нарушение
“существенного условия” (a condition) дает право на
расторжение договора.
Важно помнить, что даже если в договоре
использовано слово “Condition”, это не означает,
что условие будет наверняка признано судом
существенным. Критерием его “существенности”
будет то, насколько несоблюдение этого условия
повлияет на основную цель договора. Вернее,
если повлияет, то условие будет признано
существенным.
Exercise 5
Assignment A
Role-play: examine the following examples and say what sort
of remedy the court is likely to award for breach of contract.
Role 1: you represent the plaintiff.
Role 2: you represent the defendant.
1. Dovedale Motors Ltd agree to sell to John Bennett a new
car for £1000 below the list price, which was at that time £9500.
When the buyer, John Bennett goes to collect the car he is told it has
been sold to another buyer at the list price. John claims £9500
damages.
2. Chris Oliver has signed a lucrative contract to play for a
well-known football club. However, prior to his first appearance he
decides to sign for a club offering him better terms.
3. Associated Properties Ltd sign a contract to sell Mr and Mrs
E. Disdale a three-bedroomed house for £102500. The company
refuses to complete the sale and Mr and Mrs Disdale seek a specific
performance order. On the same estate there are about six similar
houses for sale from another company for £102500.
Assignment B
Examine the following examples and indicate whether you
think the defendant is in breach of warranty or breach of condition.
1. John Martin, a promising young cricketer, has signed a
contract to play for a well-known English county cricket club. One
of the terms of the contract is that he must attend six practice
sessions before the start of the playing season. John misses one
practice session and the club threatens to sue him for breach of
contract.
2. Andrew Perkins has a small but busy insurance broker’s
office. Anxious to increase efficiency he orders a small computer.
One of the terms of the agreement reached with the suppliers,
Computer Supplies Ltd, is that a programme will be supplied with
the machine which will allow a more efficient accounting system.
Аlthough the computer is delivered on time the programme is not
supplied and Andrew decides to sue.
(From “Mastering Business Law”)
Portion 7
Exercise 1.
p. 45 to have an abortion, to flush a public toilet, to damage
smb.’s property, unlawful, to be guilty of a crime;
p. 46 to appropriate smb.’s property (присваивать), to
deprive smb. of smth., an intent;
p. 47 to wound smb., to be negligent, to cause smb.’s death, a
life support machine, to fire at smb., to shoot at smb., to foresee
smth, to stab smb., to recover, to be allergic to smth., waste, to
pollute;
p.48 to carry out a check, a mental illness, a mental hospital,
to be under the influence of drugs, to be intoxicated;
p. 49 to lessen the sentence, to decriminalize (т.е
исключить деяние из числа преступных),
discrimination against smb. on the grounds of race
and sex,
Mind the terms:
theft – кража; burglary – берглэри (амер.,-
противоправное проникновение в помещение
с умыслом совершить в нем фелонию или
кражу); robbery – роббери (грабеж с насилием
или разбой); аctus reus – лат.,- виновное
действие; мens rea – лат.,-виновная воля; murder –
тяжкое убийство (с заранее обдуманным злым
умыслом); manslaughter –простое убийство (без
злого умысла), мalice aforethought - злое
предумышление; substantial\sufficient cause –
достаточное основание\причина;defense –
защита, возражение по обвинению; duress –
принуждение; (defense of) self-defense – защита
ссылкой на самооборону; mitigation – смягчение;
crime of passion – преступление по
страстисостоние аффекта ;
Comprehension Check.
a. 1. What act is thought of as a crime?
b. 2. What actions are universally regarded as criminal?
c. 3. What does presumption of innocence mean?
d. 4. What sources of law detail elements of crimes in
codified and common law systems?
e. 5. Name and describe the two important elements to a
crime. What is malice aforethought?
f. 6. What is recklessness? Negligence?
g. 7. What must the prosecution show to prove that the
suspect caused the death of the victim?
h. 8. Can inaction be considered an actus reus?
i. 9. No mens rea was to be proved in Alphacell vs.
Woodward. Why?
j. 10. What can a defendant do to avoid guilt if actus reus
and mens rea have been proved? What differs the
concept of defense from that of mitigation?
k. 11. What types of defense do you know? Are you for
lessening the sentence if a person uses the defense of
intoxication or crime of passion?
l. 12. What accounts for the fast grouth of criminal law?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 47 “... the defendant need not have intended to kill...”
needn’t have done – this construction is used to express the
idea that it wasn’t necessary to do smth., but the person didn’t
realize it and so he did it.
didn’t need to do - this construction is used to express the idea
that it wasn’t necessary to do smth. And the person didn’t do it.
That day he didn’t need to go to the lawyer’s office as
unexpectedly the lawyer had called on him himself.
1. Им не нужно было осуществлять проверки
оборудования, поскольку все оборудование было
только что куплено. 2. Адвокату не нужно было
пытаться смягчить приговор за преступление,
совершенное его клиентом, поскольку
смягчающие обстоятельства были очевидны. 3.
Врачам не нужно было давать ему это лекарство,
чтобы он выздоровел, он его уже сам купил. 4. Вам
совсем не нужно было стрелять: подозреваемый
никуда не собирался убегать. 5. Ему не нужно
было объяснять, как работал аппарат
искусственного жизнеобеспечения: он уже
прочитал о нем ряд статей.
II.
p.48 “.. a defendant can avoid guilt for injuring someone if he
can convince the court that the force he used was reasonable to
protect himself in the circumstances.”
to convince smb. of smth.
to convince smb. that ...
to persuade smb. to do smth.
to persuade smb. of smth.
to persuade smb. that ...
1. Как они ни старались убедить его признать
Брауна виновным в преступлении, он не
соглашался. 2. Он уже несколько раз пытался
убедить руководство провести все необходимые
проверки, но все напрасно. 3. Следователь
стремился убедить подозреваемого признаться в
том, что именно он выстрелил в полицейского. 4.
Адвокат решил убедить суд, что его клиент
совершил преступление под влиянием алкоголя.
5. Ряд депутатов парламента пытались убедить
своих коллег вывести ряд правонарушений из
категории уголовно наказуемых.
III.
Name the crime
THE BOXES BELOW give the names of twenty-two crimes.
The lists give the definitions of the same crimes. Match the crimes
to their definitions. The first one has been done for you.
A. assassination assault bigamy blackmail burglary
extortion fraud manslaughter murder piracy treason
1. Assault acting in such a w
as to make someo
believe he or she will
hurt
2. betraying yo
country to a forei
power
3. copying patent
inventions or copyright
works
4. entering a buildi
illegally and steali
things
5. setting money fro
people by threatening
publicise facts they
not want revealed
6. getting money fro
people by using threats
7. getting property
money from people
making them belie
untrue things
8. going through
ceremony of marria
when you are s
married to someone els
9. killing a pub
figure illegally a
intentionally
10. killing someo
illegally and intentional
11. killing someo
unintentionally or
mitigating circumstance
B. Arson slander theft smuggling espionage robbery

embezzlement perjury libel bribery forgery
12. making an illeg
copy of a banknote
document
13. offering mon
corruptly to get someo
to do something to he
you
14. saying somethi
which damag
someone's character
15. setting fire to
building
16. stealing somethi
by using force
threatening to use force
17. stealing, taki
property which belon
to someone else
18. taking goo
illegally into or out of
country
19. telling lies wh
you have sworn an oa
to say what is true
court
20. trying to find o
secrets by illegal means
21. using illegally
stealing money whi
you are looking after f
someone else
22. writing, publishi
or broadcasting
statement which damag
someone's character

1. Возможно, обвиняемый совершил не одно
преступление в состоянии аффекта. 2. Не может
быть, чтобы он совершил такое серьезное
преступление. 3. Преступник, по-видимому, не
подозревал, что полиции известно, кто совершил
преступление. 4. Должно быть, она не совершала
самоубийства. Все-таки ее, скорее всего убили. 5.
Если бы он не совершил этой роковой ошибки,
подозрение никогда не пало бы на него. 6. Он
никогда не участвовал в совершении
преступления. 7. Наверняка, он много читал о
преступном мире в других странах. 8. Должен вас
предупредить, он очень опасный
профессиональный преступник, к тому же он
совершил несколько преступлений под влиянием
наркотиков. 9. Вы говорите так, как будто никогда
не слышали об уголовном кодексе. 10. Что
заставило подсудимого совершить кражу со
взломом?
Exercise 3.
'The criminal look'

Assignment A
Read the text:
Witnesses may pick out from an identification parade the
person who most resembles their idea of what the criminal would
look like, a conference organized by the British Psychological
Society was told on Saturday. Mr Ray Bull, a senior lecturer at the
North East London Polytechnic, said research had shown that the
public tended to link abnormal appearance with abnormalities of
behaviour. 'The public and police do agree about what face fits what
crime,' he said.
'One apparently widely held belief is the "what is
beautiful is good" stereotype. An individual's facial attractiveness
has an effect on how threatening other people judge that person to
be. I have found that the addition of one or two small scars to a face
leads to that face being judged more dishonest.' Those beliefs also
influence length of sentence and verdict, he said. Research in
mock-trial settings had shown that the more unattractive defendant
was more heavily sentenced than one of attractive character and
appearance. Mr Bull, an expert on identification by witnesses, was
addressing psychologists and lawyers at a conference in London
held by Sir Brian MacKenna, a retired high court judge, on the role
of psychology in the legal system.
For decades it had been known that people often do not
see or hear things presented to their senses, but do 'see' and 'hear'
things that have not occurred. But none of those factors meant that
identification evidence was of little value. Laboratory research
based on photographs had shown recognition rates were high, about
80 per cent. even after delays of 35 days. But rates were lower when
identification was tested in mock criminal episodes in the streets
because of stress and the inability of the witness to concentrate
simultaneously on self-preservation and remembering details of the
culprit. Law enforcement authorities should be more aware of the
factors that influence memory and identification, Mr Bull said.
Apart from people's prejudices about the look' of a criminal, the
factors included the way questions were asked.
The Times (BrE)
Assignment B
Уже на протяжении нескольких веков
ученые ищут ответ на вопрос - рождаются ли
преступниками или ими становятся. В 19 веке
знаменитый итальянский ученый Ломброзо провел
ряд исследований, которые показали, что объем
мозга у преступников меньше, чем у
законопослушных (law-abiding) граждан. В 20 веке
ряд ученых, среди которых два выдающихся
профессора Гарварда Дж.Уилсон и Р.Герштайн,
утверждают, что Ломброзо был прав: никто не
рождается преступником, но существуют
факторы, предрасполагающие людей к
совершению преступлений. Они приводят факты,
согласно которым средний преступник отличается
от законопослушного гражданина телосложением,
характером и уровнем умственного развития. Они
полагают, что типичный преступник - это молодой
мускулистый мужчина с IQ ниже среднего уровня,
импульсивный, ориентированный на сиюминутные
достижения. Сами по себе эти факты не ведут к
совершению преступления, но они связаны с
уголовным поведением. Эти ученые также
считают, что преступность у людей в крови (to run
in families). Исследование усыновленных детей в
Дании показало, что у биологических родителей с
уголовным опытом сыновья в три раза чаще
совершают преступления.
Оппоненты Уилсона и Герштайна считают,
что мода в общественных науках часто меняется,
и в зависимости от моды ученые приписывают
причины преступности генетическим факторам
или окружающей среде.
Whose opinion do you share? Why?
Exercise 4.
Отмена смертной казни в ноябре 1965
года в Англии была одобрена большинством
прогрессивного человечества. Люди
рассматривали это как уход от жестокости
феодального мира, духа отмщения,
пронизывающего ветхозаветные времена: око за
око, зуб за зуб.
Сегодня многие из этих людей думают
иначе. Хладнокровное убийство трех безоружных
полицейских в Лондоне привлекло внимание
общественности к факту неуклонного роста числа
преступлений, особенно убийств, в
Великобритании с момента отмены смертной
казни. Люди, которые ранее утверждали, что
смертная казнь не является средством
удерживания (deterring from)от умышленного
убийства, поскольку убийства совершались во
всех странах независимо от их отношения к
смертной казни, сейчас склоняются к тому, что
казнь убийцы является меньшим из двух зол (the
lesser of two evils). Возможно,-полагают они,-
смертная казнь и не является идеальным ответом,
но это лучше, чем ничего, особенно если, как в
Англии, приговор к “пожизненному” заключению
обычно означает восемь или девять лет,
проведенных в тюрьме.
Все эти вопросы неоднозначны, и любые
аргументы за и против могут быть опровергнуты
практикой (disproved by). Однако проблема
предотвращения убийств остается
неразрешенной. Некоторые из них совершаются
преступниками ради избежания ареста,
душевнобольными или хладнокровными
садистами, лишенными человеческих чувств.
Важным аспектом в предотвращении
преступлений является уничтожение, насколько
это возможно, оружия и других предметов,
могущих быть использованными как орудие
убийства, а также контроль над опасным
влиянием идей и сцен насилия, которыми
изобилует современная литература и
телевидение.
Questions for discussion:
Do you think capital punishment is justifiable in certain cases
or it is absolutely unacceptable in a democratic society? Why?
Do you agree or disagree with the ideas expressed in the last
paragraph?
What other means of murder prevention would you suggest?
Exercise 5.
Read the following passage from an article about gun
ownership:
Do guns mean crime?
New research shoots holes in the idea that guns in the hands of
private citizens will help to deter criminals.
THE second amendment of the American constitution
concerns the "right of the people to keep and bear Arms", and the
intent of that language is the subject of a perpetual debate, one that
will be sharpened by the incoming administration's gun-leaning
instincts. Economists are not usually in the business of making
value judgments. But some recent research about the effects on
crime of gun ownership ought to play a part in informing society's
decisions.
From a hypothetical perspective, gun ownership could
promote crime by facilitating violence; or it could deter it, by
implicitly threatening retribution. Empirically, the question has been
hard to resolve. Economists seeking to map the relationship between
American gun ownership and crime face a formidable obstacle: data
on gun ownership exists only at the national level.
It is not for economists, however, to be put off by a paucity of
data. Some academics have spent years squirrelling around for
proxies for gun ownership in given geographical areas. Until
recently, the most notorious of their studies used the passage of
legislation that allowed private citizens to carry concealed firearms
as a proxy indicator of gun ownership. The findings* of John Lott
of Yale University and David Mustard of the University of Georgia
(both at the time at the University of Chicago) suggested that such
laws, and the increases in gun ownership that presumably
accompanied them, diminished violent crime.
While the National Rifle Association feasted upon these
results, other academics voiced scepticism about their statistical
rigour. Just a year later, a paper† using the same data and more
advanced econometric methods showed that concealed weapon
legislation had made only a small contribution to falling murder
rates, and may even have boosted robberies. This second paper was
feasted upon less than the first.
The search for a more reliable proxy continued, and has now
led to a forthcoming paper** by Mark Duggan of the University of
Chicago. Mr Duggan obtained state- and county-level sales data
from one of America's largest gun magazines, betting that sales
would be strongly correlated with gun ownership. This particular
magazine concentrates on handguns, the type most commonly used
in crime. Although Mr Duggan does not assume that subscribers are
likely to be criminals, he does point out that the majority of guns
used in crimes are obtained through burglaries or secondhand sales.
Still, even before considering the link to crime, how do you prove
that a correlation exists with magazine sales, when gun ownership is
itself such an unknown quantity?
The Economist January13th 2001
An amendment – поправка
(Gun)-leaning instincts – пристрастие к…,
склонность к(чему-то)
To facilitate (violеnce) / to deter (violеnce) –
способствовать, облегчать/сдерживать,
удерживать от…
Not to be put off by a paucity of data – не быть
смущенным нехваткой информации (букв. им не
мешает…)
A proxy for gun ownership – здесь – доказательство
(в пользу), свидетельство;
To boost (robberies) – способствовать росту числа
(роббери-ограблений с насилием)
To be correlated with smth – находиться в
соотношении с…
Role-play.
Role 1: You think that gun ownership will promote crime by
facilitating violence. Prove your point.
Role 2: You think that gun ownership will deter violence.
Prove your point.
Exercise 6.
I.
BELOW ARE 10 statements by defendants. Read the
statements and say what crime has each one been accused of.
a. 1. "I arrived home late and found that I'd
forgotten my keys. I didn't want to wake my wife
up, and I saw there was a ladder in the garden of
the house next door. I got the ladder and climbed
in. We've just moved house and I didn't realise I
was in the wrong street...
b. 2. "I was walking my dog when I saw the gun
lying on the ground. I picked it up - it was still
warm - and at that moment I saw the body lying in
the long grass. I went across to look and it was my
business partner. That's when the police arrived...
c. 3. "I opened the bank account in a false name as
a way to help my employer pay less tax- It's
perfectly legal. I kept meaning to tell him, but
somehow I just forgot. I bought the villa in France
with my own money, it was an inheritance...
d. 4. "OK, so there are a hundred and twenty-three
copies of Four Weddings and a Funeral. That's
perfectly true, but I had no intention of selling
them. I'm a collector.
e. 5. "Well this obviously isn't my suitcase. I've
never seen these things before in my life. The
monogram? Well, they are my initials, but that
must be a coincidence. That's probably how the
two cases got mixed up. After all, JA aren't very
unusual initials. A photograph with me in it? My
word, that's incredible! It must be someone who
knows me...
f. 6. "I didn't know she was still alive, I thought
she'd died in a car accident. I couldn't believe it
when I saw her walk into the room. Surely you
don't think I did this just to get your money...?
g. 7. "You misunderstand me. When I offered him
the money I meant it as a gift. I know that life can
be difficult for a young man on a police salary,
especially if he has a family, young children
etcetera. It isn't easy and I know that. I just wonted
to help. I didn't expect him to do anything in
return...
h. 8. "After leaving the office I realised I'd
forgotten my umbrella. I went back in to get it.
When I went in I noticed that the photocopier was
still turned on. It had been working very badly all
day, and I decided to quickly see what was wrong
with it before going home. 1 made a few test copies
of documents that were in the office;. I didn't even
look at what I was copying. The machine seemed
to be working much better. I put the copies in my
briefcase - intending to use the other side as
notepaper. I don't believe in wasting paper. At that
moment Mr Sanders came out of his office...
i. 9. "I painted them for pleasure. I had no
intention of deceiving people. I never said they
were by other people. Yes, I did include the
signatures of other artists but that's because I
wanted them to be perfect copies...
j. 10. "Mr Wills sent me the money to help me in
my business venture - I'm trying to start a design
agency. He sent me cheques every month for
$1200. A couple of times he sent extra when I had
special expenses. It was always understood that he
would participate in the profits of the business
when it was running. We didn't write anything
down, it was an oral agreement, The photographs I
have of him with his secretary have no connection
with these payments.
Write a defense for another crime and show it to other people
in your class. See if they can guess what crime you are thinking of.
II.
Who's speaking?
a. 1. THE STATEMENTS BELOW are all taken from
the same case. They were made orally in open court
during the trial. Read them and decide who made each
statement. For example, the first statement, number 1
was made by the counsel for the prosecution.
a. 1. "I would like to remind you of the testimony
of Mrs Ellen Barry. She told us that her husband
phoned her to say that he had had a successful
day. Now, Mr Barry was a drugs dealer,
yet when the police arrived on the scene
of the crime he had a total of Ј12.50 in
his pockets. We also know that he had
borrowed money from Mr Swan on a
previous occasion and failed to repay it."
b. 2. "He was getting angrier by the minute. He
said he wasn't going to let me make a fool of him
and then he took out a gun. I was astonished. He
started waving it around and shouting. I turned to
run away and he shot me in the leg"
c. 3. "I apprehended Mr Swan on Standish Lane, a
few minutes from the scene of the shooting . At the
time of his arrest he had Ј1,000 and a handgun on
his person. He was very distressed, but made no
attempt to resist arrest."
d. 4. "I was on my way home from the pub when I
saw two men arguing. They seemed to be talking
about money. They were very angry and both of
them were shouting. I wasn't really listening to be
honest. Suddenly I heard a shot. When I looked
round one of them was lying on the floor and the
other had disappeared."
e. 5. "I went out to the bank at the end of the
afternoon to deposit the money in my business
account, but I arrived too late and the bank was
closed. I kept the money with me when I went out
that night,. I didn't want to leave it in the office
overnight: we've had a couple of burglaries
recently. I was carrying the gun for my own
protection. It's licensed. When he attacked me I
panicked. It was self-defence."
f. 6. "Mark rang me from the pub at about seven
o'clock. He said it had gone very well. I supposed
he meant that the deal had gone through. He
couldn't tell me on the phone. He said he was going
to celebrate and he'd be home late."
g. 7. "Mr Swan let me go home early. He said he
was going to close up the office and go round to
the bank."
h. 8. "This is a very serious crime, and all the more
shocking as it is committed by a man with a
comfortable position in society. I find myself with
no choice but to sentence you to eight years in
prison. Had your victim not survived, which may
be due as much to poor marksmanship as
compassion, you would have found yourself facing
a far longer sentence."
i. 9. "We find the defendant guilty as charged."
j. 10. "You have heard that Mr Barry was a habitual
criminal, whereas my client was a respected local
businessman. Does it seem to you probable that a
respectable person, someone like yourselves,
would go out with a gun to collect debts as my
learned friend suggests?"
a. 2. Can you reconstruct the story of the case from the
statements?
Portion 8
Exercise 1.
p. 51 a construction site, a tortuous act, to displace the legal
occupier, to damage property, to cause inconvenience;
p. 52 a party to a contract (сторона в договоре),
an authorised person, a tort of nuisance, a tort of
negligence, a statutory tort, defective equipment;
p. 54 to perform a contract, the hold of a ship, to cause a spark,
to leak, a direct consequence, foreseeable, to be at fault , to detain
smb. against his or her will;
p. 55 faulty machinery, an insurance premium
(страховая премия), public policy, to witness an
accident.
Mind the terms:
(the tort of) conversion – присвоение
движимого имущества; trespass –
противоправное нарушение владения; vicarious
liability – ответственность поручителя,
субсидиарная ответственность; a tortfeaser;
defamation; strict liability – строгая\объективная
ответственность; false imprisonment –
неправомерное лишение свободы; duty of care –
обязанность соблюдать осторожность
a. 1. Explain the concept of tort.
b. 2. Can a tort be a crime?
c. 3. Why does a victim of a crime
sometimes have to take an action in the law
of tort?
d. 4. Can the police take an action against a
trespasser?
e. 5. How do you understand “standard of
proof”? Why do you think it is lower in civil
actions than in criminal ones?
f. 6. Why are tort actions appropriate in the
case of accidents?
g. 7. Give examples of difference between
the law of tort and the law of contract.
h. 8. What does a plaintiff have to show to
get the legal capacity to sue in the law of tort?
i. 9. What is a statutory tort?
j. 10. If you are injured in a taxi you can sue
in the law of…
k. 11. Compare the aim of damages in
contract and in tort.
l. 12. Is the remoteness of the harm suffered
considered?
m. 13. What must a plaintiff show to win an
action in negligence?
n. 14. What kinds of duty of care do you
know? Whom do we owe a duty according to
English law?
o. 15. What policy guides the developing of
case law in this area?
p. 16. Why does the number and variety of
negligence actions increase year by year?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 51 “In either case, there is no contract between me and the
other party...”
Either (= any one of two) / Neither (= not one and not the
other) refer to two people or things and are used before singular
countable nouns. (Neither lawyer knows the specifics of this law.)
Neither of / Either of take a verb either in the singular or plural.
(Neither of them has graduated from a law school.)
1. Вы являетесь стороной по договору,
поэтому либо вы выполняете договор, либо вам
будет предъявлен иск из нарушения договора. 2.
Либо вам заменяют неисправное оборудование,
либо вам придется приостановить деятельность
предприятия. 3. Ни один несчастный случай из
названных вами не является прямым
последствием нарушения правил безопасности в
порту. 4. Любой из двух свидетелей может
выступить в суде в связи с делом о незаконном
задержании. 5. Он уже обратился к двум
адвокатам, но ни один адвокат не желает браться
за дело о выселении законного жильца властями.
II.
p. 51 “But the essential difference between torts and crimes is
that the former are the subject of civil law disputes between private
individuals, and the latter are prosecuted by the state.”
the former (contrasted with the latter) - the first mentioned of
two
the latter (contrasted with the former) - the second of the
mentioned two
1. Что касается этих двух адвокатов, то услуги
последнего дешевле и у него больше опыта по
искам из причинения вреда. 2. Оба его клиента
подали иски, но второй в отличие от первого не
имел никакого шанса выиграть иск из
небрежности. 3. Из этих двух школ права он
решил выбрать первую, поскольку вторая была
недавно создана и не имела такой великолепной
репутации, как первая. 4. Оба несчастных случая
были вызваны использованием неисправного
оборудования, но первый произошел полностью по
вине пострадавшего, не выполнявшего
обязанность соблюдать осторожность. 5. Разница
между двумя адвокатами заключалась в том, что
первый специализировался в области деликтного
права, в то время как второй занимался самыми
разными делами.
III.
p. 51 “The police cannot take any action unless the trespasser
commits certain crimes...”
p. 71 “... it is now possible for someone contracting with the
company on ultra vires matters to be protected, provided the matter
was authorized by the company’s directors.”
English conditional clauses joined to the principle clause by
means of conjunctions if, provided (providing), unless, are
translated into Russian with the help of the corresponding Russian
conjunctions если, в том случае если, если не.
1. Вы не выиграете дело, если не поможете
полиции собрать доказательства своей
невиновности по делу о гибели рабочих на
строительной площадке. 2. Если вы не замените
неисправное оборудование на своей фабрике, вы
утонете в потоке исков из небрежности,
подаваемых вашими сотрудниками. 3. Полиция не
может выдвинуть какой-либо иск, если лицо,
вторгшееся в чужое помещение, не совершит
какое-либо преступление. 4. Если они не выполнят
договор, другая сторона по договору может
потребовать возмещения убытков. 5. Если вы не
попытаетесь оказать первую помощь человеку,
которого вы сами сбили, против вас может быть
возбуждено дело в связи с несоблюдением
обязанности проявлять осторожность.
IV.
p. 54 “ However, the rules regarding remoteness in tort are
different from those in contract, coming from different cases.”
p. 71 “The internal management of the company is regulated
by a document called the articles of association. Although these
need not be registered ..., they must conform to an authorized
pattern.”
p. 82 “Can you be sure that the set you take home will be of
the same type and quality as the one you have looked at in the
store?”
The pronouns this (these), that (those), one (ones) can be used
to avoid the repetition of the nouns mentioned before. While
translating them into Russian, they are usually replaced with the
nouns they substitute for.
1. Курс деликтного права в этой школе права
гораздо более глубокий и подробный, чем курс в
школе, о которой вы только что мне рассказали. 2.
Среди основных проблем были названы проблемы
предотвращения роста преступности среди
подростков и создание для них рабочих мест. 3.
Иск, который наиболее часто подают его клиенты,
- иск из возмещения ущерба при нарушении
договора. 4. Услуги, предоставляемые этой
юридической компанией, гораздо более полные,
чем услуги компании, которая так широко
рекламирует свою деятельность. 5. Клиенты
вынуждены платить больше за услуги этой
компании, когда за эти услуги платят по
безналичному расчету.
V.
p. 55 “... what duty does a passer-by owe to the victim of a
road accident when he tries to give emergency aid?”
to owe smb. smth
to owe smth. (money, thanks, one’s success) to smb.
to owe it to smb. that ... (I owe it to you that I’m still alive)
to owe smth. for smth. (to owe $100 for the car)
to owe smb. a grudge
1. Хотя он обратился за помощью к адвокату
еще год назад, он все еще должен ему $100 за его
услуги. - Нет, он заплатил все, что с него
причиталось. 2. Он все еще не расплатился за
курс права, который прослушал несколько
месяцев назад в частной правовой школе. 3. Он
считает, что не имеет причин для благодарности
своему учителю. 4. Дети обязаны почитать и
уважать старших. 5. Должно быть, обвиняемый
затаил зуб на адвоката, который не смог доказать
его невиновность. 6. Увеличение экспорта газа
объясняется необходимостью получить
дополнительные средства для финансирования
социальной сферы. 7. Какими свойствами
организма объясняют это чудесное
выздоровление? 8. Своим успехом на суде адвокат
больше обязан счастливому случаю, а не
способностям.
VI.
Choose the most suitable word or phrase to complete each
sentence.
a) Most schools in my country no longer have ......
punishment.
a) physical b) capital c) bodily d) corporal
b) The policemen following the robbers were in ...... clothes.
a) plain b) ordinaryc) normal d) simple
c) The two old ladies were ...... of their purses.
a) stolen b) attackedc) robbed d) snatched
d) At the end of the story, the hero manages to arrest the ...... .
a) offenders b) villains c) wrongs d) evils
e) I had to answer question A because it was ...... .
a) compulsory b) necessary c) a must d) an
obligation
f) Charles could not ...... having been at the scene of the crime.
a) refuse b) object c) deny d) alter
g) As there was no evidence, the judge dismissed the ...... .
a) trial b) witness c) court d) case
h) If your dog damages your neighbour's property, you could
be ...... .
a) guilty b) liable c) payable d) illegal
i) After ten years in prison, Stephen was ...... and set free.
a) pardoned b) released c) innocentd) forgiven
j) The detective inspector told the young ...... to make some
tea.
a) officer b) official c) guardian d) police
VII.
Choose the most suitable word or phrase.
a) All the classroom windows were broken, but nobody knew
who the............. was.
a) victim b) culprit c) guilty d) responsible
b) Seven vehicles were involved in a............... in thick fog on
the M2.
a) jam b) congestion c) stoppage d) pile-up
c) Mr Baxwell threatened to ............... the newspaper for libel.
a) sue b) arrest c) blackmail d) enforce
d) Police have ............... off the town centre and are searching
for the bomb.
a) withdrawn b) surrounded c) sealed d) assembled
e) The death............... in the weekend's traffic exodus has risen
to sixteen.
a) score b) rate c) toll d) mark
Exercise 3.
Learn the definitions of the terms
1/defamation a/ the wrongful act of
damaging another’s character
or reputation by the use of false
statements
2/ negligence b/ the failure to use the
amount of care and skill that a
reasonably prudent person
would have used under the
same circumstances and
conditions
3/ trespass c/ the intentional and
unauthorised entry on the land
of another
4/ false arrest d/ the intentional
confinement of a person
without legal justification
5/ nuisance e/ the use of one’s
property in a way that causes
annoyance, inconvenience or
discomfort to another
6/ tort f/ a wrong against an
individual
7/ strict liability g/ liability for an act that
causes harm without regard to
fault or negligence
8/ conversion h/ the wrongful exercise
of control over the personal
property in another’ possession
9/ duty of care i/ a duty to exercise a
certain degree of responsibility
10/tortfeaser j/ one who commits a tort
11/statutory tort k/ a breach of duty which
must be proved as defined in a
state statute
12/ vicarious liability l/ liability that is imputed
to principals and employers
because of the wrongdoings of
their agents and employees
Exercise 4.
Законодательство о гражданских деликтах
Законодательство о гражданских деликтах,

как правило, трактуется как законодательство о
“неправильном гражданском поведении”, и,
пожалуй, трудно дать более точное определение.
Я совершу деликт, если ударю кого-либо случайно
или по неосторожности (кулаком или
автомобилем); если я по ошибке назову кого-либо
или напишу о ком-либо, что он вор (клевета и
оговор); если я ошибочно подвергну кого-либо
аресту или вторгнусь в чье-либо частное
владение; если я нарушу чье-либо право на
владение землей без его разрешения.
Если я забрел в чужие владения по ошибке
или наступил на что-то ценное, я, вероятно,
должен оплатить убытки, но при этом я не
совершил никакого уголовного преступления и,
соответственно, не буду помещен в тюрьму. Не
будет также являться уголовным преступлением,
если я, при парковке автомобиля на стоянке,
ударил чей-то автомобиль и оставил вмятину, при
условии, что я не сделал этого намеренно или по
безрассудству. Но, естественно, я должен буду
оплатить ущерб.
Как правило, владелец помещения не несет
обязанности соблюдать осторожность в
отношении нарушителя владения, однако, в двух
случаях владелец может считаться обязанным в
отношении нарушителя.
А. Закон требует соблюдения осторожности в
отношении детей, незаконно проникших на чужую
территорию. Когда шестилетний мальчик
пробрался на участок, принадлежавший
железнодорожной компании, и получил удар
током, дотронувшись до находившегося под
напряжением участка рельса (electrified section of rail),
компания была признана ответственной за
небрежность (liable in negligence), хотя мальчик и
был нарушителем владения (a trespasser).
В. В некоторых случаях люди настолько
привыкают к возможности беспрепятственно
проходить по чужой территории, что их можно
простить за то, что они не осознают себя
нарушителями владения. Если кто-то пострадает
от несчастного случая на этом участке, то суд
признает его владельца ответственным, считая
его обязанным соблюдать осторожность.
Exercise 5.
Read the text and answer the questions:
Who’s to blame?
Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Division
“Plaintiffs commenced this negligence action against

defendants, the North Carolina Department of Labor and its
Occupational Safety and Health Division, pursuant to the Tort
Claims Act. Plaintiffs sought damages for injuries or deaths
resulting from a fire at the Imperial Foods Products plant in Hamlet,
North Carolina. Defendants moved, pursuant to North Carolina
Government Statutes Rules 12(b) (1), (2) and (6), to dismiss
plaintiffs' claims.
Deputy Commissioner denied the motions. The full
Commission affirmed and adopted his decision.
The Court of Appeal agreed that the State had been negligent.
It held that North Carolina Government Statutes, which
describes the authority, power, and duties of the Commissioner of
Labor, imposed a duty upon the defendants to inspect the work
places of North Carolina and that the breach of this duty gave rise to
the plaintiffs' action for negligence. It further held that the 'public
duty doctrine' did not apply to actions brought against the State
under the Tort Claims Act. On 5 June 1997 the Supreme Court
granted the State of North Carolina (the defendants) the right to
petition them to re-examine the Appeal Court's decision. This is
called a 'discretionary review'.
The Supreme Court judges accepted the facts, as presented to
the court by the plaintiffs- as factually correct. On 3 September
1991 a fire started in a section of a chicken-processing factory
belonging to Imperial Foods Products in Hamlet, North Carolina-
The fire grew in intensity and spread rapidly. Plaintiffs were either
former employees of Imperial Foods who suffered injury in the fire
or personal representatives of the estates of employees who died in
the fire. They were lawfully inside the factory at the time of the fire.
They could not easily escape the plant or the fire because the
exits in the plant were unmarked-blocked and inaccessible- It was
only after the fire had taken place that the North Carolina Health
Department conducted their first and only inspection in the plant's
11 year history of operation. As a result of this inspection-
numerous violations of the Safety Act, including the plant’s
inadequate and blocked fire-suppression system, were discovered.
Eighty-three citations against Imperial Foods Products for
violations of safety and health standards were issued.
The majority of the appeal judges of the Supreme Court
decided that the State of North Carolina was not negligent in its
duty to carry out fire and safety inspections, on a legal technicality.
One of the judges disagreed very strongly.
The dissenting judge, Justice Orr, said: "The majority opinion
erroneously takes a limited and obscure common law concept, the
public duty doctrine, which has traditionally applied only to
municipalities and their law enforcement responsibilities, and
expands the doctrine's application to effectively eviscerate the Tort
Claims Act. As a result, the right of individuals to sue the State for
negligent acts committed by the State, a right expressly conveyed
by the General Assembly, is nullified without the support of any
precedential authority permitting such an indulgence.'”
Vocabulary to the text

…pursuant to…– в соответствии с , согласно чему-
л.
To deny a motion - отклонить ходатайство
To dismiss a claim - отклонить иск\отказывать в
иске
To move\to petition – ходатайствовать, подавать
прошение
A dissenting judge – судья, заявляющий
особое(несогласное) мнение
To eviscerate (an Act) – лищать содержания,
выхолащивать
The Tort Claims Act – акт\закон о деликтных
исках
An indulgence – привилегия (зд.)
a. 1. Who brought the lawsuit against the
State of North Carolina Department of
Labor?
b. 2. What did the defendants do then?
c. 3. What was the decision of Deputy
Commissioner? Of the Full Commission? Of
the Court of Appeal? Of the Supreme Court
(on 5 June)?
d. 4. What were the facts of the case?
e. 5. What did the majority of the appeal
judges of the Supreme Court hold?
f. 6. What did the dissenting judge say?
Over to you
List the minimum safety measures you think a factory / a
concert hall should have. Decide what duties the management
should have, and what protection should be provided by state law.
(from “MARKET LEADER Business law” Tricia Smith)
Role-play.
Role one. You are an appeal judge of the Supreme Court
thinking that the State of Nourth Carolina was not negligent in its
duty to carry out safety inspections.
Role two. You are the judge who strongly disagrees and thinks
it was negligent
*Legal brief
This case was controversial because there was a disagreement
between the lower courts and the Supreme Court. The final word
was the majority opinion of the Supreme Court, which said the State
of North Carolina was not liable to pay compensation to the fire
victims on a technical point which makes it impossible for a private
citizen to sue a government organisation.
Federal Tort Claims Act: the government of the United States
may not be sued in tort – civil wrongdoing – without its consent.
However, in 1946 that consent was granted and the Act set out the
conditions for suits and claims against the federal government.
Portion 9
Exercise 1.
p. 57 the law presumes that ..., to oblige smb. to do smth.,
proceeds (выручка, доход от…), a spouse;
p. 58 to misappropriate property (неправомерно
завладеть, присвоить), to administer a trust, trust
law, to hold smth. on trust, to draw money from a
bank account;
p. 59 to benefit charity, to claim tax exemption (требовать
налоговые льготы), to be exempt from income tax
(быть освобожденным от…), to satisfy certain
requirements, the civil code, the relief of poverty
(борьба с …), the advancement of religion, the
advancement of education, the benefit of the
community, vague, an orphan, to disallow smth., on balance, to be
to smb.’s benefit.
Mind the terms:
a trust –доверительная собственность; a
trustee – доверительный собственник; a beneficiary
– выгодоприобретатель, бенефициар; a settlor –
учредитель доверительной собственности; an
express trust – д.с., учрежденная положительно-
выраженным образом; a constructive trust – д.с. в
силу закона или судебного
решения\неопровержимо подразумеваемая; an
implied trust – подразумеваемая д.с.; an executor –
исполнитель завещания, душеприказчик; a
donor - даритель
a. 1. What is a trust? A beneficiary of a trust?
b. 2. What powers and obligations does a
trustee have?
c. 3. What system of law produced the
concept of a trust? What proves its origin?
d. 4. What is the difference between express
and implied trusts? Is an intended trustee
obliged to accept the responsibility?
e. 5. Who imposes a constructive trust? Can
the legal owner of property choose not to
accept the appointment? Give an example of
a constructive trust.
f. 6. Who can enforce a trust?
g. 7. What may be the result of an action for
breach of trust?
h. 8. What makes the position of an
administrator similar to that of a trustee?
i. 9. What conditions must be met to create a
valid express private trust?
j. 10. What must be certain about an express
public trust?
k. 11. What purposes must an organisation set
and work for to qualify as a charity?
l. 12. Why was Amnesty International
disallowed?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 57 “A trust is an agreement whereby property is held and
controlled by someone on behalf of someone else.”
p. 57 “Unlike contracts, trusts can be enforced by a third party,
the beneficiary.”
Mind the translation of an object with the preposition by
denoting the doer of an action expressed by a predicate in the
Passive:
а) by a noun in the instrumental case with the predicate in the
Passive;
б) by a noun in the nominative case with the predicate in the
Active:
1. В отличие от договоров, исполнение
отношений доверительной собственности может
обеспечиваться третьей стороной, бенефициаром.
2. В отличие от договоров, исполнение
отношений доверительной собственности может
обеспечивать третья сторона, бенефициар.
Translate into English using the Passive Voice.
1. Завещание должно быть составлено в
письменной форме и быть подписано
завещателем или другим лицом в его
присутствии. 2. Кроме того, завещание должно
быть подписано каждым свидетелем. 3. Подпись
свидетеля подтверждает сам свидетель в
присутствии завещателя. 4. В соответствии с
договором траста данную собственность
контролирует доверительный собственник,
который был назначен учредителем траста. 5. В
соответствии с правилами деньги с этого счета
может снять только лицо, его открывшее.
II.
p. 57 “... many countries, such as Japan have statutes which
effectively impose trusts in certain cases.”
p. 57 “... to limit the powers of those who have legal rights but
owe special responsibilities to others.”
Relative clauses are introduced by : a) relative pronouns i. e.
who, whom, whose, which, that or b) relative adverbs i. e. when,
where, why.
Whom, which, whose can be used in expressions of quantity
with of (some of many of, half of, etc.): She already knew many of
the freshmen, some of whom were from her school.
We don’t normally use prepositions before relative pronouns.
The office in which this solicitor works is in the town centre.
(formal - unusual)
The office which this solicitor works in is in the town centre.
(usual)
The office this solicitor works in is in the town centre. (more
usual)
1. Договор, который подписан двумя
сторонами, вступает в силу с момента подписания,
что является обычной деловой практикой. 2. Хотя
он только что начал работать в этой юридической
компании, он уже изучил ряд дел, о многих из
которых он слышал ранее. 3. Налоговые льготы, о
которых вы только что упомянули,
предоставляются только некоммерческим
организациям, которые зарегистрированы в
соответствии с законодательством. 4. Он так
никогда и не узнал причину, по которой его отец
отказался возбуждать иск. 5. Агент должен
передать всю выручку от сделки своему
принципалу, который уполномочил его на эту
сделку.
III.
p. 59 “In many countries charities can claim tax exemptions...”
to claim - 1) претендовать, требовать
2) возбуждать иск (о возмещении
ущерба)
3) заявлять, утверждать
claim - требование, право требования,
претензия, заявление права, иск
to claim damages - требовать возмещения убытков
to file a claim - подавать иск
1. Он претендовал на налоговые льготы, так
как он заключил с приютом договор о воспитании
нескольких сирот. 2. Хотя его адвокат советовал
подать иск из неправомерного присвоения
собственности, он решил не делать этого, что
удивило его партнеров. 3. Поскольку
поставленные ему скоропортящиеся продукты
оказались испорченными, он потребовал
возмещения убытков. 4. Он уже неоднократно
заявлял, что собирается создать траст,
бенефициаром которого будет приют, в котором
он сам воспитывался в детстве. 5. Закон
предусматривает, что иски, поданные
родственниками жертв теракта, будут
рассматриваться в следующем месяце.
IV.
Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the
meaning stays the same.
a) They said that John had stolen the money.
They
accused ................................................................................................
........
b) Jan said that he hadn't punched anybody.
Jan
denied ..................................................................................................
...........
c) 'OK, Andy, you can go now,' said the detective.
The detective gave
Andy .....................................................................................
d) 'James Frogget, you will go to prison for ten years,' said the
judge.
The judge
sentenced ............................................................................................
e) 'I forged the signature,' said Mary.
Mary
admitted ..............................................................................................
.......
f) Harry stole $30,000 and was arrested.
Harry was
arrested ..............................................................................................
g) 'We saw the accused break into the car,' said the witnesses.
The witnesses
stated ............................................................................................
h) Graham said that he wouldn't go to the police station.
Graham
refused .................................................................................................
..
i) 'It's true,' said Norman, 'I murdered Alan.'
Norman confessed
to ..........................................................................................
j) 'Can you come with me, please,' the detective said to Helen.
The detective
asked ..............................................................................................
V.
Use the word in capitals at the end of each line to form a word
that fits in the space in the same line.
Arthur's life of crime
At his last trial, nobody believed in Arthur's (1) ............... . He
had been accused of the (2) ............... of a valuable Chinese vase,
and was also charged with ten other (3) ............... . The value of the
(4) ............... goods was said to be over $10,000. Arthur said in his
own (5) ............... that the vase had been put into his car
(6) ............... . He also pointed out that the Chinese vase was a fake,
and was almost (7) ............... . The judge did not believe Arthur's
story. He told Arthur he was a hardened (8) ............... and that he
deserved a severe (9) ............... . Then the judge sentenced Arthur to
five years (10) ............... . Arthur just smiled. He had spent most of
his life in prison and so he was used to it.
1. INNOCENT
2. THIEF
3. OFFEND
4. STEAL
5. DEFEND
6. ACCIDENT
7. WORTH
8. CRIME
9. PUNISH
10. PRISON
Exercise 3.
1/ trust a/ the body, principal
sum, or capital of a trust
2/ trustee b/ a person who
establishes a trust
3/ trustor / settlor / donor / c/ an implied trust that
grantor arises in favour of one who is
defrauded when title to
property is obtained by fraud
4/ beneficiary d/ a trust that arises by
implication of law from the
conduct of the parties
5/ express trust e/ a right of ownership to
property held by one person for
the benefit of another
6/ implied trust f/ a trust created
explicitly
7/ constructive trust g/ someone for whose
benefit a trust is created
8/ executor h/ a person who holds
legal title to property in trust
for another
9/ trust property i/ a man nominated in a
will of a decedent to carry out
the terms of the will
Exercise 4.
Траст – это правоотношение, в силу которого
одно лицо (учредитель; сэтлор) передает в
собственность другому лицу (доверительному
собственнику) какое – либо имущество или право с
возложением на него обязанностей по
управлению такой собственностью от своего
собственного имени в качестве независимого
собственника для извлечения выгоды в пользу
третьих лиц (выгодоприобретателей;
бенефициаров). Специфика трастовых отношений
состоит в том, что базой таких отношений
является их доверительный характер…
Понять суть траста в отрыве от системы
английского права практически невозможно,
т.к.трасты являются детищем одной из отраслей
английского права – права справедливости.
Причина такого непонимания лежит в самом
различии между системами континентального
(романо-германского) и общего (английского)
права, поэтому нам следует совершить небольшой
экскурс в историю и посмотреть на то, как
возникли трасты, как они развивались и чем они
стали в настоящее время.
Сходные в общих чертах с трастами
отношения по управлению имуществом лицами, не
являющимися его собственниками, появились уже
в Древнем Египте: опека над собственностью
малолетних принцев и принцесс, распоряжение
наследством и т.д. Имуществом фараона и их
детей управляли жрецы древнеегипетских
храмов.
Право человека на получение имущества,
находящегося в собственности других лиц, было
зафиксировано еще в одном из первых кодексов
древности – в сводах Солона примерно в 600 г. до
нашей эры (право на выбор наследника и лица,
могущего получать собственность независимо от
родственных связей). Институт же траста, как
таковой, сложился в Англии в эпоху раннего
средневековья в 12-13 вв. Духовенству была
крайне необходима основательная материальная
база для распространения своих идей, однако
запрет на владение каким – либо имуществом и
собственностью вообще не позволял решать эту
задачу. Выходом стало установление отношений
доверительной собственности. Первыми трасти
были монахи ордена Св. Франциска. Знатные
горожане жертвовали в их пользу земельные
угодья, замки, другое имущество, но не
непосредственно в их пользу, а номинальному
собственнику - специальному совету горожан, что
являлось всего лишь фикцией. Пользовались же
имуществом монахи, выступавшие доверенными
лицами горожан.
Где же взаимосвязь права
справедливости и института доверительной
собственности? Все дело в том, что суды общего
права не давали учредителю никакой защиты от
недобросовестного поведения доверительного
собственника, имевшего неограниченное право на
управление и распоряжение имуществом. Итак,
защищая нарушенные интересы учредителя,
король, а позднее лорд-канцлер выносили
справедливое решение, свободное от устаревших
догматов судов общего права. По нему
доверительный собственник был обязан
действовать определенным образом и передавать
доходы бенефициару, в противном случае ему
грозил арест. Нормы морали и справедливости, не
имевшие вначале правовой базы, по мере
рассмотрения дел тавой категории, находили
обоснование в многочисленных судебных
прецедентах.
Трасты в офшорных зонах.
Давайте посмотрим на причины,
побуждающие к созданию трастовых компаний:
Снижение налогов или полное освобождение
от них.
Сохранение конфиденциальности. (Одна из
самых привлекательных черт Кипрского Закона “О
Международных Трастах”, который гарантирует
нераскрытие информации по трастовой компании)
Сохранение семейного владения имуществом.
Сохранение контроля и распоряжение
имуществом, несмотря на передачу права
собственности на него трастовой компании.
Лицо, желающее осуществлять инвестиции в
иностранный бизнес, но так, чтобы все доходы и
дивиденды от этого не пересылались в страну его
постоянного места жительства, может открыть
офшорную трастовую компанию для достижения
этой цели.
В некоторых случаях имущество передается в
траст с целью уберечь его от претензий
кредиторов.
Эти, а также многие другие аргументы
делают использование трастовых компаний
чрезвычайно привлекательным и в наше время.
Exercise 5
Read the following text and be ready to discuss it:
In the event of your death , who would you want to care for
your children? Not a question that many parents would choose to
mull over at breakfast. Until now. No parent could be left unaffected
by the story of 32-year-old single parent, Rosa Julia Gonzalez, who
- as the World Trade Centre burst into flames - made a final phone
call to ask her sister to take care of her 12-year-old daughter. Or at
reports of American couples believed to be at risk from Anthrax
making wills that name potential guardians.
"These troubled times have shaken us all into realising that we
can't control our lives," explains Wendy Murphy, service director
for Daisy's Dream, a charity for bereaved children. It may seem
morbid, but making provision for childcare can give a parent some
sense of control as well as peace of mind, she says.
Jennifer Lauck, 37, suffered horrendous consequences as a
result her parents failing to do just that. "Both my parents died
before I was 11 and did not provide a guardian," explains the author
of the memoir Blackbird (Littlebrown). "My brother and I were
separated and taken in by families who simply didn't care about us,
who were emotionally cruel and detached. When my brother was
23, he ended his own life. I survived but I did get married when I
was 19, primarily because I had so little value of myself. That
marriage ended after four years."
Now that Lauck is happily remarried with a family of her own,
she has chosen guardians based purely on values and the assurance
that they would not separate her children under any circumstances.
A wise move, says Julie Stokes, chief executive of Winston's Wish,
another organisation for bereaved children. "The ideal guardian has
four key abilities," she says. "First, they need to be someone the
child trusts and can open up to. Secondly, they need to be someone
who would enable your child to keep your memory alive with
memory boxes right through to everyday conversation - in other
words, someone who isn't insecure or jealous.
"Thirdly, they need to be someone who - at least, initially -
can move into your home and enable your child to carry on as far as
possible in their old lifestyle. This is because the child bereavement
process can involve not only the primary loss, but secondary losses -
losing friends, their bedroom, their school, for instance. It's crucial
to minimise these secondary losses. Finally, they need to be able to
instill clear boundaries in the child's life."
When a child's parent dies, explains Stokes, it completely
challenges their faith in the world. "That is why bereaved children
so often test out this faith in extreme ways. The best way for that
faith to be regained is with consistency - in terms of bedtimes and
meaning 'no' when you say it and so on."
The problem is that this "someone" sounds more like a
guardian angel than any mortal creature. "The fact that these star
qualities are so hard to come by is precisely the reason that parents
often don't get round to actually appointing anyone," says Stokes.
"Intuitively, parents know that these are the attributes that are
important and as they compare this list with a list of people they
know, they realise they have to compromise - and parents don't like
compromising."
Philippa Anneti, 50-year-old mother of three children aged 28,
25 and 17, knows this all too well. "When our children were young,
it was very important to me to know who would look after them if
my husband and I died," she says. "But the more we saw how our
friends brought up their families, the more we knew who we didn't
want to ask. In the end, we just kept putting off thinking about it
until our eldest daughter was 18 and we could ask her if she would
act as guardian for the youngest."
Other reasons for parents delaying the final decision include
the fear that their request will be rejected. "After a great deal of
thought, I asked a couple to be potential guardians and they felt they
couldn't," says Rachel West, a 45-year-old mother of four children
aged 13,11,8 and 6. "It really threw me because if it were the other
way round, I wouldn't have hesitated. It made me feel more insequre
than before and scared to approach anyone else."
The Law Society reports that procrastination on the
guardianship issue is one of the chief reasons that only a third of
adults in this country have made a will. As David Flemming, a
solicitor with William Heath & Co, explains, "Any parent who is
interested in making a will would be advised by their solicitor to
consider naming what is known in law, as the testamentary
guardian'." So you could say that making a will pushes people into
coming to some decision.”…
1. Is the institution of trust well established in your country?

2. Why are trusts of this kind infrequent in this country?
3. Some people say that the ideas of insurance and making up
wills are too vague, intangible to find their application here in the
near future. Do you agree?
Portion 10
Exercise 1.
p. 61 land law, real estate (недвижимое
имущество), personal estate (движимое
имущество), immovable assets, movable assets, a
vehicle, a subsistence farmer, a city dweller, to need
shelter, to pay instalments on a house, a commodity,
savings,
p. 63 to be reluctant to do smth., an ancestor, an estate;
p.64 to be forfeited (быть прекращенным – о
праве);
p. 65 a land registry (земельный кадастр), to
repossess the property, a land user, a purchaser, a
vendor;
p. 66 to extend an existing building, a local authority, a local
council, to pull down a building, an extension to a building, to
comply with regulations, residential housing
Mind the terms:
a tenant – владелец (недвижимости),
арендатор; title – правовой титул,
правооснование; estates in land - право на
недвижимость; an heir to smth - наследник; a
freehold – безусловное право собственности на
недвижимость, фригольд; a leasehold (lease) –
владение на правах аренды; a lessee -
арендатор; covenants – обязательства (из
договора за печатью); a commonhold – долевое
право на пользование землей; an easement -
сервитут; a rent-charge – арендная плата; legal
mortgage – законное залоговое право; a mortgagee -
залогодержатель; a mortgagor - залогодатель; a
right of entry право мирного завладения;
conveyancing – передача собственности на
недвижимость; title deeds – документ,
подтверждающий правовой титул; a landlord -
землевладелец; a license - лицензия; arrears –
недоимки, задолженность; bylaws –
постановление органа местной власти
a. 1. What is the difference between real
estate and personal estate?
b. 2. Why do people attach so much
importance to land as a form of property?
c. 3. What business transactions can be made
with land?
d. 4. What accounts for the complexity of
land law and why are governments reluctant
to change it?
e. 5. What is necessary to prove title in
England?
f. 6. What is the difference between a
freehold and a leasehold?
g. 7. Can a lessee sell his lease? Will the
buyer possess the land exclusively? What
obligations will he incur?
h. 8. What can cause the forfeit of a lease?
i. 9. What right to land enables an apartment
owner to sell his apartment without the worry
as to the term of his lease?
j. 10. Name and give examples of the four
legal interests over land recognized in
England since 1925.
k. 11. Give examples of “equitable” interest a
third party can have in land.
l. 12. What two documents will a solicitor
study if he is handling a land transfer?
m. 13. What else should he consider in order to
avoid mistakes?
n. 14. What is the difference between a lease
and a license?
o. 15. How are tenants’ rights protected in
England?
p. 16. Can an authority make a landlord
reduce rent? Which court can do it?
q. 17. Is the freedom of using our private land
limited? Give some examples of these
limitations.
r. 18. Why do you have to obtain a planning
permission if you want to build?
s. 19. What land is owned publically? What
laws regulate the use of such land?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 63 “Having had less political change than most countries,
England still uses many land laws which originated hundreds of
years ago.”
Analyse the use of Participle I in the following examples:
1/ Only for a moment did he glance at the defendant sitting
behind the bars. (attribute)
2/ Delving into the databases, he came across a lot of court
opinions, statutes and litigation materials. (adverbial modifier of
time)
3/ Having successfully passed a writing course at his law
school, he had a big competitive edge over other applicants.
(adverbial modifier of reason)
4/ He finished the lecture prodding the students to analyse the
context of judicial opinions rather than parroting quotations willy-
nilly. (adverbial modifier of manner or attending circumstances)
1. Выплатив все платежи по ипотечному
кредиту, он решил переехать в город и стать
городским жителем. 2. Потратив все свои
сбережения, он не смог оплатить просроченные
арендные платежи. 3. Соблюдая местные законы,
городская администрация была вынуждена снести
ряд пристроек к домам на центральной улице. 4.
Получив разрешение местных властей на
строительство магазина в жилом квартале города,
он решил немного отдохнуть, прежде чем
приняться за работу. 5. Используя свои участки
земли в качестве обеспечения, землевладельцы
могут получить гораздо больший кредит в банке.
II.
p. 64 “... they must decide who is to pay if expensive repairs
need to be done.”
To be to do serves to indicate a previous arrangement and it
generally implies an obligation resulting from that arrangement. The
meaning of obligation may become so strong that to be to
sometimes expresses orders or instructions which are to be carried
out in the future.
When it denotes a future action viewed from the past it may
acquire the meaning of something destined to happen. Was / were
to have done indicates an action that hasn’t been carried out though
it was planned.
1. Выдав разрешение на застройку этого
района, местные власти должны контролировать
строительство. 2. Поскольку он должен был
заплатить арендную плату еще в прошлом месяце,
ему придется выехать из квартиры. 3. Вы должны
проанализировать все правоустанавливающие
документы на этот дом! Я вам плачу за эту работу!
4. Покупатель и продавец прачечной должны были
встретиться на прошлой неделе и подписать
договор, но продавец неожиданно заболел. 5.
Хотя вам и не хочется строить пристройку к этому
зданию, вы должны сделать это в этом месяце:
это часть нашего договора.
III.
p. 64 “... there still exist many kinds of “equitable” interest
which the buyer and seller need to know about.”
There + be is used for something mentioned for the first time
or to say that someone or something exists. Note the following
structures:
There still exist law schools where no courses in legal writing
are taught.
There seems to be no end to the clients’ complaints.
There appears to be a problem in passing the Bar Final
examination.
There is no denying the fact that studying for law finals is
time-consuming.
There must be a land registry in this town, which might help
you to examine the title deeds.
1. Возможно, и существует разрешение на
снос этого здание, но вы все же должны
проверить это. 2. Существует несколько способов
оплаты покупки недвижимости. 3. Нельзя
отрицать, что земельное право - одна из самых
сложных отраслей права. 4. Похоже, существует
недопонимание между продавцом и покупателем
относительно цены недвижимости, о которой вы
говорите. 5. Должно быть, здесь существуют свои
местные законы, регулирующие сделки с
недвижимостью.
IV.
p. 65 “... solicitors used to examine title deeds ...”
Used to is used to show the contrast with the present. The
contrast may be stated or understood.
Would is used to describe repeated actions, not states. It
describes a habitual activity which was typical of a person. Would is
more common in written language and often occurs in
reminiscences.
1. Он прекрасно помнит, как раньше каждое
утро перед тем, как пойти в офис, он ходил в
библиотеку суда изучать материалы дел о
незаконной передаче недвижимости. 2. Раньше
ему приходилось тратить много времени на поиск
нужных данных о правах пользователей на
движимое и недвижимое имущество в библиотеке,
теперь, когда появились современные базы
данных, на это уходит гораздо меньше времени. 3.
Раньше он был великолепным адвокатом,
специализирующимся на делах о коммерческой
недвижимости, но, к сожалению, после аварии он
не может уже работать так, как раньше. 4. В
молодости он частенько ходил на открытые
слушания по уголовным делам, сейчас он
использует данные по тем делам в своих
детективах. 5. Раньше он был фермером, но после
засухи разорился и вынужден был стать
городским жителем, которых он раньше
недолюбливал.
V.
p. 65 “Conveyancing is one of the areas in which solicitors
sometimes get sued by clients.”
Get can be used instead of be to form the Passive in spoken
English.
1. Несмотря на все его усилия, против него
все же был подан иск соседом, обвинявшим его в
нарушении права пользования собственностью на
условиях аренды. 2. В конце концов этот дом был
продан, хотя и за половину первоначальной цены
к огорчению собственника. 3. Хотя
общественность выступала против сноса этого
исторического здания, его все же снесли по
соображениям безопасности, оно могло бы
свалиться и принести огромный ущерб. 4. После
судебного разбирательства ему все же заплатили
за оказанные им юридические услуги по
нарушению прав из сервитута. 5. Мартина
арестовали за незаконные сделки с
недвижимостью.
VI.
Decide which answer A, B, C or D best fits each space.
Inspector Crumb Investigates
'I think I know the identity of the murderer,' said Inspector
Crumb, 'and at (1) ..... one of the guests in this hotel was a/an (2) .....
to the crime, probably by (3) ...... I believe that the same guest is
also a (4) ..... , and has been given money by the killer.' 'So whoever
(5) ..... this terrible crime is still here,' I said. 'But of course. In
(6) ..... he - or she - is in this room, and will soon be (7) ..... arrest.'
There was silence for a moment. I noticed that everyone was trying
to look (8) ..... , but they all looked guilty instead! 'Do you have any
(9) ..... , Inspector,' asked Lady Grimshaw finally, 'or are you simply
(10) ..... people for fun? If you intend to (11) ..... someone, you
should do it now.' The Inspector smiled. 'I asked you here (12) .....
purpose, Lady Grimshaw. I have been reading your (13) ..... , you
see, and it is quite clear that you have told several (14) ..... .' 'How
dare you!' Lady Grimshaw spluttered. 'Do you (15) ..... that you
were with Tim Dawson in the garden on the night of the murder?'
the Inspector said? 'You forgot about the security cameras, you
see...
1 a) last b) c) the d)
least school
)2) a) b) c) d)
witness offender guilty verdict
33) a) b) c) d)
now damages law accident
44) a) b) c) d)
blackmaile hostage hooligan forger
r
55) a) b) c) d)
confessed committed admitted performed
66) a) b) c) d)
crime self- fact danger
defence
77) a) to b) c) d) my
having under
88) a) b) c) d)
accused suspicious ordinary innocent
99) a) b) c) d)
evidence witness permission body
110 a) b) c) d)
suspecting suing denying accusing
111 a) b) c) d)
trial charge sentence confess
112 a) B) for c) on d) by
with
113 a) b) c) d)
statement biography evident history
114 a) b) c) d)
people errors times lies
115 a) b) c) d)
refuse deny contradict suppose
Exercise 3.
Match the terms with their definitions in each group of seven:
1/ right of entry a/ ownership interest
2/ estate b/ the right to charge a
landholder a periodical sum of
money
3/ rent charge c/ the right of a
freeholder to enter a lessee’
property
4/ mortgage d/ a permission to do a
particular thing
5/ license e/ one who borrows
money and gives a mortgage -
that is, pledges property - to
the lender as security for the
loan
6/ easement f/ the right to use the land
of another for a particular
purpose
7/ mortgagor g/ a conveyance of real
property for the purpose of
securing a debt
8/conveyancing h/ a person who has

temporary possession of an
interest in real property of
another under a lease
9/ commonhold i/ transferring title to real
property
10/landlord j/ a person who inherits
property
11/ mortgagee k/ a person who owns
real property and who rents it
to another under a lease
12/ lessee l/ one who lends money
and takes back a mortgage as
security for the loan
13/ heir m/ an estate in which the
holder owns the land for life or
for ever
14/ freehold estate n/ a share in the freehold
of the land
15/ leasehold estate o/ ownership

16/ covenant p/ a person who has
temporary possession of an
interest in real property of
another under a lease
17/ title deed q/ a promise or assurance
18/ title r/ law enacted by a town
19/ tenant s/ an estate that is less
than a freehold estate, the
interest that is conveyed by a
lease
20/ bylaws t/ money that is owing
and that ought to have been
paid
21/ arrears u/ a formal written
instrument by which title to
real property is transferred
from one person to another
Exercise 4.
Земельный Кодекс РФ Статья 53.
Собственники земельных участков,

землевладельцы, землепользователи и
арендаторы обязаны: 1) эффективно использовать
землю в соответствии с целевым назначением,
повышать ее плодородие, применять
природоохранительные технологии производства,
не допускать ухудшения экологической
обстановки на территории в результате своей
хозяйственной деятельности;
2) осуществлять комплекс мероприятий по
охране земель…;
3) своевременно вносить земельный налог или
арендную плату;
4) не нарушать прав других собственников
земельных участков…, а также порядок
пользования лесными угодьями, водными и
другими природными объектами;
5) своевременно представлять…
установленные законодательством сведения о
состоянии и использовании земель;
6) вести любое строительство, руководствуясь
действующими строительными нормами и
правилами по согласованию с
землеустроительными,…пожарными, санитарными
и природоохранительными органами. При аренде
земли …возводить жилые, производственные,
культурно-бытовые и иные строения… в
соответствии с целевым назначением земли,
указанным в договоре…
В случае досрочного расторжения
договора аренды по инициативе собственника, он
обязан возместить арендатору в полном объеме
все нанесенные им убытки, включая упущенную
выгоду.
Do you think your activity can be challenged by a local
authority if you choose to convert your plot of land attached to the
house into a “leisure garden” with an apple tree and soft grass to lie
on instead of “making it more fertile”?
Exercise 5.
Before you read
Discuss these questions:
Who owns the lakes, mountains and rivers in your country? Is
there a lot of private land ownership, or does the state control the
countryside and “unclaimed” land? Is it all mapped and registered?
Do you think commercial exploitation of the natural resources
of the land (for example, minerals) can also respect the traditions of
the area where those resources are found?
Read the texts and answer the questions:
A.
Australian Aborigines plan protests over uranium ruling
Aboriginal groups and environmentalists are planning protests

across Australia after failing to block the development of a uranium
mine on traditional Aboriginal land in the Northern Territory
Australia's federal court ruled last week that the territory's
government had the right to grant a mining lease at Jabiluka, which
lies inside a World Heritage-listed national park, to Energy
Resources of Australia (ERA) The company is one of Australia's
two uranium producers.
The ruling virtually exhausted the legal options for the Mirrar
Aboriginal people in their 20-year-old campaign to block uranium
mining on their traditional land at Jabiluka, which contains one of
the world's largest undeveloped uranium deposits.
An appeal to the High Court, Australia's supreme judicial
authority, is possible but unlikely, considering the weight attached
to decisions by the federal court's full bench, analysts said.
The Mirrar group was granted custody of the land under the
1976 Land Rights Act In recent years it has tried to overturn an
earlier agreement between one of its former leaders, now dead, and
mining interests The group says that approval to mine at Jabiluka
was given 'under duress'.
After the judgment, environmentalist groups, including
Greenpeace and the Wilderness Society, said they would step up
their protests, both at Jabiluka and in Australia's main cities, to try
to halt development of the mine.
The managing director of North, a diversified mining
company and majority owner of ERA, last week described the stand
off as a 'totemic issue' 'As far as we can see, Jabiluka will stay on
track and on timetable and there is no reason that legal challenges
would hold it up,' he said.
FINANCIAL TIMES
BY Gwen Robinson in Sydney
a. 1. Who are the main protesters in
Australia against ERA?
b. 2. What are they trying to achieve?
c. 3. Who owns the land where the uranium
is?
d. 4. For how many years have the
Aboriginal people tried to ban the mine?
e. 5. What is the highest court in Australia?
f. 6. What rights do the Aboriginal people
claim they have dating from 1976?
g. 7. Do they consider the contract with the
mining companies to be valid?
h. 8. Which company owns ERA?
i. 9. When will mining operations begin?
B.
Read the second article and answer the questions:
BHP makes a pipe dream come true
Canada's Ekati diamond mine is a triumph of cooperation.

writes Scott Morrison.
The Ekati diamond mine sits alongside an important caribou
migration route in Canada's desolate Northwest Territories. Grizzly
bears and other wild animals are known to pass by occasionally, but
the region was rarely visited by man until Broken Hill Proprietary,
the Australian group, began developing the site almost two years
ago.
The logistical challenges of establishing a mine in the remote
region around Lac de Gras, some 300 km north of Yellowknife,
were compounded by an inhospitable climate that can send
temperatures plummeting to minus 50 degrees Celsius. The mine
site was far from ideal and many sceptics believed hopes of
extracting diamonds from the Canadian tundra were a pipe dream.
Territorial officials and native leaders acknowledge that BHP
was quick to understand that for the project to succeed, the interests
of the local population would have to be taken into account. The
company spent several years negotiating with the territorial
government and four native groups that claimed rights to the
territory on which the diamond-bearing pipes were discovered.
Native and territorial leaders were very concerned about
protecting the environment and demanded that the company divert
waterways, safeguard against environmental damage and maintain
the purity of small lakes at the mine site. In possibly the most
contentious issue, government leaders demanded that BHP build a
sorting and evaluation centre in Yellowknife and sell 10% of the
mine's output to buyers within the territory. Native Indians have
received training and jobs at the mine as well as financial
compensation.
FINANCIAL TIMES
By Scott Morrison
a. 1. Why was the mine site far from ideal
when BHP started developing it?
b. 2. Which groups did BHP have to
negotiate with?
c. 3. What were the groups concerned with?
d. 4. What did they demand?
e. 5. Why is Ekati diamond mine called a
triumph of cooperation?
Over to you
1. Compare and contrast the two mines from the point of view
of:
the local people
the mining companies
and the legal position.
Quote from the article to support your position: Use the
phrases: According to…, Government leaders said…, Native groups
argued…; A spokesman for… said…
What more should be done to acknowledge the traditional
rights of native peoples more satisfactorily?
(From MARKET LEADER Business law by Tricia
Smith
Exercise 6.
Role-play
The commercial use of a land is regarded as a matter of
national interest (benefit to the community) but substantial
inconvenience and possible harm to the local population (as in the
case of nuclear waste burial).
Role 1. You think that national interest must outweigh any
other considerations against the idea.
Role 2. You think that no interest can be pursued at the
expense of other people’s well-being no matter how small the group
exposed to the risk is.
Role 3. You think that a compromise such as a promise of
high security standards and adequate compensation to the local
community can and must be reached.
Portion 11
Exercise 1.
p. 68 to run a business, to set up a business, to
suspend activities, to make illegal payments, to be
relevant to smth., tax liabilities (обязанности по
уплате налогов), to minimize losses;
p. 69 an artificial legal person, to have limited liability,
assets, a public limited company, to raise capital, to
list shares on the stock exchange, to make profits, a
share issue(выпуск, эмиссия), a shareholder, the
nominal value (номинальная стоимость), to sell
shares at a premium (продажа с премией –
надбавкой);
p. 70 to sell shares at a discount, a loan, to call in a loan, a sole
trader, a partnership, bankruptcy, to file smth. with the national
registrar of companies (регистратор компаний –физ.
или юр. лицо), an object, to engage in activities;
p. 71 to conform to law, a certificate of
incorporation ( сертификат инкорпорации), internal
management, appointment, powers and removal of
directors, a board meeting, to keep accounting
records (бухгалтерские документы), entries of
receipts and payments, assets and liabilities (активы
и пассивы), a profit and loss account;
p. 72 inside knowledge, a deterrent
(удерживающее/сдерживающее ср-во), an order of
priority, to go bankrupt; to minimize tax liabilities.
Mind the terms:
a limited (liability) company (or corporation ) –
компания с ограниченной ответственностью;
limited by shares\by guarantee – компания с
ответственностью участников в пределах
принажлежащих им акций\ … с
ответственностью в гарантированных ими
пределах; dividend - дивиденд; debentures\bonds –
долговое обязательство, облигация; unlimited
company – компания с неограниченной
ответственностью ее членов; a memorandum of
association – меморандум об ассоциации
(определяет внешние отношения компаний);
ultra vires; articles of association – “статьи
ассоциации” (излагает внутренние правила);
insider trading – “внутренняя торговля”:
незаконные операции с ценными бумагами на
основе “внутренней” информации о
деятельности компании-эмитента; dissolution –
роспуск, юридическое прекращение
деятельности; to be liquidated\wound up – б.
ликвидированной
Comprehension check
A.
• 1. Do you think the increasing legal
activity to regulate business an alarming or a
normal phenomenon?
• 2. What accounts for it?
• 3. What legal principles must be studied
by a person setting up or otherwise engaging
in business?
• 4. What are the general problems any
business is likely to face?
• 5. What is the most important statute
regulating companies under English law?
• 6. Explain or complete these statements:
• - a limited company has a separate identity
from its members;
• - they have limited liability;
• - their liability is limited by shares/ by
guarantee;
• - the company’s liability is not limited;
• - PLCs are…, that raise capital by…;
• - A share is…;
• - The more shares a member holds, the
more…;
• - many transactions can be made with shares;
• - sell at a premium/ at a discount
• - debentureholders, apart from shareholders,
are entitled to…;
• - a lender can secure his loan by…;
• - What are the responsibilities of a sole trader?
• - a partner’s share in business depends on…
and reflects… .
• 7. Why is partners’ legal position closer to
that of a sole trader, than of a company
member?
• 8. What is a memorandum of association?
• 9. What was the purpose of ultra vires
activity?
• 10. Is it possible to get protection
contracting on ultra vires matters now?
• 11. What happens after registration?
• 12. What do articles of association detail?
• 13. What are the regulations concerning
directors?
• 14. How is accountability regulated?
• 15. What is isider trading?
• 16. What are the ways of liquidating a
company?
• 17. What precautions are taken in order to
protect the rights of creditors?
B.
The following text introduces the area of company law.
Complete the text by using the words given below.
agreements borrow corporations court debts dividends
employees legal legislation liability limited objectives
partnership
profits property registered (x2) shareholders sole trader
sue
A company is a ______ entity, allowed by _______ , which
permits a group of people, as _______ , to create an organization,
which can then focus on pursuing set _______ . It is empowered
with legal rights which are usually only reserved for individuals,
such as the right to _______ and be sued, own _______ , hire
_______ or loan and _______ money. The primary advantage of a
company structure is that it provides the shareholders with a right to
participate in the _______ , a proportionate distribution of profits
made in the form of a money payment to shareholders, without any
personal _______ .
There are various forms of legal business entities ranging from
the _______ , who alone bears the risk and responsibility of running
a business, taking the profits, but as such not forming any
association in law and thus not regulated by special rules of law, to
the _______ company with _______ liability and to multinational
_______ .
In a _______ , members 'associate', forming collectively an
association in which they all participate in management and sharing
_______ , bearing the liability for the firm's _______ and being
sued jointly and severally in relation to the firm's contracts or
tortious acts.
Limited-liability companies, or corporations, unlike
partnerships, are formed not simply by _______ entered into
between their first members; they must also be _______ at a public
office or _______ designated by law or otherwise obtain official
acknowledgement of their existence.
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 69 “Shareholders cannot insist on the payment of a dividend
every year ...”
to insist on (doing) smth.
to insist that smb. (should) do smth.
to insist that ...
1. Он настаивал на том, что обвиняемый
должен быть признан невиновным в
использовании конфиденциальной информации в
личных целях. 2. Он настаивал на создании
открытого акционерного общества с ограниченной
ответственностью, что помогло бы им собрать
необходимые средства. 3. Совет директоров
настаивал на необходимости выпуска облигаций с
целью привлечения дополнительных средств. 4.
Суд настаивал на том, что необходимо закрыть
это предприятие, поскольку предмет его
деятельности был незаконным. 5. Акционеры
настаивали на минимизации потерь, связанных с
изменением структуры руководства компанией.
II.
p. 69 “The more shares a member holds, the more voting
rights he will have in general meetings.”
Sentences like this one can be used to say that as one thing
changes, another thing also changes.
1. Чем больше они будут рекламировать
деятельность компании, тем больше средств им
удастся привлечь. 2. Чем больше судья
знакомился с делом, тем больше он понимал
необходимость проведения проверки
бухгалтерской документации ответчика. 3. Чем
подробнее он изучал счет прибылей и убытков
компании, тем больше понимал, что компания вот-
вот обанкротится. 4. Чем быстрее вы подготовите
документы, необходимые для получения
свидетельства о регистрации компании, тем
скорее вы сможете начать деятельность. 5. Чем
меньше исков будет подано против данного
юридического лица, тем больше шансов выиграть
это дело.
III.
p. 70 “... he will have the right to take company property
should there be no money to repay him.”
The use of should after if in a conditional clause makes the
possibility of an event seem unlikely. (Eg., ... if there should be no
money to repay him.) If we use an inverted sentence without if, this
makes the sentence more formal and makes the event less likely.
(Should he have cheated, he will have to be punished).
1. Если вдруг он не сможет вовремя подать
документы для регистрации товарищества, они не
смогут приступить к деятельность в
запланированное время. 2. Если вдруг возникнет
такая ситуация, что они не смогут собрать
достаточно средств для ведения
предпринимательской деятельности, им придется
отказаться от идее создания предприятия. 3. Если
вдруг они обанкротились бы, то им уже давно
пришлось бы свернуть свою компанию. 4. Если бы
суд признал, что эта сделка не соответствует
уставу корпорации, им бы пришлось заплатить
огромные убытки. 5. Если бы ему сказали об
ответственности за использование внутренней
информации в личных целях, он бы, возможно, и
не совершил это правонарушение.
IV.
p. 70 “It used to be the case that both the company and its
clients lost the right to remedies for breach of contract over an ultra
vires transaction.”
Study the main patterns with the pronoun both:
Both barristers are very good.
Both (of) these barristers are good.
They both (both of them) are good barristers.
Both Mr White and Mr Black are good barristers.
He likes both. He doesn’t know which one to hire.
They were both late. They’ve both graduated form a law
school. You should both study la. They both know law. ( Both is
placed after the verb to be and the first auxiliary verb but before the
main verb).
1. Как устав компании, так и другие
документы, необходимые для регистрации были
подготовлены высококвалифицированным
юристом. 2. Независимые аудиторы проверили как
финансовый отчет, так и отчет о прибылях и
убытках компании за предыдущий год. 3.
Казалось, что как директора, так и акционеры
были вполне довольны финансовыми
результатами деятельности компании. 4. Оба эти
дела о банкротстве уже были рассмотрены в
районном суде. 5. Ему предложили два варианта
минимизации налоговых обязательств, и ему
понравились оба.
V.
p. 71 “In any case, companies usually draft very wide objects
clauses to include any activities that the business is likely to be
engaged in now or in the future.”
p. 72 “... a company’s shares are likely to rise or fall ...”
He is likely to pass the Bar exam.
He is likely to have done a lot of studying before the exam.
He is likely to be studying a lot of statutes for the exam.
1. Вероятно, эти законы помешают компаниям
переводить средства третьим сторонам, которые
будут недоступны для кредиторов, если вдруг
компании обанкротятся. 2. Вероятно, они
предпочли продавать акции по номинальной
стоимости. Если бы они вдруг решили продавать
их с приплатой к номиналу, они бы собрали
больше средств. 3. Вероятно, им придется не
объявлять дивиденды в этом году. Если они вдруг
это сделают, у них не останется средств для
текущей деятельности. 4. Вероятно, суд сейчас
рассматривает дело о продаже акций лицами,
располагающими конфиденциальной
информацией. 5. Вероятно, они оба предпочтут
создать товарищество с ограниченной
ответственностью.
VI.
p. 72 “... its (the company’s) registration may be cancelled, as
happened to Lindi St. Claire (Personal Services) Ltd. in 1980
because its objects turned out to be prostitution ...”
He turned out to be a well-qualified lawyer.
He turned out to have already won a lot of similar cases.
He turned out to be handling some litigation that could be
settled out of court.
1. Оказалось, что он уже создавал ряд фирм,
которые позже стали банкротами. 2. Оказалось,
что он изучает вопросы создания корпораций с
ограниченной ответственностью и их налоговые
обязательства. 3. Оказалось, что они не смогли
минимизировать свои убытки и им пришлось
приостановить деятельность. 4. Оказалось, что
вопрос о снятии директоров не был достаточно
подробно оговорен в уставе компании. 5.
Оказалось, что бухгалтерские записи о
поступлениях и платежах не соответствовали
требованиям общепринятых принципов
бухгалтерского учета.
VII.
p. 72 “... most of them employ the services of lawyers ... to
make sure their business does not exceed noise or pollution
regulations.”
The use of the Present Simple to express future actions is
lexically dependent in object clauses after to see to, to take care and
to make (be) sure.

1. Ему самому придется побеспокоиться о том,
чтобы все виды деятельности, которыми
собиралась заниматься компания, были
упомянуты в уставе. 2. Компании придется
регулярно нанимать аудиторов, чтобы
гарантировать, что вся бухгалтерская отчетность
будет вестись с соблюдением необходимых
требований. 3. Оказалось, что он сам
побеспокоился о том, чтобы все свидетели пришли
на слушание дела о ликвидации товарищества с
неограниченной ответственностью. 4. Оказалось,
что он не достаточно хорошо знаком с
полномочиями директоров. Побеспокойтесь о том,
чтобы он познакомился с ними. 5. Им пришлось
прибегнуть к услугам адвокатов, чтобы
гарантировать, что их предприятие будет
соблюдать все местные законы.
VIII.
Registration of new companies
Match the following titles from the regulations for registration
to the extracts from the details.
Titles
1. What are
articles of
association?
2. Can anyone be
a company director?
3. What
company types are
there?
4. What is the
minimum number
of officers a
company requires?
5. Who can form
a company?
6. Can I choose
any name I want for
my company?
7. How do I form
a company?
8. What is a
registered office?
9. What is a
memorandum of
association?
Extracts from the details
a One or more persons but a public company or an
unlimited company must have at least two subscribers.
b It is the address of a company to which Companies House
letters and reminders will be sent.
c This document sets out the rules for running the
company's internal affairs.
d By sending a memorandum of association, the articles of
association, the details of the directors and the company secretary,
and a statement of legal compliance.
e On condition that you are not:
• an undischarged bankrupt or disqualified by a court from
holding a directorship;
• over 70 years of age.
f This document sets out the company's name, the address
of the company's registered office and the object of the company.
g Private companies limited by shares, private companies
limited by guarantee, private unlimited companies, public limited
companies.
h You cannot:
• register the same name as another company;
• use certain words;
• use names likely to cause offence.
i Every company must have formally appointed company
officers at all times.
A private company must have at least:
• one director;
• one secretary - formal qualifications are not required. A
company's sole director cannot also be the company secretary.
A public company must have at least:
• two directors;
• one secretary - formally qualified.
Exercise 3.
1/ corporation a/ people who own shares
in a corporation
2/ limited liability b/ liability that has no
company bounds
3/ dividends c/ a nonpartnership form
of business organisation that
has the tax benefits of a
partnership and the limited
liability benefits of a
corporation
4/ shareholders d/ a document that gives
authority to an organisation to
do business as a corporation
5/ bond e/ profits distributed to
the shareholders of a
corporation
6/ debenture f/ printed paper issued by
a government or a corporation
acknowledging that money has
been lent to it and will be paid
back with interest
7/ sole proprietorship g/ a legal entity created
under state law with the power
to conduct its affairs as though
it were a natural person
8/ partnership h/ anything that is owned
by a corporation, person, etc
that has money value and can
be sold to pay debts
9/ liabilities i/ a certificate given by a
business corporation as a
receipt for money lent at a
fixed rate of interest until the
principal is repaid
10/ assets j/ a person who, because
he is a director or an employee
of a corporation is in a position
to obtain facts and information,
or win advantages, that others
cannot get for themselves
11/ unlimited liability k/ a form of business that
is owned and operated by one
person
12/ certificate of l/ the state of a person
incorporation (including a business) who is
unable to pay debts as they
become due
13/ insider m/ an association of two
or more persons to carry on as
co-owners of a business for
profit
14/ bankrupt n/ a period of time during
which company assets are
liquidated, debts are paid, an
accounting is made, and any
remaining assets are distributed
between the shareholders
15/ winding-up period o/ debts; sums of money
that must be paid
Exercise 4.
Юристы российского отделения фирмы

“Бейкер и Маккензи” пережили все: “железный
занавес”, перестройку, финансовый кризис 1998 г.
“Бейкер и Маккензи” начала свою деятельность в
Советском Союзе 30 лет назад, и теперь фирма
имеет преуспевающее московское отделение, в
котором работают более 30 юристов. Поль
Меллинг, один из партнеров, основавших его,
вспоминает, что поворотным пунктом в
деятельности фирмы в России стал конец 80-х гг.,
когда впервые появились законодательные
документы (legislation was introduced), позволяющие
иностранным компаниям напрямую вкладывать
деньги и приобретать акции российских
предприятий. Вопрос о закрытии
представительства не стоял даже во время
кризиса 1998 г. Хотя фирма и ощутила некоторый
спад, разнообразие форм деятельности (diverse range
of practices) позволило ей успешно работать – такие
отрасли права, как трудовое законодательство,
регулирующее сокращение, реструктурирование,
увольнение сотрудников, (navigating the downsizing,
restructuring and layoff cases) оказались востребованы.
Кризис предоставил возможности для роста. “Мы
не только не сократили количество юристов, - мы
даже наняли новых сотрудников сразу после
кризиса”, - говорит г-н Меллинг.
Сегодня перед фирмой стоят такие проблемы:
как действовать в постоянно изменяющихся
условиях (rapidly changing environment) и как объяснить
западным клиентам, что можно и чего нельзя
делать в России. Российские юристы, обучавшиеся
в России и на Западе, помогают клиентам найти
компромисс (bridge the gap between) между тем, как
осуществляется бизнес на Западе и тем, как
происходит это здесь.
(Partnership, Russia – USA)

The text says:-“The crisis offered new opportunities for
growth”… – can you think of other companies that could boast the
same performance in difficult circumstances?
Can you find in the text some other important features of a
“crisis-resistant” company? Can you add any features of you own?
Look through the last paragraph of the text: what do you
understand by the “gap” that is to be bridged between “Western”
and “Russian” methods of running business?
What other areas of law covering business matters need close
attention of qualified lawyers and legal advisors?
Exercise 5.
Read the text and do the assignment after it.
Ruling says where the rot sets in
An action brought by the buyer of a damaged consignment of

fruit against the carrier of the goods was not an action for breach of
contract but an action for negligence or tort within the meaning of
the Brussels Convention, the European Court of Justice ruled
recently.
The case arose out of proceedings brought by nine insurance
companies led by Reunion Europeenne over a damaged cargo of
pears from Australia received by the insured, Brambi Fruits, a
French company. The insurers attempted to sue the Australian
company which issued the bill of lading, the Dutch company which
carried the fruit (although it was not named in the bill of lading),
and the master of the ship. The fruit had ripened prematurely
because the ship's cooling system had failed.
The French court said it had jurisdiction in respect of the
Australian shipper but declined jurisdiction over the Dutch carrier
and the master. The Paris Court of Appeal confirmed that decision,
but the Court of Cassation stayed proceedings pending a ruling from
Luxembourg on the Brussels convention which covers jurisdiction
and the recognition and enforcement of civil and commercial
judgments in the European Union. The Dutch carrier and the master
argued that the dispute was 'a matter relating to a contract' under the
convention because it was based on the bill of lading.
The Court said that the phrase was to be interpreted
independently and could not be taken to refer to how the legal
relationship in question was classified by the relevant national law.
Under the convention, the general principle was that the courts
of the state in which the defendant was domiciled would have
jurisdiction and it was only by way of derogation from that principle
in certain cases that a defendant might or must be sued elsewhere.
The Court said the bill of lading did not disclose any
contractual relationship between Brambi and the Dutch carrier and
the master. The action against them was not therefore a 'matter
relating to a contract' within the meaning of the convention.
However the action was a matter relating to tort within the meaning
of the convention. Therefore the carrier and the master could be
sued in the courts of either the place where the damage occurred or
the place where the event giving rise to the damage occurred.
In cases such as this involving international transport, the
place where the damage occurred could only be the place where the
carrier was to deliver the goods, it said. Accordingly, the place
where the buyer merely discovered the existence of the damage
could not serve to determine the place where the harmful event
occurred within the meaning of the convention.
FINANCIAL TIMES European court
to have jurisdiction in respect of… - иметь юрисдикцию
в отношении…
a bill of lading - коносамент
pending… - находящийся на рассмотрении
to be domiciled – обозначить место (платежа)
a derogation from a principle- частичная отмена
(закона), умаление (права)
Answer the following questions:
a. 1. What was the matter of the dispute?
b. 2. How many different parties were sued?
c. 3. What did the French court, the Paris
Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation
say?
d. 4. What did the Dutch carrier and the
master argue? Why?
e. 5. Why did the European Court of Justice
rule that the action was not a “matter relating
to contract”? What did the ruling mean for
the defendant and the other party?
Legal brief
In this international dispute, the Court ruled that the case
should be heard where the damage was discovered, in France, where
the fruit was delivered. The Court also ruled that the case was not
about contract law, but was a tort, technically another branch of law.
A tort: the object of proceedings in tort is not punishment but
compensation or reparation to the plaintiff for the loss or injury
caused by the defendant. It is therefore a matter of civil law.
Breach of contract: in contract the duties are fixed by the
parties themselves, who impose terms and conditions themselves by
their agreement. In tort, on the other hand, the duties are fixed by
law (common law statute).
Exercise 6.
Role-play:
Imagine that you are a buyer of fruit for a large restaurant. The
last order you received was rotten and you lost business as a result.
After leaving several messages on the phone, a week has passed
without any apology or explanation from the supplier. You decide
to write a letter of complaint. What details should you include in
your letter? What proof can you offer that the fruit was rotten?
Role 1: You are the buyer. You have not had a reply to your
calls and letter for over two weeks. Visit the warehouse and ask to
speak to the manager. Explain your story. Threaten to tell your story
to the press.
Role 2: You are the manager. This is the first time you have
heard about this complaint. You know nothing about a letter. Try to
make the customer realise that you need to have proof. Ask for
some evidence. Warn A that if they libel the firm, you are prepared
to take legal action. But if there is a genuine grievance, of course
you will try to make up for the loss. But you need evidence.
( Market leader Business law by Tricia Smith)
Portion 12
Exercise 1.
p. 75 the rights of succession, a labour shortage,
a household, child benefit (пособие на ребенка), to
place emphasis upon smb., a child born to such a marriage;
p. 76 a legitimate marriage, an estranged father, a legitimate
child, to grant smb. British citizenship, a welfare payment, a
recipient – (получатель), a baby born to unmarried parents, to
consummate a marriage, blood relations, a surgical sex change, to
break down irretrievably (of a marriage), to seek / to petition for
divorce, to commit adultery,
p. 78 to make financial provisions for smb., a lump sum of
cash, to transfer property into smb.’s name, to recover from a
financial shock;
p. 79 to sentence smb. to death, an adoptive parent, to inherit
smth., tax liabilities;
p. 80 a dependent, inheritance tax (налог на
наследство).
Мind the terms:
to nullify a marriage – аннулировать брак; a
petitioner – проситель, истец; a respondent –
ответчик; custody of a child – опека над…; a guardian
- опекун; to die intestate – без завещания; partial
intestacy –частичное отсутствие завещания; laws
of succession – наследственное право
Comprehension check
a. 1. How would you describe and rate moral
contribution of a family to society?
b. 2. What aspects of family life are
regulated by law?
c. 3. Do you think legal intervention in
family life unacceptable or a natural thing, a
necessary evil or a sure remedy for those who
are maltreated in their family? Give examples
of legislation regulating family relations.
d. 4. Give examples of different attitude of
law to legally registered marriages and social
arrangements whereby people live together.
What do you think a state is inclined to give
more support to the former?
e. 5. What kind of marriages may be
nullified readily in England?
f. 6. Why is English law against simplifying
divorce proceedings in most cases?
g. 7. What courts deal with divorce
proceedings? What five reasons should make
a family breakdown irretrievable in English
law?
h. 8. What provisions are to be made in order
to get a divorce: - for the children of the
family? - the other spouse?
i. 9. What two principles are to be
considered by the court handling a property
division case?
j. 10. What gives rights to property apart from
legal ownership and cash contributions?
k. 11. How are children’s interests observed in
economically developed countries?
l. 12. Who is a guardian? An adoptive parent?
When will a local authority act as a guardian?
m. 13. What does the law of probate deal with?
Why is Probate considered in the chapter
about family law?
n. 14. Is a testator absolutely free to give away
all his property to whoever he wishes? To
what extent can the law modify his will?
o. 15. Why do some people die intestate?
What do laws of succession clarify?
p. 16. What contracts a person made may
influence the administration of his property
after his death?
q. 17. What provisions are likely to be made
by an administrator of the dead person’s
property? How is partial intestacy handled?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 75 “... they are less dependent upon financial support from a
family member.”
p. 78 “... a woman who was financially dependent on her
husband...”
p. 80 “...English courts have some powers to modify the will if
it is unfair to a spouse, child or other dependent.”
to depend on / upon smb. for smth. (He is dependent on his
lawyer for advice)
to be dependent on / upon smb. for smth.
a dependent - иждивенец
to be independent of smb.
1. Размер пособия на ребенка зависит от того,
родился ли ребенок в браке. 2. Хотя он уже был
независим от родителей в принятии многих
решений, он все еще зависел от их финансовой
поддержки, т.е. в юридическом смысле был
иждивенцем. 3. Размер налога на наследство
зависит от того, кем вы приходитесь завещателю.
4. Не важно, как много она зарабатывала и могла
ли она быть финансово независимой от своего
мужа, в силу традиций она все еще считала себя
зависимой от него. 5. Если кто-либо из
иждивенцев лица, умершего без завещания,
подаст иск с целью получения финансовой
поддержки, суд несомненно рассмотрит такой
иск.
II.
p. 75 “... some couples prefer not to register their marriage ...”
to prefer (doing) smth. to (doing) smth. else
to prefer to do smth. rather than to do smth. else
I’ d prefer you to do smth.
I’d prefer your doing smth.
I prefer that you (should) not get involved in this business.
It is preferable to remain silent.
It is preferable that you (should) not get involved in this
business.
1. В наши дни многие женщины, стремясь
быть независимыми, предпочитают не
регистрировать браки официально. Возможно, они
не понимают, что дети, рожденные в таких
браках, могут обладать меньшими правами, чем
те, которые родились в зарегистрированных
браках. 2. Предпочтительно, чтобы вы подали все
документы на этой неделе, если вы претендуете
на опеку над детьми. 3. Он предпочел, чтобы его
брак расторгли в ущерб ему, чем влачить жалкое
существование в кажущейся благополучной
семье. 4. Он предпочел составить завещание, а не
умереть не составив его, чтобы избежать ссор
между родственниками после его смерти. 5.
Несмотря на нехватку рабочей силы, он поручил
целому отделу провести исследование количества
домашних хозяйств в регионе.
III.
p. 76 “It is not surprising this should be the case in a nation
like the United States ...”
After such expressions as it’s wonderful (natural, strange,
absurd, terrible, odd, monstrous, etc.) we find the Indicative Mood.
Care should be taken to observe the rules of the sequence of tenses
when the Indicative Mood is used. But the emotional should may be
used in such cases as well. It adds emotional colouring to the
statements, though in both cases actual facts are referred to.
It’s inconceivable that he should be involved in this crime.
It’s inconceivable that he should have been involved in this
crime.
It’s inconceivable that he should be participating in this
conspiracy.
1. Удивительно, что он подал на развод так
быстро после заключения брака, они ведь
казались всем идеальной парой. 2. Было ужасно,
что он решил оставить семью не сделав
необходимых финансовых распоряжений
относительно детей. 3. Вполне естественно, что
он начал изучать порядок наследования
собственности, поскольку его семья всегда
владела значительным состоянием. 4. Странно,
что он не знал того факта, что дети, рожденные у
незарегистрировавших брак родителей, обладают
меньшими правами. 5. Непостижимо, что он не
оставил завещания: он не мог не знать, что после
его смерти родственники начнут юридическую
войну за его состояние.
IV.
p. 76 “In no case will English law allow divorce proceedings
to start within a year of the marriage ...”
Inversion is used after phrases containing no / not. These
include under no circumstances, on no account, at no time, in no
way, on no condition, not until, not only ... but also, in no case.
Translate into English using inversion.
1. Ни при каких обстоятельствах нельзя ему
позволить перевести собственность на имя жены:
он ведь может остаться без средств к
существованию. 2. Никогда еще ему не приходило
в голову, что дети, рожденные в
незарегистрированном браке, получают большее
пособие. 3. Пока он не понял, что брак распался
окончательно, он ничего не сказал своим
родителям. 4. Ни в коем случая у вас не примут
заявление о разводе, если вы не прожили в браке
хотя бы один год. 5. Ни при каких обстоятельствах
вам не предоставят опеку над детьми, если вы не
можете их финансово обеспечить.
V.
p. 76 “It is also feared that people would get married without
serious thought if it were quick and easy to get a divorce.”
It’s an imaginary hypothetical situation (past + would). The
verb to be usually takes the form were for all persons in these
sentences, though was is used in every day speech. Hypothetical
past situations are expressed with the help of past perfect + would
have.
1. Если бы он не изучал раньше семейное
право, ему бы и в голову не пришло, что может
существовать дискриминация детей, рожденных
вне брака. 2. Если бы он знал, что после его
смерти дети будут ссориться из-за наследства, он,
возможно, составил бы завещание вместо того,
чтобы умереть без него. 3. Если бы на суде он
смог доказать, что уже не существует каких-либо
шансов на примирение, то их брак был бы
расторгнут. 4. Если бы она не была финансово
зависима от своих родителей, то давно бы от них
ушла и создала свою семью. 5. Им казалось, что
если бы им разрешили усыновить ребенка, то они
были бы самыми счастливыми людьми на свете,
но, оказалось, что их средств недостаточно для
содержания ребенка.
VI.
Note the use of phrasal verbs in the following examples.
p. 76 “... the marriage has broken down irretrievably ...”
p. 79 “The testator may give away all of his property ...”
p. 80 “It is necessary to work out how much property...”
p. 80 “... there are laws of succession which clearly lay down
who is entitled to the property ...”
p. 84 “ ... he had given up (waived) his right to discharge the

contract for late delivery.”
p. 86 “... their interests are looked after by the same
government ministry ...”
p. 89 “... the industrial tribunal carried out a job evaluation
survey.”
p. 101 “... a picture in a Time magazine of a woman
breastfeeding her baby was blanked out.”
p. 112 “... they (governments) then cover up any information
about the killing in order to avoid responsibility.”
p. 112 “... and the next day (he) gave himself up to the police.”
1. Может быть, он и оставил бы всю свою
собственность благотворительной организации,
но его собственные внуки нуждались в средствах
для получения образования. 2. В настоящее время
уже существует закон, который бы четко излагал
права близких и дальних родственников на
наследство умершего без завещания и размер
налога на наследство, который они должны
заплатить. 3. Не успели они прожить вместе и
года, как их брак распался, хотя всем казалось,
что их брак был очень счастливым. 4. Суду
предстояло определить, кто из иждивенцев в
первую очередь имел право на долю наследства.
5. Он отказался от своего права на наследство,
поскольку считал, что иждивенцы покойного
нуждаются в средствах больше, чем он. 6. Он сдал
свои ценности в банк на хранение. 7. Многие
правительства заинтересованы в сокрытии фактов
нанесения физических и моральных страданий
задержанным полицией. 8. Хотя он и сдался
полиции, не поговорив со своим адвокатом, он
надеялся, что сможет получить доступ к
адекватной юридической помощи.
VII.
Below are the main areas that Family Law covers. The text
gives excerpts from those areas. Write one area above each text.
Adoption Estate Planning
Child Custody Estates and Trusts
Children's Rights Insurance
Divorce Marriage
1 _______________
The process by which a legal parent-child relationship is
created between individuals not biologically parent and child.
2 _______________
The parents of a child born within a marriage are joint
guardians of that child and the rights of both parents are equal.
3 ______________
Children are generally afforded the basic rights embodied by
the constitution.
4 ______________
As a result of this both parties' status becomes single again.
5 _______________
The process by which an individual or family arranges the
transfer of assets in anticipation of death.
6 _______________
Generally, a trust is a right in property (real or personal) which
is held in a fiduciary relationship by one party for the benefit of
another. The trustee is the one who holds title to the trust property,
and the beneficiary is the person who receives the benefits of the
trust.
7 ______________
While types vary widely, their primary goal is to allocate the
risks of a loss from the individual to a great number of people.
8 ______________
A contract based upon a voluntary private agreement by a man
and a woman to become husband and wife.
Exercise 3.
1/ marriage a/ the care, control and
maintenance of children
2/ divorce b/ not having made a will
before death occurs
3/ household c/ a person who makes or
has made a testament or will
4/ custody of children d/ originally, a legal
instrument stating a person’
wishes as to the disposition of
real estate at death, but now
referring to both real and
personal property
5/ will e/ the laws describing the
order in which people succeed
to a title, the throne, property,
etc.
6/ testator f/ all persons (family,
lodgers, etc.) living in a house
7/ laws of succession g/ the act of terminating a
valid marriage by a court
8/ intestate h/ legal union of a man
and a woman as husband and
wife
Exercise 4.
Ликвидация детской бедности
В то время как Россия пытается решить

проблему беспризорный детей, Великобритания
также занята поисками эффективной стратегии
ликвидации детской бедности. В период с 1979 по
1995 годы, несмотря на стабильное развитие
экономики, Великобритания оказалась в числе
промышленно развитых стран с наивысшим
показателем роста детской бедности.
В декабре 2001 года на Даунинг-Стрит была
проведена представительная конференция,
посвященная этой проблеме. Министр финансов
Гордон Браун представил свой доклад, в котором
четко сформулировал направления деятельности
правительства в решении проблем детей из
неблагополучных семей. Эти дети чаще имеют
ослабленное здоровье, хуже учатся в школе, чаще
совершают правонарушения, а, став взрослыми,
нередко становятся на путь преступления или
попадают в число безработных или
низкооплачиваемых. Чтобы разорвать этот
“порочный круг” бедности, надо дать каждой
семье приличный доход, по возможности,
обеспечив родителей работой, а каждому ребенку
– уровень знаний, открывающий нормальные
перспективы для дальнейшего образования и
трудоустройства; а также принять меры для
улучшения состояния здоровья, социального
статуса родителей, жилищных условий и
окружающей обстановки в районах их
проживания. Он выделил четыре основных
направления работы.
Достойный доход – каждой семье
За последние четыре года правительство
преобразовало систему налогообложения и
социальной помощи так, чтобы работать было
выгоднее, чем получать пособие по безработице.
Наряду с уже действующими программами
отмечена инициатива учреждения Детского
трастового фонда. При рождении ребенка
правительство будет вносить на его счет
дарственный вклад для долгосрочного
инвестирования, таким образом пропагандируя
идею накопления сбережений и обеспечивая
молодых людей, начинающих самостоятельно
жить, хотя бы минимальным стартовым
капиталом.
Высококачественное социальное
обслуживание
Дети, проживающие в бедных районах,
получают значительно меньше индивидуального
внимания в школе, лишены хороших игровых
площадок и положительных примеров для
подражания. В период с 2002 по 2004 год
планируется ежегодно увеличивать сумму
ассигнований на общее и профессиональное
образование более чем на 5.5%.
Более эффективная поддержка родителей
Сознавая всю важность хорошего воспитания
и прочных семейных уз,правительство предлагает
ряд законодательных инициатив, направленных
на облегчение жизни родителей:повышение
суммы пособий, обеспечение выплаты алиментов,
реформирование процедуры усыновления,
создание семейных центров и многое другое.
Укрепление местной общественности
Еще 10 миллионов фунтов стерлингов
выделено на программу “Уверенный старт”
предоставляющую гранты местным общественным
объединениям будущих родителей, родителей и
детей, которые совместными усилиями
разрабатывают методы содействия физическому,
интеллектуальному, эмоциональному и
социальному развитию детей дошколльного
возраста.

Which steps seem most necessary and effective to you?
What other initiatives would you suggest to raise the standard
of life of a Russian family?
Exercise 5.
The Odd Couple
The story of Charlotte and John Fedders rocked Washington.

It had all the ingredients: success, money, ambition, image-
obsession and violence. It has become a modern fable, a cautionary
tale that flashes a warning beacon throughout a whole upper echelon
of tough young men pushing their way to the top, at the expense of
their families.
Charlotte and John were the archetypal successful Washington
couple. He was a young lawyer zooming up the status ladder in the
fast lane. They were a crisp, clean-living Catholic couple with five
young sons, living in a gleaming colonial-style mansion. From the
outside they seemed to have it all; the best country clubs, the best
Catholic private schools for their children, the best privately catered
parties. He was selected for a top, job which brought him into the
public eye.
Then John Fedders' life fell apart. Or, at least, his image of it,
which for him was the same thing. His private life had always been
a catastrophe but one well hidden. The last straw for his wife came
the day he started to turn his violent rage against his eldest son
Charlotte Fedders filed for divorce. She hoped for a quiet divorce
without dispute. But her husband wanted to battle it out. Perhaps he
thought no one would notice an obscure hearing in a small
courtroom in Maryland. But the Wall Street Journal sent a reporter
to write the story, and what a story it was. Fedders had beaten his
wife often and savagely. He thumped her repeatedly when she was
pregnant. He ran the household with a set of iron rules; no one was
permitted to enter the house; in shoes; his sons had to do thirty
press-ups whenever they came into the room. He was .obsessively
mean about money. Charlotte got virtually none for herself and the
children. And yet she worried frantically about their rising debts.
They lived way beyond their means.
The day after the Wall Street Journal ran the story, John
Fedders was forced to resign. The story ran extensively on
nationwide television. It rang new alarm bells. It showed that
battered wives were not necessarily poor or confined to ghettos.
Charlotte learned for the first time the FBI statistics: four women
are beaten to death every day in America by husbands or lovers.
Charlotte got her divorce. John Fedders took a lower paid job
and paid $12,000 a year to Charlotte and the children. The older
children all worked and contributed their money to the household.
Charlotte earned a little in a flower shop, but they were hard
pressed. Then a publisher asked her to write the awful story of her
life. But just before the book was to appear John Fedders took her
back to the divorce court to try to get his puny payments the family
reduced. On top of that, he wanted 25% of the proceeds of the book,
on the grounds that he was the star of it. Everyone expected him to
be laughed out of court. Imagine the shock when the court accepted
his plea and did award that 25%.
Charlotte Fedders now seems like a self-confident and
articulate woman. She makes speeches on battered wives up and
down the country. Her book is a fascinating but dispiriting read. She
was a poor, clinging pathetic creature who invested everything in
her husband and her children. She thought as a young nurse that she
would never find a husband with the sort of earning power that her
family expected. When tall, handsome, athletic, clever Fedders
looked on her with favour she thought she didn't deserve to land
such a big fish. But he spied in her what he wanted; obedience,
adoration, inferiority yet a sufficiently cultivated veneer for social
acceptability. No danger of equality here.
It is a terrible pattern: this story has caused such a stir in
America as it forces attention on the family life of the high
achievers. When gilded young husbands work all the hours under
the sun, who takes the strain? Who bears the brunt of all that bottled
frenetic activity? What do wives and children have to tolerate in
order to keep a man on the upward path?
(Polly Toynbee, The Guardian)
to rock (America)/to cause a stir –
взбудоражить,стать причиной возмущения
cautionary tale (that flashes a warning beacon…)
– история,кот.служит предостережением
to file for divorce – подать заявление о разводе
to battle smth out – выиграть что-то в сражении
to do press-ups – делать отжимания
(to award) the proceeds of a book – присудить выплату
выручки,полученной от продажи книги
to accept a plea – принять иск
Assignment 1.
Answer the questions.
Do you think it was the case when the interference of a state
into the private live of its citizens can be justified? If no, explain
why.
Is the private life of an official or a public servant his personal
business or is he to be answerable to the community for the way he,
say, runs his household?
Аssignment 2.
Read the following text and render it in English. Make up two
or three comprehensive sentences.
В октябре 2001 года была проведена
международная конференция, на которой
встретились руководители петербургского ГУВД и
Столичной полиции Лондона. Среди обсуждаемых
вопросов рассматривалась и актуальная на
сегодняшний день проблема домашнего насилия.
В результате была разработана специальная
программа, которая поможет перенести
британский опыт в борьбе с такими
правонарушениями на российскую почву.
Вкачестве экспериментальной площадки выбран
Кировский район, где работает Служба социально-
юридической помощи пострадавшим от насилия
под названием “Александра”. Эта некоммерческая
общественная организация помогает людям,
попавшим в сложные жизненные обстоятельства.
“Опыт показывает: люди, совершающие
преступления в быту, опасны и вне дома. Поэтому
так важно вовремя остановить рост насилия,” –
говорит начальник международного отдела
университета МВД.
Oднако с проблемой создания
положительного имиджа правоохранительных
органов у населения пришлось столкнуться и
британским коллегам.Полиция полностью
изменила отношение к таким преступлениям,
поставив их на первый план.” Во время визита в
Великобританию мы стали свидетелями того, как
патрульная машина, ехавшая на вызов для
раскрытия убийства, неожиданно изменила
маршрут. Оказалось, поступило сообщение о том,
что в одном из домов происходит крупный
скандал, возможно, угрожающий жизни
нескольким членам семьи. Мы были в изумлении:
какой-то скандал важнее убийства? А теперь
понимаем, что это правильный подход: спасать
следует того, кому еще можно помочь”,-говорит
сотрудник Кировского РУВД.
К сожалению, полное внедрение британского
опыта в этой сфере невозможно из-за различий в
законодательстве Великобритании и России. Так,
например, в нашей стране до сих пор не принят
закон о насилии в семье. Проект этого закона
рассматривался в Государственной Думе, но
дальше обсуждения дело не пошло.
(MОБИ Журнал Посольства Великобритании в
России 1\2002)
Is the matter still urgent in our country? Will the adequate
legislation help?
What steps would you suggest for “the creation of a positive
image of law enforcing bodies”?
Is the creation of establishments similar to “Alexandra” a good
alternative to the recently suggested appointment of supervisors of
public order in every house or will both initiatives fail for some
reasons in the near future?
Portion 13
Exercise 1.
p. 82 to charge the fee, to overcharge customers, a
baker’s dozen, to grow at an unprecedented rate, to
assert one’s rights, a consumer complain, to have low
profit margins (маржа прибыли);
p. 83 consumer law, consumerism, to be of merchantable
quality;
p. 84 a condition, to be lost in delivery, to be of essence,
to be of vital importance, to give up (to waive) one’s
right (отказываться от права), late delivery, to do
smth. at one’s own risk;
p. 85 faulty goods, to issue a directive, to set certain standards,
to withhold information, to exempt smb. from responsibility;
p. 86 to carry out a threat, the Food and Drug
Administration, consumer credit, unsafe goods,
welfare benefits (пособие за счет
благотворительных фондов)
Mind the terms:
a consumer – потребитель; to discharge a contract –
прекратить обязательства по договору; an
intermediate stipulation – промежуточное условие; an
exemption clause – условие об
освобождении\предоставлении льготы; product
liability – ответственность производителя
Comprehension check
a. 1. Who is a consumer?
b. 2. What questions is consumer law
concerned with?
c. 3. When and how were consumer rights
recognized by pre-industrial societies?
d. 4. Why do you think legal activity of
consumers is higher in industrialized
countries than in developing ones?
e. 5. What helps private individuals to assert
their rights when the breach of an agreement
is difficult to prove?
f. 6. What terms are implied by law into
consumer agreements?
g. 7. What is the difference between
conditions and intermediate stipulations in
consumer law?
h. 8. What remedy is available to a consumer
if he is reasonably dissatisfied with the work
done by the other party?
i. 9. When does a wholesale buyer become
responsible for the goods?
j. 10. Is he always able to discharge the
contract for late delivery?
k. 11. Give the definition and examples of
exemption clauses.
l. 12. What requirements must be met to
recognize a clause as part of the contract and
thus binding on the supplier?
m. 13. What is the function of Unfair Contract
Terms Act?
n. 14. What is product liability? How was the
procedure of asserting the rights of a
consumer simplified in England after 1985?
o. 15. What does a Japanese consumer have to
prove to sue the producer? What else hampers
the procedure?
p. 16. There have been attempts to extend
product liability beyond manufactured goods.
Would you support them?
q. 17. What other problems of manufacturers
are mentioned in the text?
r. 18. Do we have an institution in Russia
whose functions are similar to those of
Citizen’s Advice Bureaus?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 82 “However, consumer law is mostly concerned with the
rights of private individuals.”
p. 83 “Where goods are concerned, the implied terms are
conditions.” (= in matters when it’s necessary to think of goods)
to be concerned about smth., to be concerned over smth., to be
concerned for smth. (less frequently) mean to be worried about
smth. (we are concerned about the safety of lawyers working in hot
beds of tension)
to be concerned with smth. means to be interested in smth.
(the judge is concerned with establishing the truth)
1. Если речь идет о каких-либо юридических
вопросах, необходимо обратиться к договорам
купли-продажи. 2. Несомненно, потребители
заинтересованы в отстаивании своих прав. 3. Они
беспокоятся о том, что другая сторона может
осуществить свою угрозу и разорвать договор
аренды. 4. Производители высокотехнологичной
продукции заинтересованы в удержании
определенной информации о своей продукции. 5.
Они обеспокоены опасными товарами, которые
могут быть использованы в детских садах и
школах.
II.
p. 82 “... new legislation is passed every year to clarify the law
and deal with specific problems.”
to deal with smth. / smb. (here) - to manage smth., to attend to
smth.
to deal with smth. / smb. - to be about smth., to be concerned
with smth.
to deal in smth. - to sell smth. ........
1. Их компания торгует товарами, которые
всегда обладали пригодным к торговле качеством.
2. Адвокат предложил создать специальный
отдел, который бы занимался жалобами
потребителей, что могло бы сделать их компанию
еще более популярной у клиентов. 3. Ряд законов,
принятых в последние месяцы, рассматривают
вопросы потребительского права. 4. Новый
директор намерен решительно бороться с
обсчитыванием покупателей. 5. Эта статья
рассматривает вопросы ответственности
производителей за качество выпускаемой
продукции и причины, по которым в последнее
время в беспрецедентных масштабах выросло
количество исков потребителей.
III.
p. 85 “... there are thousands of new cases every year
(compared with 130 in the last fifteen years in Japan).”
to compare x to y means ‘to claim a similarity between x and
y’ (to compare this company to a beehive)
to compare x with / and y means ‘to discuss similarities and
differences between x and y’ (to compare barristers with / and
solicitors)
1. По сравнению с нашей страной в США
ежегодно потребителями возбуждается гораздо
больше исков против производителей товаров
широкого потребления. 2. Он сравнил время,
проведенное за работой над отчетом о прибылях и
убытках, с тем временем, когда он готовился
сдавать выпускные экзамены в своей школе
права. 3. Сравнивая работу юристов в крупных
компаниях и работу юристов в мелких компаниях,
он отметил, что последняя может иногда быть
гораздо более интересной. 4. Она сравнила
процедуру получения потребительского кредита с
настоящей мукой. 5. Сравнивая права
потребителей в развитых странах с такими же
правами в развивающихся странах, она узнала
много нового.
IV.
p. 84 “... the buyer of a car continued to ask for delivery even
after the date in the contract had passed.”
to continue to do smth. - to do or say something new (After
discussing land law, they continued to discuss consumer law)
to continue doing smth. - to continue doing the same thing
( After a break he continued studying land law)
1. Рассказав студентам об ответственности
производителей за качество выпускаемой
продукции, профессор продолжил рассказывать о
подразумеваемых условиях в случаях, когда речь
идет о товарах и услугах. 2. Несмотря на иск
против него, он продолжал обсчитывать
покупателей. 3. Местные власти продолжали
угрожать приостановить производство, если
компания не перестанет выпускать небезопасные
товары. 4. Несмотря на приказ суда, они по-
прежнему продолжали скрывать от потребителей
информацию об ингредиентах своей продукции. 5.
Он продолжал отказываться от своего права
аннулировать договор, хотя другая сторона
продолжала поставлять ненадлежащие товары.
V.
There are many crimes and offences apart from the few
mentioned throughout the previous chapters. Explain, define or give
examples of the offences listed below.
Blackmail driving without due care
and attention
Kidnapping mugging – robbery with
violence
Arson drug peddling
Trespassing espionage – spying
Manslaughter Shoplifting
Smuggling Treason
Forgery Hijacking
Bigamy Obscenity
baby- or wife-battering bribery and corruption
Conspiracy petty theft
Fraud
Which of the above would or could involve the following?
1 counterfeit 4 a ransom 7 state secrets
money
2 pornography 5 heroin 8 contraband
3 hostages 6 a traitor 9 a store
detective
Exercise 3.
Match each term to its definition.
1/ consumer a/ liability of
manufacturers and sellers to
compensate people for injuries
suffered because of defects in
their products
2/ goods b/ things that are movable
3/ merchantable quality c/ person who uses goods
4/ conditions d/ quality of goods
making them of commercial
value
5/ to discharge a contract e/ implied terms in case
of goods
6/ intermediate f/ clauses exempting the
stipulations supplier from liability for the
loss, damages or injury caused
by his services or goods
7/ exemption clause g/ implied terms in case
of services
8/ product liability h/ to annul a contract
Exercise 4.
ПРАВОПОТРЕБЛЕНИЕ
Возврату не подлежит
По закону покупатель имеет право в течение

двух недель сдать купленную вещь в магазин или
обменять на другую, даже если она нормального
качества, а просто ему разонравилась. Главное,
чтобы товаром не пользовались и сохранились чек
, этикетки, упаковка. В законе, правда, есть
оговорка (stipulation), что правительство вправе
утверждать список товаров, не подлежащих
обмену и возврату. В январе 1998 года такой
список, куда вошли 13 групп товаров, был
утвержден. Помимо лекарств, предметов личной
гигиены, нижнего белья (что, в общем-то,
понятно) обмену не подлежат ткани,
строительные и отделочные материалы, посуда,
провода, кабели, мебель, ювелирные изделия из
драгметаллов, автомобили и, что особенно
странно, практически вся бытовая техника, на
которую установлен гарантийный срок.
Фирмы, дорожащие своей репутацией,
предпочитают без лишнего шума заменить
некачественный товар или вернуть деньги. К тому
же, почти у каждого продавца можно найти
слабые места ( ведь многие так или иначе
нарушают правила торговли), и когда они видят,
что человек хоть немного разбирается в
законодательстве, предпочитают не
конфликтовать. Но если обстоятельства все-таки
вынуждают вас обратиться в суд, надо запастись
терпением. “Длительность судебных процессов,
быть может, самая большая проблема в системе
защиты прав потребителя, - считают А.Аузан и
Д.Сорк. – Минимальный срок рассмотрения дела –
7-8 месяцев.” История может затянуться на годы –
заинтересованной стороне достаточно просто не
являться на заседания. При этом истец
оплачивает экспертизу (expertise)(если не согласен
с экспертизой ответчика), услуги юриста, который
даст консультацию, поможет грамотно составить
сначала претензию к ответчику, а потом исковое
заявление (каждый документ обойдется примерно
в 300 рублей) и при необходимости будет
представлять его интересы в суде. Цена
договорная и зависит от сложности дела (юристы
называют усредненную сумму в 500 долларов за
полное ведение дела).
При благополучном разрешении вопроса
пострадавшему полностью возместят стоимость
ущерба (если вещь на момент вынесения
судебного решения подорожала, то ее новую
цену), издержки на проведение экспертизы,
составление искового заявления и претензии.
Полностью взыскать с ответчика расходы на
юриста весьма проблематично. Моральный же
ущерб (moral damage) и вовсе в такого рода делах
оценивается чисто символически: в 200 – 300
рублей. Так что имеет смысл судиться лищь из-за
дорогих вещей, когда сумма иска (sum in dispute)не
менее тысячи долларов, в крайнем случае 500. По
данным КонфОП, в конечном итоге 80% судебных
дел все-таки решаются в пользу потребителя.
Однако исполняются далеко не все судебные
решения. По данным Московского общества
защиты потребителей, в 1998 году по выигранным
обществом делам было исполнено всего лишь 25%
судебных решений.
ИТОГИ 12 октября 1999
Exercise 5.
What is marketing?
Fill the gaps in these sentences, using the words from the list.
creative process design distribution end-users first
hire-purchase image labels mail order need opportunities
outlets patterns place posters price product production-
orientated profitably promotion range rival satisfy
strengths threats weaknesses
What is marketing? Marketing is the … of satisfying customer
needs … .
What is “the marketing mix”? It consists of “the four P’s”:
providing the customer with the right P… at the right P…,
presented in the most attractive way (P…) and available in the
easiest way (P…).
What is “a product”? A product is not just an assembled set of
components: it is something customers buy to … a … they feel they
have. The … and the … of the product are as important as its
specification.
What is “price”? The product must be priced so that it
competes effectively with rival products in the same market.
What is “promotion”? The product is presented to customers
through advertising (TV commercials, …,etc), packaging (design,
…, etc),publicity, P.R and personal selling.
What is “place”? your product must be available to customers
through the most cost-effective channels of … . A consumer product
must be offered to … in suitable retail …, or available on … or
by… .
What is meant by “S.W.O.T.”? A firm should be aware of its
S… and W… and the O… and T… it faces in the market place.
Why are firms becoming more customer-orientated and less
…? Because new products must be created to meet the changing …
of customers’ needs – a firm can’t rely on the success of its existing
… of products. The customer and his or her needs must come …
Exercise 6.
Marketing to the old

Over 60 and overlooked
Everyone knows the world is ageing. So why is business
doing so little about it?
IN THE next few decades, the "baby boomers", the large

generation born in the 1950s and 1960s, will grow old. As they do,
their sheer numbers and their different attitude to age will create
new markets in the world's rich countries. Yet business remains
largely obsessed with youth. Many companies seem blind to the fact
that their customers are greying. Some have started, with uneven
success, to market and advertise to an older population and to
design products and services that meet its special needs. Few,
though, see the elderly as an exciting group to sell to.
In industrialised countries, the over-6os already account for
20% of the population-compared with less than 12% in 1950. By
2050 that proportion is expected to rise, on average, to a third,
reaching over two-fifths in Japan . However, companies still spend
95% of their marketing and advertising budgets on the under-50s.
Many businesses have not yet shed the outdated view that the
mature market is made up of stingy old-timers set in their ways.
Unless you are in the business of prescription drugs or retirement
homes, the argument goes, why bother?
One good reason is that the old are wealthier and healthier
than ever, and the self-indulgent baby-boomer generation in
particular is determined to enjoy itself to the end.
Senior-agency International, a consultancy specialising in
marketing to the elderly, says that the over-50s own three-quarters
of all financial assets and account for half of all discretionary
spending power in developed countries. Over two-thirds of them
own their own homes, three-quarters of which are unencumbered by
a mortgage. In America, they control four-fifths of the money
invested in savings-and-loan associations and own two-thirds of all
the shares on the stockmarket.
Not only are the elderly wealthier, they are also healthier and
have more time to spend their money. A few decades ago, most
people had only a few years to live by the time they retired. Most
workers retiring today can look forward to 15-20 years of free time
and, thanks to medical advances and healthier living, remain active
for most of it.
Free time and health, combined with relative financial comfort
and a greater readiness for self-indulgence, are creating a mature
market eager to consume and explore. …Even Harley Davidson, the
maker of the legendary motorbike, cannot escape the age wave.
Long gone are the days of young easy riders: the average age of its
customers today is 52.
A marketing challenge
Getting to know long-ignored older customers, however, is
hard work for marketing youngsters who are used to lumping all
people over the age of 60 into a grey basket of frailty, tweed and
stinginess. Advertising's creative types, the people who dream up
commercials, are considered ancient by the time they are 35.
Finding the right way to communicate with an older audience is a
challenge for them.
Many advertisements still caricature older people in order to
make younger audiences laugh-as in the soft-drinks advertisement
that portrays an adolescent using his grandfather's trembling hand to
shake his can. Yet the over-50s make up the largest share of TV
audiences, spending 30-40% more time in front of their boxes than
the rest of the population.
Jean-Paul Treguer, the French founder of Senioragency
International and author of "50+ Marketing" (Palgrave, 2002), says
that not so long ago European company executives would laugh
when he tried to convince them that they should pay more attention
to older consumers. Now, he says, everybody is talking about them,
but no one knows what to do.
America is a few years ahead and has developed a better
understanding of the nuances of marketing to the old. The Centre
for Mature Consumer Studies at Georgia State University, for
example, segments the elderly into four groups— "healthy hermits",
"ailing outgoers", "healthy indulgers" and "frail reclusives".
Ken Dychtwald, author of "Age Power: How the 21st Century
will be Ruled by the New Old" (Putnam, 1999), prefers to segment
them according to stages in their life-tracking people as they
become, for example, empty-nesters and grandparents, or
(sometimes) single again. Travel companies such as Grandtravel
and FamilyHostel have followed that road with packages for older
travellers and their grandchildren.
Better segmentation, however, does not mean that marketing
departments always get it right. When Gerber, a maker of baby
food, realised that many older consumers with dental and stomach
problems were buying its products for their own use, it decided to
launch a line of similar food called Senior Citizen. Ageing shoppers,
however, had no appetite for showing up at the cash register with
purees designed for the elderly, and the product was withdrawn.
The most successful advertising campaigns targeted at mature
consumers focus instead on active and healthy lifestyles and
introduce positive role models. Rejuvenated patients cycling with
their grandchildren or practising tai chi are far more effective than
the stereotype of a frail arthritis sufferer.
The Economist August 10th 2002
Baby boomers – “бэби бумеры” – люди,
родившиеся сразу после Второй мировой войны,
когда был очень высокий уровень рождаемости
A (healthy) hermit –… отшельник, странник
A frail reclusive – болезненный, хрупкий
затворник
a. 1. 1.Do all the companies acknowledge
the fact that their customers are greying?
b. 2. What part of the population are they
going to account for in the near future?
c. 3. What is the outdated but still popular
view about the mature market?
d. 4. What is the truth about it?
e. 5. Are they really healthier?
f. 6. Why is getting to know older customers
is a marketing challenge for the “marketing
youngsters”?
g. 7. Why is America ahead in this area?
h. 8. Why was the new Gerber production
withdrawn?
i. 9. What do most successful advertising
campains focus on?
j. 10. 10 .Into what groups would you
segment our market?
k. 11. 11.Is our market customer-orientated or
production-orientated?
l. 12. 12.Do you think there is any connection
between the character of the market and the
rate of consumer legal activity?
Exercise 7.
Over to you
Assignment А
Bait and switch sales technique
The bait-and-switch sales technique involves an insincere
offer to sell a product on terms that sound almost too good to be
true. The seller does not really want to sell the “bait”, or the
product, he uses it to get the buyer into the store. Once the buyer is
in, he or she finds that the product is much les appealing than
expected. There may be a very limited quantity of the “bait”, or the
product may not be available at all. The seller then tries to “switch”
the consumer to a more expensive item. Salespersons are told to
“talk down”, or disparage, the advertised product and refer the
consumer to a higher-priced item.
The Federal Trade Commission has rules against use of the
bait-and-switch selling technique and will take appropriate action
when it receives complaints from consumers. Many state and local
agencies also handle such complaints. If state law prohibits bait and
switch, a consumer may be able to cancel a contract with the seller
using it.
Sellers can legally advertise specials at very low prices to get
customers into their stores without violating the bait-and-switch
law. The items offered in these specials are sometimes referred to as
“loss leaders”, because the seller may lose money or make very
little money on them. It is not illegal to advertise it, so long as the
seller has an adequate supply of the item.
Have you ever come across this technique?

What is the best way for a customer to deal with an aggressive
seller?
Do you know any other sales techniques? Which of them are
effective? Which of them should be made illegal?
Assignment В
Role-play:
Judy and her brother Roy are shopping for a new motorcycle.
They see an ad in the Friday newspaper that says,”Come to Big
Wheel for the best deals on the slickest wheels in town! This
weekend only, a 250cc street bike, only $1,395!”
When they arrive at Big Wheel, the salesperson tells them that
the street bike is not very powerful, tends to vibrate above 40 miles
per hour, and is uncomfortable for long trips. He suggests that they
test ride a 500cc, four-cylinder motorcycle on sale this weekend for
$2,795.
Roles 1,2: You are Judy and Roy. You are to decide how to
handle the situation reasonably.
Role 3: You are the salesperson. If you talk them into buying
the higher-priced item, you will get a higher commission, so be
persuasive!
Portion 14
Exercise 1.
p. 88 employment law, to work on the land or in some craft,
accommodation, economic expansion, safety in the workplace, a
steady increase in smth., to dismiss an employee;
p. 89 self-employed people, to give smb. a week’s notice, to
make smb. redundant, to work part-time / to work full-time, to be
entitled to smth., compensation for redundancy, a small business, a
job applicant;
p. 90 a labour market, an hourly rate, to create new jobs, a D-
I-Y business, a secret ballot ;
p. 91 overtime payment, to enjoy equal
employment opportunities, insurance benefits
(пособие по страхованию), recreational facilities,
overwork.
Comprehension check
a. 3. Answer the questions on the text of the unit:
b. 4. When does the history of employment law begin?
Why?
c. 5. What laws were passed first? What systems were
developed later?
d. 6. What change did employment law undergo in the
th
20 century? Give some examples of the detail of such
legislation.
e. 7. The 1978 Employment Protection (Consolidation)
Act, the 1970 Equal Pay Act, the 1976 Race Relations
Act, the 1975 and 1986 Sex Discrimination Acts are
examples of English legislation on the matter of
employment. What rights do they establish and ensure?
f. 8. What are the “circumstances of employment” that
may influence the application of these rights?
g. 9. Are employees or the self-employed thought to be
in a weaker economic position? Why?
h. 10. What source of law is available to the English
employees when English laws fail to satisfy their claims?
i. 11. What issues are to be regulated by the EC on the
way of harmonizing employment rights among member
states?
j. 12. How does the employment law of Japan differ from
that of many Western countries?
k. 13. What are the advantages of being a Japanese
employee?
l. 14. What is karoushi? Do you know people who may
sue their employers on this ground?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 88 “Many employees were in a very weak position because
part of their wages was paid in the form of food or
accommodation.”
p. 88 “Most of the richer countries now have legislation which
guarantees a minimum wage for all workers ...”
Wage (also often wages) applies to money paid to an
employee at relatively short intervals, often daily or weekly,
especially for manual or physical labour.
Salary applies to fixed compensations usually paid at longer
intervals, often monthly or semi-monthly, especially to clerical or
professional workers.
Stipend is a somewhat lofty substitute for salary, or it is
applied to a pension or similar fixed payment.
Fee applies to the payment requested or given for professional
services, as of a doctor, lawyer, artist, etc.
Pay is a general term equivalent to any of the preceding, but it
is especially used of compensation to members of the armed forces.

1. За консультацию этого адвоката вам
придется заплатить значительный гонорар,
поскольку он самый высокооплачиваемый адвокат
в этой компании, занимающейся вопросами рынка
труда. 2. Выйдя на пенсию после того, как он
проработал на предприятии более 50 лет, он имел
право на дополнительную регулярную пенсию. 3.
Оказалось, что в последнее время оклады
школьных учителей были увеличены. 4. Несмотря
на рост инфляции, заработная плата рабочих на
этом предприятии оставалась неизменной на
протяжении последних нескольких месяцев,
поскольку предприятие терпело значительные
убытки. 5. Будучи недовольным своими
зарплатами, военнослужащие обещали
осуществить свои угрозы и подать иск.
II.
p. 89 “In general employees have far more legal rights because
they are thought of being a weaker economic position than the self-
employed.”
Note the following constructions:
This barrister is much more experienced.
This barrister is far more experienced.
This barrister is a lot more experienced.
1. После того, как его уволили по
сокращению штата, ему пришлось обратиться к
адвокату, но, поскольку тот оказался
недостаточно опытным, ему пришлось искать
гораздо более квалифицированного специалиста.
2. В наши дни работники имеют гораздо больше
прав, чем раньше. 3. В этой компании лица,
подающие заявления о найме на работу, должны
иметь гораздо более высокую квалификацию. 4.
Его уволили, когда ему было уже больше 60, и
хотя он получил компенсацию, она была гораздо
меньше, чем та, которую получили гораздо более
молодые сотрудники. 5. Сейчас работники имеют
гораздо больше возможностей защищать свои
права, чем раньше.
III.
p. 90 “The right to strike was one of the first employment
rights to be recognised by law ...”
Also: He was the last to arrive.
1. Он первым из их школы поступил в школу
права, что было удивительно, поскольку он имел
гораздо худшие знания, чем другие поступавшие
из их школы. 2. Он был последним, кто согласился
участвовать в забастовке. 3. Его брат был первым,
кто осмелился потребовать плату за работу в
дополнительное время. 4. Несомненно,
генеральный директор будет последним, кто
согласится создать на предприятии новые
рабочие места. 5. Их предприятие было первым в
районе, кто стал предоставлять своим
сотрудникам страховые пособия и создавать
условия для отдыха.
IV.
Full-time Employment Contract
A contract of employment comes into existence as soon as a
job offer is accepted whether that offer is oral or in writing.
However, it is easier for both parties if the offer of employment is in
writing to prevent disputes at a later date.
Below is an extract from a skeleton contract of employment
for a full-time employee. The key word/phrase from each section
has been removed. Complete the text using the words/phrases given
below.
commencing salary date of commencement
duties and responsibilities grievance holiday
entitlement
notice pension probationary service position
sickness pay terms and conditions
1 You have been appointed to the ___________ of
administrative assistant.
2 Your ______________ will be as detailed in the attached
Job Description, but this Job Description should not be regarded as
exclusive or exhaustive. There will be other occasional duties and
requirements associated with your appointment.
3 The ______________ of your continuous service with this
company is 1 January 2002.
4 Your specific ______________ are contained in the
Employees' Handbook issued by the company, as well as in existing
collective agreements negotiated by this company.
5 Confirmation of your appointment will be subject to your
satisfactory completion of 3 months' ______________ .
6 Your ______________ is Ј20,000 per annum, paid
monthly in arrears. Overtime is not payable.
7 Your ________________ entitlement is 30 days in any
calendar year.
8 Your annual ______________ is 25 days which cannot be
carried over.
9 The minimum period of _________________ to which
you are entitled is 3 months.
10 Your position with regard to _________________ is set
out in the explanatory booklet attached.
11 If you have a ___________________ relating to your
employment, you should refer to the complaints procedure outlined
in the booklet attached.
Exercise 3.
По статистическим данным в США растет
количество случаев уклонения от налогов,
магазинных краж, фальсификации резюме при
найме на работу. Некоторые психологи считают,
что это может служить доказательством роста
нечестности в американском обществе. Наиболее
часты случаи неверного предоставления
информации, касающейся квалификации
сотрудника. Это может иметь отдаленные во
времени последствия, поскольку уходят месяцы (и
значительные средства) на повышение
квалификации таких сотрудников, прежде чем
они смогут выполнять работу, которую должны
были успешно выполнять с самого начала.
Но гораздо хуже то, что такие случаи
проявления нечестности имеют эффект снежного
кома: многие люди считают, что поскольку
обманывают все, то для собственной защиты им
необходимо делать то же. В прошлом нарушение
правил считалось исключением, сегодня такое
поведение становится повсеместным.
К сожалению такое поведение
отражается и на межличностных отношениях.
Общество стало более мобильным. Переезды из
города в город, частые смены работы и места
жительства придают таким отношениям более
временный характер, что позволяет
преувеличивать свои достижения и преуменьшать
какие-либо недостатки. Раньше при найме на
работу или повышении сотрудника по службе
решение учитывало личные качества человека,
сегодня же учитывается только его способность
выполнять ту или иную работу, а личные
характеристики во внимание не принимаются,
если он не мешают выполнению служебных
обязанностей.
То есть в наше время, как утверждает
один из ведущих американских психологов
существует все меньше стимулов быть честным и
все меньше наказаний за ложь.
1. 1. If you were an employer hiring a
lawyer, what would you consider?
2. 2. What can society do to change the
atmosphere of dishonesty?
3. 3. What changes are needed in families
and other institutions to foster honesty?
Exercise 4.
Role-play.
You are reluctant to take on a former criminal, Dave Shaw
whom you are advised to employ by the police. The police are after
a group of forgers of credit cards and they believe that Dave Shaw
will help them to establish contacts. Dave was imprisoned for being
an accomplice in a case of forgery. He didn’t complete his term of
imprisonment in return for his co-operation with the police. The
police commissioner talks you into employing Dave Shaw as a teller
at your bank though you realise you run a great risk.
Role play the dialogue between the employer and the police
commissioner.
Exercise 5.
Over to you:
Discrimination is unfair treatment or denial of normal
privileges to people because of their race, sex, nationality or
religion.
A.
If you were an employer of a small law firm what kind of
“discrimination” would you be given to? For example, you would
probably give preference to male (Slavic, etc.) applicants or would
be reluctant to promote a female employee for fear of maternity
leaves, or… etc.? Be ready to contradict your classmates’
considerations if you disagree with him/her on the matter,
providing, if possible, examples to prove your point.
B.
Лет двадцать назад в словаре корпоративной
Америки появилось такое выражение – “glass ceiling”
– стеклянный потолок. Те, кто находится на
нижних этажах, порой даже не замечают, что от
обитателей высших уровней их отделяет
невидимая, но непроницаемая (impenetrable)
преграда. Прозрение приходит к нижесидящим,
только когда они пытаются прорваться в высшие
сферы. К подобной аналогии нередко прибегают,
когда говорят о дискриминации женщин и
этнических меньшинств, представителям которых
в высших сферах корпоративной власти отводятся
по большей части представительские должности.
Большинство борцов с подобной дискриминацией
уверены, что справиться с ней можно только
законодательными мерами.
В Скандинавии подобный шаг уже сделали.
Например, правительство Норвегии грозится
принять закон, по которому 40% мест в советах
директоров публичных компаний должны будут
занимать женщины. В США, где судебные органы
выступают против использования жестких квот в
подобных вопросах, вряд ли можно будет
использовать скандинавский опыт.
Сегодня от корпораций все чаще требуют не
только диверсифицировать состав советов
директоров, но и повышать качество
корпоративного управления за счет включения в
состав советов большего числа так называемых
независимых директоров, работающих в других
местах и не связанных напрямую с деятельностью
данной компании. (По данным “Investor Responsibility
Research Center”, 86% женщин-директоров и 82%
директоров- представителей этнических
меньшинств являются именно “независимыми”)
Речь здесь идет не только о
политкорректности. Привлечение к управлению
представителей меньшинств может влиять на
эффективность компании, так как способствует
более успешной работе с различными группами
потребителей. “У них другой опыт, а потому они
задают другие вопросы.”
В начале 90-х Джилл Керр Конуэй была
единственной женщиной в составе совета
директоров компании Nike. Именно тогда она
предложила коллегам открыть подразделение по
выпуску спортивной одежды для женщин.
Сегодня продажи этого подразделения
обеспечивают компании солидную часть доходов.
Советы директоров, в которых женщины
занимают три или более позиций, в отличие от
большой части чисто мужских советов, настаивали
на разработке особой корпоративной политики
для решения проблем, связанных с конфликтами
интересов. Аттестации собственной деятельности
чаще проводят именно смешанные советы
директоров.
При этом принципиально важно, чтобы в
составе руководящего органа находилось
несколько женщин и представителей этнических
меньшинств, так как находясь в единственном
числе они склонны принимать точку зрения
большинства.
1. What measures are suggested to improve the quality of
corporative management?
2. What kind of diversification of a Board of Directors
membership seem most effective to you (a certain “electoral
quotient” –/норма представительства/ for women
and representatives of ethnic minorities or the
inclusion of “independent directors”)?
Exercise 6.
Read the following article and discuss the problems raised in
it.
It's Not Lie Detection, It's Mental Rape
WASHINGTON — Two million times a year, American

citizens are subjected to "lie detector" tests. This explosion of the
use of machines that measure nervousness (and that fail to catch the
cool, practiced liar) is the most blatant intrusion into personal
freedom in the United States today.
Ninety-eight percent of these mental rapes are performed by
employers, mostly in screening prospective workers. The tests libel
the truthful and are fooled by spies and pathological liars.
The purpose is to frighten the applicant with the threat of
being hooked up to some terrifying device and asked intimate
questions. That is enough to scare off most people who have ever
had drinking, drug. psychological or any other "problems."
No screening procedure could be more un-American than this
advance exclusion-by-fear. Even when performed by FBI -trained
polygraph operators, "lie detection" is mistaken too often to be
accepted by most courts. The reason: When hooked up to intrusive
machines, many of us sweat and tremble. That makes honest people
seem like liars.
Although lawmen know that the polygraph is not a device that
measures truthfulness, they see it as more effective than a truncheon
and hot lights to coerce a suspect into confessing. Employers use it
the same way: to scare off applicants with any kind of guilty
conscience. This modem third degree is an abuse in law
enforcement, and an abomination when used by private corporations
against people who have done nothing to warrant a search of their
minds.
Last week the House of Representatives finally passed a bill
making it unlawful for any private employer "to require, request,
suggest or cause any employee or prospective employee to take or
submit to any lie detector test."
Security guard companies are excluded, and industry lobbyists
used the narcotics scare to exempt companies engage" in the
manufacture or sale of drugs "We resisted all the others." says
Representative Pat Williams of Montana. "The House has voted to
rid us of nine out of 10 polygraph tests now being made."
But the House has passed similar legislation before, only to
see it die in the Senate. The test now is in the Senate Labor
Committee, chaired by Edward Kennedy, from whom we have
heard so much recently about the right to privacy.
For too long, lawmakers have ducked responsibility on
privacy rights by passing the buck to the Supreme Court. But we
may be a decade from a decision, and in the meantime millions will
be deprived of both rights and jobs. Why can't Congress act as 22
states already have, to stop technocracy's merchants of sweat from
plying their trade?
Senator Kennedy, new defender of the sanctity of the marital
bedroom (although that area is not currently threatened), has long
been programmed by his staff to proclaim his support of legislation
defending the sanctity of the human mind. But taking the lead
requires courage. Plenty of ripped-off companies and a lobby of
polygraph operators in Washington denounce such a law defending
a job applicant's privacy as a "criminal's protection act." The Labor
Committee chairman does not want to be out there by himself, or
surrounded by Democrats. He has dithered for months, waiting for
Republican Orrin Hatch to co-sponsor a Senate version of an anti-
polygraph bill.
"I'm a libertarian on this matter." Senator Hatch tells me. "The
question is: Do we allow society to coerce the vast majority who are
honest to gel at the few who are dishonest?" So — is he for this
law? "Nobody should lose his job, or be denied the opportunity of a
job. exclusively as a result of polygraphy: you should have
reasonable corroboration."
However, he worries that "the whole business community will
come unglued" if the legislation is passed as written in the House.
Orrin Hatch is torn: On one hand is the plea from businessmen who
say they lose $40 billion a year to employee theft; on the other is the
example known to him of Senate staff aide Michael Pillsbury.
wrongly stripped of his position by a botched polygraph exam.
When in doubt, revert to principle? If no reason exists to
suspect a person of wrongdoing, he or she should not be made to
fear a mental strip-search, least of all by a discredited device that
libels too many truth-tellers and gets fooled by pathological liars
and spies.
The battle for personal freedom is joined. The Senate should
pass this privacy law: the new secretary of labor should enforce it
vigorously throughout the world of commerce; and then we should
deal with the proliferation of this medieval monstrosity within the
government.
By William Safire
The New York Times
Portion 15
Exercise 1.
p. 93 to place limits on smth., to apply for a patent, to grant a
patent, to have industrial application, an artistic work;
p. 94 intellectual property law, to keep pace with smth., to
broadcast, a holder of the patent, to grant permission free of charge,
p. 95 enforcement, to infringe copyright
(нарушить право), a copyright holder.
Mind the terms:
intellectual property – интеллектуальная
собственность; a patent - патент; copyright –
авторское право;fair dealing – честное ведение
дел; a trademark – торговая марка; passing-off –
“пассинг-офф” – коммерция под чужим именем
Comprehension check:
1. 1. What is known as intellectual property?
2. 2. Is it against the law to steal someone
else’s ideas? Explain your answer.
3. 3. What does a patent provide? What
requirements are to be met if a person applies
for a patent?
4. 4. What work is protected by copyright? Is
there any special procedure for granting
copyright?
5. 5. Who normally holds a patent? Who
owns a copyright? Why will the newspaper
owner but not the employee who wrote the
article hold the copyright in it?
6. 6. What is the main emphasis of recent
intellectual property laws? What causes
problems for this field of law?
7. 7. What does the 1988 Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act provide?
8. 8. What legal instruments are created to
promote the enforcement of intellectual law
internationally?
9. 9. Why is a poorer country less likely to
become signatory to them?
10. 10. On what condition does the 1988 Act
allow to copy a play? A TV programme? A
record? Printed material?
11. 11. What is a trademark?
12. 12. What is passing-off? How does an
injunction work?
13. 13. How are trade secrets protected in
different countries?
14. 14. What is a major problem in intellectual
property law? What steps are taken in
different countries to solve it?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 93 “... it is necessary to apply for a patent.”
to annul a patent, to cancel a patent, to revoke a
patent - аннулировать патент
to apply for a patent - подать заявку на патент
to deny a patent - отказать в выдаче патента
to grant a patent, to issue a patent - выдать
патент
1. Жаль, что ему не выдали патент. На мой
взгляд, его изобретение могло бы иметь
промышленное применение. 2. Ваше открытие
будет изучено и я думаю, что вам выдадут патент.
3. Этот патент был аннулирован, т.к. оказалось,
что тот же промышленный процесс был ранее
запатентован другим ученым. 4. Он уже является
держателем ряда патентов. Возможно, в
следующем году он подаст заявку на патент еще
на одно изобретение. 5. Патент придется
аннулировать, поскольку в заявке на его выдачу
были обнаружены некоторые неточности, а кроме
того она не соответствовала нормам,
регулирующим патенты.
II.
p. 94 “Video recording, satellite television, and the use of
computers have expanded so rapidly that it is becoming difficult to
control copying.”
Also note: He listened to the report on the latest scientific
discoveries with such interest that nothing seemed to be able to
detract him from it.
1. Он так быстро получил патент на свое
изобретение, что даже сам был удивлен. 2. Если
бы он не знал, что стать держателем патента
столь сложно, он бы не пытался получить его. Но
процесс оказался столь сложным, что он решил
отказаться от этой идеи. 3. Как только он начал
работать в этой компании, он был завален таким
большим количеством исков из нарушения
авторских прав, что ему приходилось работать
сверхурочно. 4. Он был таким известным
специалистом по торговым маркам, что
практически все крупные компании региона
обращались к нему за юридической помощью. 5.
Данное нарушение авторских прав настолько
серьезно, что его можно рассматривать как
уголовное правонарушение.
III.
p. 94 “For industrial use of a scientific invention, a great deal
of money might need to be paid.”
p. 94 “But most legal systems allow a certain amount of
copying even without asking permission.”
A lot of / lots of can be used with both countable and
uncountable nouns.
A large / small / amount / quantity of can be used with
uncountable nouns.
A large / great / good number of can be used with countable
nouns.
A great / good deal of can be used with both with countable
and uncountable nouns.
1. Он потратил много усилий и много времени,
чтобы получить патент, хотя с самого начала было
ясно, что он его получит: он был первым, кто
совершил это научное открытие. 2. Много ученых
работает над этим изобретением, но оно все еще
не имеет промышленного применения. 3. Много
разрешений на проведение исследований на
территории заповедника предоставляются
бесплатно. 4. Такое изобретение требует много
таланта и много воображения, и кроме этого
много денег для воплощения его в жизнь. 5.
Оказалось, что его бывшие однокурсники были
столь талантливы, что многие из них уже стали
обладателями авторских прав на интереснейшие
художественные произведения.
Exercise 3.
1/ intellectual property a/ the exclusive right
given to an author, composer,
artist, or photographer, to
publish and sell exclusively a
work for a certain period of
time
2/ patent b/ concept stating that the
fair use of a copyrighted work
for purposes of private study or
research is not a copyright
infringement
3/ copyright c/ the unauthorised use of
copyrighted material
4/ trademark d/ any word, name,
symbol, or device used by a
business to identify goods and
distinguish them from those
manufactured or sold by others
5/ copyright infringement e/ a grant by the
government of the exclusive
6/ fair dealing right to make, use, and sell an
invention for a certain period
of time
f/ the words someone has
written, the art or music they
have created, or the technology
they have invented
Exercise 4.
Render the following text in English :
Интеллектуальная собственность имеет две
составляющие. Право именоваться автором
относится к категории личных неимущественных
прав (non-property rights,
incorporeal(нематериальные) rights)). Слава автора
приносит моральные дивиденды до тех пор, пока
произведение используется или сохраняется
память о нем… Права авторов, изобретателей и
других творцов приравняли к собственности лишь
для того, чтобы признать их священными и
неприкосновенными. Исключительные
имущественные права (exclusive property), которые
предоставлены авторам, даются им на время и на
определенных условиях. Государство
регистрирует и выдает патенты на устройство,
способ, вещество, штамм микроорганизма,
культуры клеток растений и животных либо их
применение по новому назначению, если они
являются новыми с позиций мирового уровня
техники, могут быть применены в
промышленности, то есть не являются
самоочевидными (self-evident) для специалиста.
Срок охраны отсчитывается с момента
поступления заявки. Право охраняется лишь на то
изобретение, которое получило государственное
признание в стране, где испрашивается охрана.
Цель патента – вознаградить изобретателя за
его творческие усилия , дав исключительное
право на изготовление и первый выпуск в
обращение промышленной продукции (или
предоставлением лицензии).
Со ссылкой на общественную необходимость
производства лекарства или другого продукта
можно получить принудительную лицензию
(compulsory licence) на его изготовление по
социально доступной цене. Тогда интересы
обладателя патента ограничиваются правом на
вознаграждения по ставкам данной страны. А
попытки импортировать такую продукцию в
другие страны (даже членами ЕС), могут быть
блокированы обладателем патента…
Исключительные имущественные права на
использование произведений науки, литературы и
искусства в соответствии с Бернской конвенцией
охраняются с момента создания и до истечения 50
лет с 1 января года, следующего за годом смерти
автора. В Европе этот срок увеличен на 20 лет.
Понятно, что это связано не столько с заботой о
наследниках и увеличившейся
продолжительностью жизни людей, сколько с
покрытием издержек создателей компьютерных
программ, издателей и всего комплекса
культурной индустрии. Только пираты сегодня
удовлетворяют спрос китайских детей на
компьютерную версию энциклопедии “Британика”
по бросовым ценам. Но эту проблему можно
решить и путем зонального варьирования цен на
лицензионную продукцию с согласия
правообладателя или путем получения прав на
принудительный перевод. К сожалению, страны,
обращающиеся к легальным способам облегчения
платы за литературную и художественную
собственность в интересах образования, науки и
культуры, нередко подвергаются экономическому
прессингу.
Сейчас накопленный в мире опыт охраны
ИС позволяет находить баланс между публичным
интересом в получении доступа к результатам
творчества и желанием правообладателя
получать максимальную выгоду из его
коммерческой эксплуатации. Однако
предусмотреть соответствующие механизмы –
дело законодателя, а уметь ими пользоваться –
дело потребителей.
Следует не идти по пути морального
оправдания пиратства, а устанавливать
оправданные изъятия и ограничения монопольных
прав в национальном законодательстве.
(Эксперт N18 2003 )
Exercise 5.
Read the following text and discuss it.
European Law Report
Luxembourg
Can 'Cannon' be confused with 'Canon'?
Canon Kabushiki Kaisha vs Metro-Goldwyn-Meyer Inc

Case C-39/97
Before the Court of Justice of the European Communities in
Luxembourg
[Judgment 29 September 1998]
The distinctive character of a trademark, in particular its
reputation, had to be taken into account in determining whether
there was sufficient similarity between the goods and services
covered by that and another proposed mark to give rise to the
likelihood of confusion.
The Court of Justice of the European Communities so held,
inter alia1, on a reference by the German Federal Court of Justice for
a preliminary ruling under Article 177 of the EC Treaty re: Article
4(l)b of the Directive of 21 December 1988 relating to trademarks.
MGM applied in Germany for registration of the word
trademark 'Cannon' to be used for video film cassettes and film
production distribution and projection for cinemas and television.
Canon Kabushiki Kaisha opposed the application on the
ground that it infringed its earlier world trademark 'Canon'
registered in Germany in respect of, inter alia, still and motion
picture cameras, and projectors, and television filming, recording,
transmission, receiving and reproduction devices, including tape and
disc devices.
In the course of the proceedings, it was held, inter alia, that the
mark 'Canon' had a reputation, but no importance was to be attached
to that fact in deciding whether the marks were relevantly similar.
Article 4(1) of Directive 89/104 provides:
'A trademark shall not be registered or, if registered, shall be
liable to be declared invalid, if because of its identity with or
similarity to, the earlier trademark and the identity or similarity of
the goods or services covered by the trademarks, there exists a
likelihood of confusion on the part of the public, which includes the
likelihood of association with the earlier trademark.'
In its judgment the Court of Justice held:
The first question was whether the distinctive character of the
earlier mark, and in particular its reputation, were to be taken into
account in determining the issue of similarity.
Furthermore, according to the case law of the Court, the more
distinctive the earlier mark, the greater the risk of confusion: since
protection of a trademark depended, in accordance with Article
4(l)b of the Directive, on there being a likelihood of confusion;
marks with a highly distinctive character, either per se 2 or because
of the reputation they possessed on the market, enjoyed broader
protection than marks with a less distinctive character.
It followed that, for the purposes of Article 4(l)b, registration
of a trademark might have to be refused, despite a lesser degree of
similarity between the goods and services covered, where the marks
were very similar and the earlier mark, in particular its reputation,
was highly distinctive.
The second question was whether there could be a likelihood
of confusion within the meaning of Article 4(l)b where the public
perception was that the goods or services had different places of
origin. There was such likelihood of confusion where the
public could be mistaken as to the origin of the goods or
services.
The essential function of the trademark was to guarantee the
identity of the origin of the marked product to the consumer or end
user by enabling him, without any possibility of confusion, to
distinguish the product or service from others which had another
origin.
For the trademark to be able to fulfil its essential role in the
system of undistorted competition which the Treaty sought to
establish, it had to offer a guarantee that all the goods or services
bearing it had originated under the control of a single undertaking
which was responsible for their quality.
Accordingly, the risk that the public might believe that the
goods or services in question came from the same undertaking or
economically linked undertakings constituted a likelihood of
confusion within the meaning of Article 4(l)b.
Consequently, in order to demonstrate that there was no
likelihood of confusion, it was not sufficient to show simply that
there was no likelihood of the public being confused as to the place
of production of the goods or services.
On those grounds the Court of Justice ruled:
There could be likelihood of confusion within the meaning of
Article 4(l)b even where the public perception was that the goods or
services had different places of production. By contrast, there could
be no such likelihood where it did not appear that the public could
believe that goods or services came from the same undertaking or
from economically linked undertakings.
1 among other things (Latin)

2 in itself (Latin)
From The Times: Law Report
1. 1. Why is reputation important for
trademarks?
2. 2. Why does the earlier trademark have a
stronger claim than the later one?
3. 3. What is included in the concept of
confusion on the part of the public?
4. 4. Why does the case law mention the
distinctive nature of the trademark?
5. 5. What exactly does a single undertaking
refer to?
6. 6. How does a trademark enable a
consumer to distinguish between similar
products or services?
Legal brief
In this case, the European Court of Justice ruled that the public
could easily mistake Canon and Cannon as being the same company
selling the same products and, therefore, did not allow Cannon to be
registered as a legal brand name in Europe. Canon was the winner
for having established its name and brand already in the market.
In English law, where a trademark, label, logo or design is
used to intentionally confuse the public into thinking that the
product belongs to a well-known brand the crime is called “passing-
off”.
(FROM MARKET LEADER Business law by Tricia Smith)
Can you think of any examples of “passing-off” cases?
Portion 16
Exercise 1.
p. 97 to forbid smth., to ban smth., to call for smth., the late
Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran, to offer a reward, to withdraw a
diplomat, political censorship;
p. 99 to be typical of smth. / smb., to expel smb. - expulsion,
(un)orthodox, to censor smth., to betray a state, to overthrow a state;
p. 100 to be at war, to take pride in smth. / smb.,
to be in a state of war, to restrict freedom of
expression, a per capita GDP ( валовой внутренний
продукт на душу населения), GNP (валовой
национальный продукт), seditious, tolerance of
different forms of expression, to be critical of smb., to
serve a certain purpose, to provoke physical violence,
to outlaw smth.(лишать законной силы), to inhibit
smb. from doing smth (запрещать), to advocate
violence - advocation of violence ;
p. 101 paramilitary, to encourage pro-terrorist sentiments, to
incite racial hatred, to subject smb. to verbal abuse, to forge bank
notes, to breastfeed a baby, to blank out a picture in a newspaper,
convicted rapist;
p. 102 sexual assaults against women, to lay down guidelines,
to harm smb.’s reputation
Mind the terms:
blasphemy – богохульство (состав
преступления); treason – государственная
измена; defamation – диффамация (разглашение
позорящих другое лицо правдивых сведений);
defamatory позорящий, бесчестящий; slander –
устная клевета; libel – пасквиль (клевета
письменно или через печать); punitive damages –
штрафные убытки
Comprehension check
1. 1. Why was the book “The Satanic
Verses” forbidden in many countries?
2. 2. Why was it not banned in Britain?
3. 3. What contrasting opinions about
blasphemy laws were expressed in the stir
caused by the conflict? Which one do you
support?
4. 4. Why do most people agree that free
expression should be controlled?
5. 5. What restrictions were placed on free
expression in various countries in the 20th
century?
6. 6. How do governments justify them?
Name at least 4 arguments.
7. 7. Is there any connection between GDP or
GNP of a country and the extent to which its
citizens can enjoy freedom of expression?
8. 8. What words are outlawed by the 1986
Public Order Act in Britain?
9. 9. How do governments control the
expression of political beliefs involving
violence?
10. 10. What forms may racial and sexual
discrimination take? How is it prevented?
11. 11. What motives do people have for
seeking censorship of literary and pictorial
expression? What kind of control would you
support as reasonable?
12. 12. So what is the extent to which
governments should decide on the guidelines
in this area?
13. 13. Do you think that fear of a libel action
is a good thing for the media to have?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 97 “The Islamic Foundation called for prosecution under
the UK laws against blasphemy ...”
to call on smb. for smth.
to call on smb. to do smth.
1.Полиция призвала всех законопослушных
граждан оказать содействие в поимке особо
опасного преступника и предложила
вознаграждение за любую полезную информацию.
2. Некоторые международные организации
призвали правительство этой страны снять
ограничения на свободу выражения. 3. Хотя это
жестокое преступление было совершено
афроамериканцем, администрация призвала
население не разжигать расовую ненависть и не
провоцировать жестокость по отношению к
эмигрантам. 4. Гуманитарные организации
призвали местное население продемонстрировать
терпимость к беженцам и не пропагандировать
жестокость. 5. Учитель обратился к ученикам с
просьбой не подвергать друг друга словесным
оскорблениям.
II.
p. 97 “The issue of The Satanic Verses encouraged a debate
about freedom of speech ...”
p. 102 “... violence should be discouraged ...”
to encourage smb. to do smth.
to discourage smb. from doing smth.
1. Пообещай мне, что не будешь отбивать у
нее охоту кормить ребенка грудью. 2. Он гордится
тем, что неудачи не сломили его. 3. Хотя
правительство запретило публикацию ряда книг,
это, похоже не сломило их авторов. 4.
Правительство поощряет любые попытки
содействия в борьбе против терроризма и
террористических настроений. 5. Организации,
поощряющие расовую ненависть, физическую
жестокость и нетерпимость к демократическим
формам общежития, запрещены законом.
III.
p. 97 “Others argued that we should tolerate someone else’s
views even if they attack our deepest beliefs ...”
another - one more apart from those already mentioned
others - several more apart from those already mentioned
the other (s) - the rest
each other - one another
every other - alternate (He visited his client every other day)
the other day - a few days ago
the other one / ones refers to a specific alternative (I don’t like
this reference book. Can I have the other one as I know you’ve got
two of them?)
1. На днях полиция поймала преступников,
обвиненных в подделке десятков тысяч долларов.
2. Они обвиняют друг друга в распространении
информации, наносящей ущерб репутации друг
друга, а один из них даже подал иск против
другого, обвиняя его в дефамации. 3. Казалось, он
критиковал все периодические издания. Мог бы
критиковать их хотя бы через одно. 4. В этой
компании была два адвоката,
специализировавшихся по вопросам свободы
слова. Поскольку первый из них отбил у него
охоту заниматься этим делом, он решил
обратиться к другому. 5. Вы считаете, что
дипломаты должны быть отозваны немедленно. А
что думают остальные?
IV.
p. 99 “... the Chinese government argues that freedom to say
and write anything at all is not as important a freedom as economic
well-being ...”
If you put a countable noun between the adjective and the
second as, you should use a / as in front of the noun (if the noun is
singular). The negative form of sentences like this can use either not
as or sometimes not such: He is not as good a student (not such a
good student) as he used to be. They are not such good students as
they used to be (we don’t use not as with plural nouns.
1. Он не считал словесные оскорбления
представителей расовых меньшинств таким же
серьезным правонарушением, как провоцирование
межрасовой ненависти. 2. Государственная измена
считается не таким широко распространенным
преступлением, как разглашение коммерческий
тайны. 3. Подделка банкнот технически не такое
сложное преступление, как можно подумать. 4.
Вознаграждение тому, кто поможет найти
преступника не такая и редкая мера,
используемая во многих странах. 5. Валовый
внутренний доход на душу населения не такой
надежный показатель в оценке уровня развития
экономики, как многие его считают.
V.
Note the use of prepositions in the following constructions:
p. 99 “This used to be typical of many of the socialist
countries ...”
p. 100 “... the South Korean government does not tolerate
views sympathetic to the North.
to sympathise with smb.
p. 100 “... Singapore ... bans foreign publications critical of the
government.”
to be critical of smth. - criticising
to be critical to smth. - crucial (His contribution is critical to
our research)
p. 100 “Some governments ... take pride in their own tolerance
of different forms of expression ...”
to be intolerant of smth.
to be proud of smth./ smb.
p. 102 “some object to the growth of free sexual behaviour ...”
to object to smth. (to object to new taxes)
She objected that the accusation was based on hearsay.
1. Подделка банкнот и документов типичны
для государств со слабо развитой экономикой. 2.
Он гордился тем, что его работа с подростками
привела к снижению уровня физической
жестокости у подростков. 3. Этот преподаватель
оказался терпимым к различным формам
самовыражения студентов. 4. Он возражал против
немедленного отзыва дипломатов из N., хотя и
был критически настроен по отношению к
правительству N. 5. Он всегда сочувствует
представителям расовых меньшинств,
подвергающихся словесным оскорблениям. 6. Она
возразила, что такие штрафные убытки слишком
высоки.
VI.
Note the following pattern:
p. 100 “... the person who gives the orders is just as guilty as
the one who does the killing.”
to do the shopping
to do the talking
to do the speaking
to do the listening
1. Кажется, что этот адвокат постоянно много
говорит. 2. Полиция только что поймала
нескольких подозреваемых в убийстве, но пока
она не выяснила, кто непосредственно убил
известного политика. 3. Он всегда очень много
читал перед каждым делом в суде. 4. Поскольку
он впервые присутствовал на совете директоров,
все ожидали, что он будет слушать, а он не
постеснялся выступить. 5. Кто осуществляет
цензуру всех периодических изданий в стране N?
Exercise 3.
1/ blasphemy a/ defamation that is
communicated by a writing,
drawing, photograph,
television program, or other
means that is directed toward
the sense of sight
2/ censorship b/ contemptuous or
irreverent talk about God and
sacred things
3/ treason c/ damages as a measure
of punishment for the
defendant’s wrongful acts
4/ forgery d/ the wrongful act of
damaging another’s character
or reputation by the use of false
statements
5/ defamation e/ treachery to, betrayal
of, one’s country or ruler
6/ libel f/ the fraudulent making
or altering of a writing
whereby the rights of another
might be prejudiced
7/ slander g/ defamation that is
communicated by the spoken
word
8/ punitive damages h/ examining letters,
books, periodicals, plays,
films, etc. and cutting out
anything regarded as immoral
or in other ways undesirable,
or, in time of war, helpful to
the enemy
Exercise 4.
Журналистика по заказу
В самом начале войны 2003 года в Ираке

свободный журналист Кристофер Оллбриттон
пытался попасть туда. Иранская и сирийская
границы были перекрыты, поэтому он нанял
курдского проводника, и через 36 очень
непростых часов пути через укрепленную
турецко-иракскую границу стоял на иракской
земле. И последующие три недели писал о
падении Тикрита и межэтнических трениях между
курдами, арабами, туркменами и ассирийцами. У
Оллбриттона не было дорогого контракта с The
Washington Post или CNN. Его поездку оплатили 320
человек, пожертвовавших ему через его сайт
14334 долларов. За несколько месяцев до войны
бывший журналист Associated Press дал на этом сайте
объявление: он хотел освещать войну и просил у
читателей финансовой поддержки. Как только
деньги поступили на его счет, Оллбриттон,
прихватив ноутбук, двинулся в путь. Информацию
он передавал по спутниковому телефону или с
помощью Интернет-кафе. Спонсоры получали
информацию первыми, он высылал им кроме того
дополнительные репортажи и фотографии. Они
же подавали ему идеи репортажей. “Читатели
были моими редакторами”,- говорит Оллбриттон.
Эпопея Оллбриттона представляет контуры новой
бизнес-модели, которая может пустить корни в
нижних эшелонах СМИ. Назовем это абонентской
журналистикой. Журналисты смогут
ориентироваться не на массовый рынок, а на
аудитории из нескольких тысяч человек, и им
будет куда проще искать незатасканные сюжеты
в стороне от проторенных дорог. Корреспонденты
же смогут собирать деньги напрямую у читателей,
заинтересованных в конкретных темах или
жанрах.
Оллбриттон и иже с ним строят свое дело на
расцвете в Интернете особого вида сайтов –
блогов. Это самодельные сайты, где авторы пишут
статьи в виде дневников, которые можно
прочитать всем, причем, как правило, бесплатно.
Теперь некоторые предприниматели видят
будущее в том, чтобы аккумулировать работу
блогеров в одном месте и брать за нее деньги.
Конечно, абонентская журналистика не
заменит Times. Но она дает в руки маленькому
человеку все более мощный мегафон.
“Источников информации становится больше,
и это – хорошая новость.”
( по материалам журнала Профиль N
30 2003)
Comment on the article.
Do you think this practice has future in our country?
Would you like to sponsor any kind of blogs? If yes, what
one?
Exercise 6.
Book Banning Must Be Stopped
"I can't wait to go home and relax," my friend Marianne

declared as she stuffed assorted articles of clothing into her
overnight bag. After taking three midterm exams that week,
Marianne planned a quiet evening at home. "Marcia, you're an
English major," she said, looking up from her bag. "Can you think
of a good book for me to read?" "How about Native Son or To Kill
a Mockingbird?" I said. "Or did you ever read Flowers for Algernon
or Ordinary People?" The four books I recommended have
something in common. Although good by my standards, each has
been attacked as dangerous by certain people or groups in
communities across the United States. Along with other works by
renowned authors, such as Alice Walker, John Steinbeck, Kurt
Vonnegut, and Mark Twain, these books — four of my all-time
favorites — have been challenged, censored, banned, burned or
removed from American schools and libraries in recent years.
Censorship of textbooks and other books in school libraries
appears to be increasing in all parts of the country. People for the
American Way, a Washington-based lobby group that recently
conducted its fourth annual study of censorship, reports that
incidents of censorship have increased 35 percent in the past year.
In the past four years these incidents have more than doubled. Last
July, the American Library Association published a list of more
than five hundred books that have been banned, challenged, or
removed from schools and public libraries around the country,
ranging from Harriet the Spy, by Louise Fitzhugh (considered
"dangerous" because it "teaches children to lie, spy, back-talk, and
curse"), to The Merchant of Venice, by William Shakespeare
(purportedly anti-Semitic).
Often under the guise of upholding community values, censors
attack books for profane or obscene language or for scenes of sex
and violence. Apparently they believe that by shielding us, they will
discourage us from adopting undesirable attitudes, speech, and
behavior. The censors may mean well; however, I don't think
teenagers encounter many words or details in books that they have
not already been exposed to in real life. Besides, I am no more apt
to swear after reading Go Ask Alice than I am to speak in blank
verse after reading Macbeth.
Instead of zeroing in on certain passages or words they find
offensive, these censors should focus on understanding the value of
the work as a whole. For example, J. D. Salinger's Catcher in the
Rye, which contains numerous four-letter words, has been a recent
target of criticism. In recent years, the novel has been challenged,
banned, or removed in school districts in states including
Washington, Ohio, Florida, and Michigan. Perhaps by examining
this work as a whole, the censors would realize its real literary
value. Through his protagonist's use of strong language in a clearly
unnatural "tough kid" style, Salinger depicts the struggles of a
vulnerable boy who hides behind a facade as he grows up in a world
that frightens and confuses him. In this work, vulgar language
emphasizes Salinger's message and serves a definite purpose.
Even more disturbing to me than attacks on so-called dirty
books are those against books that express ideas with which censors
— who are often political, social, or religious extremists —
disagree.
In Alabama, the state textbook committee rejected thirty-seven
textbooks after various conservative groups had objected that the
books failed to reflect certain "religious and social philosophies." In
Oregon, environmentalists wanted to remove a social studies book
because they believed it contained "pro-industry propaganda." And
last July a group of fundamentalist Christian parents in Church Hill,
Tennessee, filed suit against the county's public schools. The group
argued that a series of schoolbooks preached "secular humanism," a
doctrine that they said places man above God. In a ruling conducive
to still more censorship, the judge upheld the parents' right to keep
their children out of the reading classes.
This kind of censorship alarms me because it resonates with
intolerance. Why must our access to reading materials be denied
simply because they violate some group's aesthetic, moral, religious,
or political views? Why should one group be allowed to impose its
views on an entire classroom, school, or state? By submitting to the
demands of one group, don't we limit the freedom of another?
Education should teach us to be tolerant and respectful of
differences. These virtues cannot be taught in a classroom that bans
books with "unacceptable" ideas.
As students, we read for many reasons. We read to explore life
in certain historical periods, cultures, and regions. We read to
examine problems of human justice, to explore basic issues of race,
class, sex, and age. By encountering many different and conflicting
ideas and beliefs, we learn to think critically, to ask intelligent
questions, and to form our own opinions.
Educators, I think, should not tell us what to think but should
teach us how to think. Rather than flatly stating whether a certain
book has value, instructors and school officials should encourage us
to read extensively and to decide for ourselves. By encouraging
lively debates in the classroom, teachers can help us to clarify what
we believe and why.
Book censorship, by inhibiting a free and open exchange of
ideas, squelches8 the vitality of our classrooms and threatens our
freedom to learn. In addition, I cannot help but wonder about its
implications. When our right to read is restricted, how safe can our
other rights be?
By Marcia Cohen (from Seventeen Magazine)
Find in the text and read out loud the ideas or statements that
you agree with. Support them by your own arguments or examples.
1. 1. What should be the role of a teacher in
the classroom??
2. 2. Are there any considerations in favour
of book censorship?
Exercise 7
Read the text and discuss it:
Diana tragedy photographers cleared by court
From Charles Bremner in Paris

A COURT yesterday acquitted three French photographers of
invasion of privacy when they took pictures at the site of the crash
in which Diana, Princess of Wales, and Dodi Fayed died in August
1997.
Mohamed Al Fayed, Dodi's father, had pressed the case under
France's strict privacy laws after investigators ruled out any other
criminal charges against the photographers who pursued the
couple's car on the night of their midnight crash in the Alma tunnel,
by the Seine, in central Paris.
Jacques Langevin, 50, of the Sygma-Corbis agency, Christian
Martinez, 49, of the Angeli agency, and Fabrice Chassery, 36, a
freelance, had faced a maximum of one year in prison and fines of
£30,000. Beatrice Vautherin, the prosecutor, called for suspended
prison sentences at their trial last month.
She rejected their argument that the crash scene marked a
news event of public interest. "What they were photographing was
misery and distress," she said. "These are not images that seek to
bear witness like pictures of war. It was seizing the image of
someone who was suffering." The three, whose photographs were
never published, said that they were merely doing their jobs.
"The camera captures an instant and you don't reflect," said M
Chassery, who took pictures outside the Ritz hotel and also at the
accident scene. "I didn't realise how serious it was. It was ordinary
work. I reacted as a photographer first and only later as a man and
then it really hit me."
The judges accepted the photographers' arguments, saying that
there were no grounds for convicting them, especially as their
photographs were never published. Valerie Rosano, for M Martinez,
said that the photographers were satisifed "by an excellent verdict
which confirms the principle of the freedom of the press". French
journalists' associations also applauded the verdict as a victory for
press freedom.
Mohamed Al Fayed said yesterday that he was launching an
immediate appeal against the acquittal. This could lead to a new
hearing in a higher court. The case was based on the principle that
the interior of a car is a private space. The photographers were tried
only for pictures of Dodi Fayed.
The Princess's relatives and the Royal Family were not
plaintiffs.
Invasion of privacy – нарушение прайвеси

A freelance – нештатный фотограф
A suspended prison sentence – приговор, отсроченный
исполнением
to bear witness - свидетельствовать
to reflect on, upon smth - размышлять, раздумывать
Answer the questions, express your opinion:
1. 1. What was the decision of the court?
2. 2. What argument of the defendants did
the prosecutor reject?
3. 3. Why did the judges accept their
arguments?
4. 4. How did French journalists’
associations take the verdict?
5. 5. Do you agree with them?
What do you think:
Is a journalist/a photographer supposed to present information
or state the facts as they are leaving it for the people to analyze and
make conclusions or are they supposed to reflect on the motives and
the purpose/the impact of their reports?
Portion 17
Exercise 1.
p. 104 to obey a rule, to grant smb. autonomy, rainforest, to
counter smth., a border security question, to give
smth. priority, to convict smb.(признать виновным),
a due legal process;
p. 105 a term of office, to hold a referendum (pl. -
referenda) (всенародный опрос), to forbid smth., a
check upon smb., separation of powers, executive,
legislative, judicial, a Supreme Court justice;
p. 106 an amendment to smth. (поправка), to
exempt smb. from (doing) smth., to fall behind, to
stand in the way of smth., an oppressive government,
a constitutional provision (положение Конституции
(постановление));
p. 107 an advance notice, to break up, to anticipate serious
disruption of community life, to obtain restitution, a judicial review,
to act beyond one’s authorised powers, innocence is presumed
unless guilt can be proven, to be entitled to free legal aid, to search a
private house, to obtain a court warrant.
1. 1. What does Constitutional law concern?
2. 2. How does awareness of citizens
influence their legal activity? Give some
examples.
3. 3. Explain the definition of a constitution
given in the text.
4. 4. What methods of changing a
constitution exist in different countries?
5. 5. What is the difference between socialist
and Anglo-American laws regulating the
relationship between citizens and the state?
6. 6. What is the purpose of separation of
powers?
7. 7. How is this principle to work according
to Montesquieu?
8. 8. How is this principle implemented in
the US?
9. 9. What are the functions of the Supreme
Court?
10. 10. What else do most constitutions
describe apart from the powers of
government?
11. 11. Where can citizens’ rights be found in
Britain? What are the arguments for and
against having a written constitution in
Britain?
12. 12. Why do legal freedoms vary from
country to country?
13. 13. Give examples of differences in these
areas:
• - provision of separation of powers
• - freedom of speech and expression
• - protection of citizens’ rights against wrongs
committed by public bodies
• - treatment of citizens suspected of crimes.
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 105 “... many of his decisions and all new legislature must
be approved by a majority in Congress ...”
to approve of smb./ smth. - to give one’s approval
of (I cannot support a policy of which I have never
approved) - высказываться или относиться
одобрительно
to approve smth. / smb. , to confirm, to agree to
(The expenditure has been approved.) - одобрять,
утверждать
1. Парламент отнесся одобрительно к
предложениям об урегулировании конфликтов
между работниками правоохранительных органов.
2. Депутаты одобрили повестку дня, уделяющую
первостепенное значение вопросам безопасности
национальной границы. 3. Парламентарии
утвердили расходы на проведение референдума о
предоставлении автономии коренным жителям
экваториальных лесов в районе Амазонки. 4.
Акционеры отнеслись одобрительно к идее
внесения поправок в устав компании. 5. Хотя он
никогда не одобрял политику руководства
компании, он пытался действовать не выходя за
рамки своих полномочий.
II.
p. 106 “Others argue that ... the lack of a written constitution
has not stood in the way of a long tradition of individual liberty in
Britain ...”
for lack of - (For lack of support, they failed the election)
to lack smth. (to be without, not have, have less than enough
of) - The lawyer seemed to lack wisdom.
to lack for (to need) - They lacked for professional
experience.
to be lacking in smth (not have enough of) - They are lacking
in professional knowledge.
1. Из-за отсутствия кворума члены совета
директоров не смогли отменить принятое ими
ранее решение, которое, как оказалось, мешало
дальнейшему развитию компании. 2. Имеет ли
подозреваемый право на бесплатную
юридическую помощь, если у него не хватает
средств на гонорар адвокату? 3. У обвинения было
недостаточно улик, чтобы доказать вину
подозреваемого. 4. Из-за отсутствия средств
правительство не смогло провести референдум по
введению семилетнего срока правления
президента. 5. У них было все, что им нужно, и
никто не запрещал им ничего.
III.
p. 106 “It can be difficult to compare the legal freedoms of
countries with different cultural and economic levels ...”
economic - of economics
economical - careful in the spending of money, time, etc and
in the use of goods; not wasteful (to be economical of time and
energy)
1. Правительство решило провести
референдум по ряду экономических вопросов и по
внесению поправок в некоторые положения
Конституции. 2. Скорее всего финансовый
директор компании был очень бережлив с
корпоративными средствами, раз им удалось так
быстро выйти из кризиса. 3. Генеральный
директор всегда очень ценил время и силы своих
сотрудников и уделял особое значение вопросам
организации труда. 4. Он был краток и сразу
перешел к делу, рассказав коллегам о возможных
нарушениях общественного порядка. 5. Полиция
получила ордер на обыск дома человека,
обвиняемого в совершении экономических
преступлений.
IV.
p. 107 “... the police may order the protesters to move or break
up if they anticipate serious disruptions of community life.”
To expect implies a serious degree of confidence that a
particular event will happen (to expect guests for dinner).
To anticipate implies a looking forward to something with a
foretaste of the pleasure or distress it promises, or a realising of
smth. in advance, and a taking of steps to meet it (to anticipate
trouble).
To hope implies a desire for smth., accompanied by some
confidence in the belief that it can be realised (to hope for the best)
To await implies a waiting for, or a being ready for, a person
or thing (A hearty welcome awaits you).

1. Лидеры оппозиционной партии предвидели
проблемы , с которыми они, возможно,
столкнуться, если решат провести референдум. 2.
Они надеялись, что ничто не помешает их планам
отменить это судебное решение. 3.
Подозреваемый думал о том, какая судьба его
ждет, осудят ли его за преступление или ему
удастся избежать наказания. 4. Он ожидал, что к
его предложению о введении новых правил
отнесутся благосклонно. 5. Из-за отсутствия
каких-либо смягчающих обстоятельств он
опасался наихудшего приговора.
V.
Choose the most appropriate word underlined.
a) The police arrested Jack and took him into
custody/detention/prison.
b) In most countries, the capital/death/execution penalty has
been abolished.
c) A man is said to be helping the police with their
arrests/detection/inquiries.
d) The judge in the court was wearing a hairpiece/head-
dress/wig.
e) Two football fans were later charged with
aggression/assault/attack.
f) Less serious cases are dealt with in the
criminal/juvenile/magistrate's court.
g) I was given a light sentence because it was my first
case/charge/offence.
h) A patrol car stopped me because I was
racing/running/speeding in a built-up area.
i) The case was dismissed for lack of evidence/a
jury/witnesses.
j) 'Members of the jury, what is your
answer/summary/verdict?'
Exercise 3.
1/ constitution a/ law-making
2/ referendum b/ the right to ask a court
to re-examine and sometimes
to cancel an act of a
government institution or
another court of law on the
grounds that it is
unconstitutional
3/ executive c/ fundamental laws and
principles according to which a
state is governed
4/ legislative d/ the referring of a
political question to a direct
vote of the electorate
5/ judicial e/ having authority to
carry out decisions, laws,
decrees, etc
6/ judicial review f/ of or by a court of
justice, of a judge or of
judgement
Exercise 4.
A.
Read the article and discuss it.
Privacy for the Employee Is Going Out of Fashion
CAMBRIDGE, Massachusetts — The USG Acoustical

Products Company, based in Chicago, recently announced that
employees at any of its nine plants who smoke, whether at work or
at home, might soon be out of a job unless they stopped. After a
grace period of several months, the company said it would monitor
health using a test that measures lung capacity, and any employees
still believed to be smoking could be fired.
The company's actions appear to be in keeping with the spirit
of advice given recently to corporate executives by Attorney
General Edwin Meese. He said management should "take its
responsibility for surveillance" against drugs into locker rooms,
parking lots and nearby taverns.
As technological methods of surveillance become more
powerful and less expensive, and as the social climate becomes
more receptive, increased emphasis is being placed on the
monitoring of workers, even when they are away from work. The
distinction between on- and off-duty behavior is narrowing.
Historically, privacy has been protected, partly because data
collection was limited to what the unaided senses could detect.
Today's surveillance technologies easily go further. Monitoring of
employees is no longer restricted to a work setting. Electronic
leashes track the activities of delivery and repair people who work
far from a central office. (Ironically, it was because of the greater
freedom these jobs afford that many people were drawn to them in
the past.)
A small computer, named Trip-master, installed on the
dashboard of a truck can record speed, gear shifts, how long the
truck idles and how long a driver stops for lunch or a coffee break.
Another device can track vehicle location via satellite.
Within large industrial or office complexes, a worker's
whereabouts can be determined at all times with card key systems,
which require the employee to check into and out of various stations
— including the parking lot, main entrance, a particular floor, a
given office, a computer terminal and even the bathroom.
Video and audio surveillance, once restricted to high security
areas, are increasingly found in work settings. They record whatever
comes within their purview, work-related or not.
This was sadly discovered by two workers who left a factory
as their shift ended, engaged in a heated discussion. A fight ensued
and a video camera in the parking lot recorded it. They were fired.
They filed a lawsuit, arguing that their activity outside the factory
gate was a private matter. A judge ordered them reinstated.
Union grievances have been filed over the use of electronic
surveillance in employee lounges and bathrooms. In one case the
introduction of electronic surveillance occurred during a union
organizing drive.
Major changes are occurring in the monitoring of employee
telephone communications as well. In most work settings, private
use of telephones has been tolerated, but with the development of a
technique called station message detail recording, this is changing.
Extensive detail can easily be captured on phone usage, even
to other extensions in the same building. Incoming calls can also be
tracked.
The number of workers engaged in • "telecommuting" (using
computers -and telecommunications at home) is also increasing.
Interchanges with a central office serve to deliver a work product
and also to monitor work. In such situations it is difficult to
determine where the factory or office stops and the home begins.
One program permits managers to observe all input entered by
an employee from his home and all output from the central
computer to the user's terminal. Other programs are available to
send subliminal messages or statements, such as "Work faster."
From management's perspective monitoring practices can help
to contain costs, enhance security, improve productivity and service,
and equitably allocate rewards and penal-lies. Yet they can backfire.
Electronic sweatshops are no more appealing than the other
kind. One manufacturing company found that productivity declined
and absenteeism, stress and turnover increased after a monitoring
system was installed. Just because something can be done does not
mean that it should be done. The precedent, once established, can
lead to other forms of monitoring, such as watching what
overweight people eat, tracing spending patterns of those
chronically in debt or tracking employees who engage in high-risk
sports. Once this is accepted, surveillance of religious or political
beliefs could be next. .
By Gary T. Marx
The writer, professor of sociology at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, has just completed a book on undercover
police investigations. He contributed this comment to The New
York Times.
Surveillance - наблюдение
Receptive (climate) – восприимчивый к…
(To order) smb reinstated – восстановить в
правах
To file а grievance – подать жалобу
Subliminal messages – сообщения, действующие на
подсознание
Over to you
Consider AMENDMENT IV to the Constitution of the United
States:
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses,
papers and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall
not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable
cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing
the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
How do you understand the purpose of this resolution? What
searches and seizures are reasonable?
Are there any special circumstances when some forms of
monitoring, say, of telephone communications, are not only
reasonable but necessary for considerations of national security?
B.
Dealing with al-Qaeda suspects
A necessary evil?
The Pentagon claims a new form of terrorism needs a new form of justice.
WHEN the Pentagon announced on July 3rd that George
Bush had identified six "enemy combatants" in American custody as
eligible for trial before specially convened "military commissions",
it revived a confusing debate which has been running since Mr Bush
authorised the creation of such commissions two months after the
September 11th terrorist attacks. At times, the Pentagon and its
critics seem to be talking about two entirely different things.
Pentagon officials insist that any trials held by the new military
commissions-now expected to start in the next few months-will be
"full and fair". Lawyers' groups and human -rights campaigners say
they will be a travesty.
Defendants, say Pentagon officials, will be presumed innocent
until proven guilty. They will be given a lawyer at no expense and
will have the right to remain silent.
Their lawyer will be able to cross-examine witnesses and
present a defence. Their trials will be as open as possible and any
convictions will be automatically reviewed by a separate appeals
panel.
The Pentagon also insists that the military commissions are
better than either American civilian courts-which have already held
successful terrorist trials-or America's long-established military
courts. The commissions, say officials, will have greater
"flexibility" in balancing the demands of a fair trial with the need to
pursue America's war on terrorism.
But this "flexibility" is what worries civil-rights lawyers the
most. As the detailed regulations issued by the Pentagon earlier this
year make clear, nearly all the procedural rights of the accused,
which play such a central role in any normal criminal trial, military
or civilian, are to be hedged about with caveats. They can be
overridden or suspended by the panel of military officers sitting as
judges if they agree with the government-ie, their fellow military
officers—that this is necessary in the interests of national security.
To dispel any doubt about this, the regulations state
categorically that they do not "create any right, benefit, or privilege,
substantive or procedural." The defence secretary can change any of
the trial rules at any time. And the Pentagon will also control
information during the trial itself. The trial may be open to the press
and public, but it can also be closed at any time by the presiding
officer or Pentagon officials.
Defendants cannot represent themselves. They must accept a
military lawyer assigned to them. They can also have a civilian
lawyer, at their own expense, but this lawyer must be an American
citizen and must be cleared by the Pentagon for access to classified
information.
Even with these qualifications, the civilian lawyer, along with
the defendant and public, can be excluded from a trial session if
"protected" information-a vaguely defined category much broader
than "classified"-is presented by the prosecution. The military
lawyer assigned by the defendant has a right to see such evidence,
but he cannot communicate it to the civilian lawyer or the defendant
without the permission of the presiding officer, who will also be one
of the judges deciding guilt or innocence in the case.
There is no guarantee of lawyer-client confidentiality.
Communications between defendants and lawyers, state the
regulations, can be monitored at any time, apparently without any
notification.
Critics argue that, even if defendants learn all the evidence
against them, the trials are unlikely to be fair. After months of
imprisonment, how many defendants will really trust an American
military lawyer? And how far will a serving military officer go in
defending an alleged terrorist against charges authorised by his
commander-in-chief? Civilian defence lawyers cannot talk about the
case, or the trial process, to reporters. Pentagon officials not directly
connected to the trial can say what they like.
If a defendant is acquitted, the Pentagon has made clear, there
is no guarantee that he will be released. He could continue to be
held indefinitely as an "enemy combatant" posing a threat to
America. That is a separate "determination", say officials.
The biggest worry for civil-rights people is the notion that
defendants have no right of appeal to genuinely independent judges
outside the military chain of command. Trial panels will consist of
between three and seven military officers, with at least one being a
qualified military lawyer. Three-quarters of the panel must vote
guilty to convict, and death sentences can only be imposed by the
unanimous vote of a seven-member panel. Convictions and
sentences will be reviewed by another panel of military officers.
The final appeal can be made only to the secretary of defence or the
president. By contrast, ordinary American military courts permit
appeals to a civilian federal appeals court, independent of the
executive branch. The Pentagon's commission regulations explicitly
exclude any such judicial review.
On most measures of a defendant's guaranteed rights, the
military commissions are far more draconian than other terrorism
courts-such as Britain's Diplock courts in Northern Ireland. The
Bush administration retorts that the commissions-which are only for
non-Americans-are needed to protect information that could be of
use to al-Oaeda; and also that the commissions will prove
themselves fair in practice.
Regardless of protests so far, Mr Bush seems determined to
push ahead with a system of Pentagon-run courts which can be
convened anywhere in the world at any time-and which might
become permanent. "It's very easy to criticise something if you
haven't seen it in action yet," says Major John Smith, a Pentagon
spokesman. "Military commissions may come to be seen as a very
legitimate and proper way of dealing with international terrorism."
A travesty - пародия
(To be hedged about with) caveats – протесты,
возражения
a. 1. What is the purpose of “military
commissions”?
b. 2. What is meant by “full and fair”
commissions according to Pentagon officials?
c. 3. Why does their “flexibility” worry civil-
rights lawyers?
d. 4. What are other arguments of critics and
civil-rights people against the commissions?
e. 5. Why is Pentagon determined to push
ahead with the system?
f. 6. Why is the system also called “shadow
court system”?
g. 7. Can you suggest other ways of trying
domestic and foreign terrorists?
h. 8. “We (the Economist, July 12th-18th
2003) believe that in some areas , such as
domestic intelligence gathering Bush’s
government should nudge the line between
liberty and security towards the latter.” What
does this phrase mean? Do you agree with
this statement if it is applied to your country?
Portion 18
Exercise 1.
p. 109 to sentence smb. to seven years’ imprisonment, a
prisoner of conscience, to observe human rights, torture, inhumane
treatment, the abolition of death penalty, to be within one’s
jurisdiction (в пределах юрисдикции);
p. 110 to transcend political divisions, to impose economic
sanctions against smb., a reason for smth., to flee over the border
into other countries;
p. 111 without a dessenting vote, a covenant, arbitrary
arrest and detention(произвольный
арест\задержание), freedom of conscience, to rectify
a breach, legally binding international conventions, to
enjoy human rights;
p. 112 to torture smb., deliberate, wanton infliction of physical
and mental suffering, to extract information from smb., to
implement a law, to give oneself up to the police, an
accomplice (сообщник, соучастник), to give false
evidence against smb.,to be on a death row (сидеть в
камере смертников), to emerge, to have access to
adequate legal advice, a refugee;
p. 113 human rights abuses (нарушение),
political pressures, economic hardships, to treat smb.
fairly and humanely, to seek political asylum (искать
политического убежища), corporal punishment
(телесное наказание), to practice one’s religion, to strip
search smb.
a. 1. What entitles a person to his or her
human rights? Are they universally
recognized?
b. 2. If human rights go beyond the laws of a
country it means they will be in conflict. True
or false?
c. 3. Give a definition of human rights.
d. 4. What is the purpose of Amnesty
International? What methods of increasing
awareness of the general public and putting
presure on governments does it use? Name
other human rights groups.
e. 5. Who are prisoners of conscience?
f. 6. What are other directions of the activity
of Amnesty International?
g. 7. What pressure can be imposed on
individual governments whose laws violate
human rights of their people?
h. 8. What are the main arguments of the
opponents of interference into other
countries’ affairs? Analyse the moral and the
legal side to the question.
i. 9. What is the argument of human rights
organisations justifying this kind of
interference?
j. 10. What legal instruments are to provide
proper treatment of individuals within the
countries-signatories to them?
k. 11. What do Articles of UDHR declare and
state? What specific rights do they refer to?
l. 12. Why is ICCPR considered to be more
important? What provisions does it have?
m. 13. What does the Optional Protocol allows
individuals to do? How many countries had
signed it by 1993?
n. 14. What countries had signed ECHR by
1993? What does it enable citizens of these
countries to do?
o. 15. What power does the European Court of
Human Rights have in case of breach of the
Convention?
p. 16. How do individual governments justify
delays in changes made to their laws?
q. 17. What human rights violations are still
common nowadays?
r. 18. What requirements to a trial are put
forward by human rights activists?
s. 19. What makes people flee from their own
countries? What guarantees do they need in
foreign countries?
t. 20. What other human rights issues are
discussed nowadays?
u. 21. Give at least 5 examples of political and
legal discrimination against women
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 109 “But a human right is one to which people all over the
world are entitled, whatever their nationality and wherever they
live.”
Whatever, whichever, whoever, whenever, wherever and
however are used to express It doesn’t matter what, which, who, etc.
They can also express the idea of ignorance, indifference, or
something not precisely specified. (Give this to Mr Brown, or Mr
Brownie, whatever his name is.)
1. Где бы вы не изучали право, вы обязательно
будете изучать вопросы защиты прав человека в
военное время. 2. Пытка определяется как
преднамеренное, систематическое и
неоправданное нанесение физических и
умственных страданий, но, каким бы ни было ее
определение, ясно что пытка является вопиющим
нарушением прав человека. 3. Какой бы суровый
приговор ему не вынес суд, самым серьезным
наказанием для него уже стало проклятие семьи,
поэтому он не будет подавать просьбу о
пересмотре его дела. 4. В какой бы стране не
оказались беженцы, они страдают от нарушения
их основных прав человека. 5. Он твердо решил:
что бы ни произошло, он сдастся полиции, но
сначала ему необходимо найти доступ к
квалифицированной юридической помощи.
II.
p. 112 “In 1973, Shabaka WaQlimi tired to rob a bank in
Florida ...”
to rob smb. of smth.
to steal smth. from smb.
1. Их лишили основных прав человека и
гражданина, и они были вынуждены стать
беженцами. 2. После того как в тюрьме (куда его
поместили за то, что он украл конфиденциальную
информацию у своего же начальства) его лишили
права исповедовать религию, он решил подать иск
из нарушения прав человека. 3. В некоторых
странах лиц, обвиняемых в краже продуктов
питания у своих соседей, приговаривают к
физическому наказанию. 4. После того как он
украл в банке несколько миллионов долларов, он
решил бежать в соседнюю страну, надеясь, что
там ему удастся остаться безнаказанным. 5. Его
сообщник дал полиции ложные доказательства,
обвинив его в краже секретных документов в ряде
высокотехнологичных компаний.
III.
p. 112 “In the case of trials of political prisoners, Amnesty
insists that they be held in public ...”
to insist on (doing) smth.
to insist that smb. (should) do smth.
to insist that + the Indicative Mood (he insisted that the
accused was innocent)
1. Депутат настаивал на предоставлении
политического убежища этим беженцам. 2. Он
настаивал на том, что в тюрьмах и сейчас
используют пытки для получения информации у
заключенных. 3. Он настаивал на том, чтобы
обыскать всех задержанных, в том числе и
женщин. 4. Подозреваемый настаивал на том,
чтобы ему дали доступ к надлежащей
юридической помощи. 5. Он настаивал на том, что
все еще существует значительное количество
случаев злоупотребления правами человека.
Exercise 3
Role-play:
First answer the questions and then act according to the
assignment. How well has your country accepted refugees? What
problems do they face here? Now leave aside refugees and
concentrate on general immigration.
Roles 1, 2, …Imagine you are members of a government
department which decides who to give permanent visas to. Put the
following in order of preference, justify your answer:
- English teachers
- Married sons and daughters of citizens of your country
- People escaping from a war
- People seeking political asylum from countries that are not at
war
- People who are prepared to do very humble jobs at a cheap
price
- People with an internationally recognized extraordinary
ability in: science, art, business, athletics
- Spouses and unmarried children of lawfully permanent
residents
- Unmarried sons and daughters of citizens of your country
Exercise 4
Special report Zimbabwe’s future
The poll that Bob stole

BULAWAYO AND HARARE
After a blatantly rigged ballot, Robert Mugabe has won

another six years in office. Poor Zimbabwe
IN ZIMBABWE, the thieves are in charge and their victims
face prosecution. On March 13th, President Robert Mugabe was
declared the winner of a nakedly crooked election. His challenger,
Morgan Tsvangirai of the Movement for Democratic Change
(MDC), refused to accept the result. But Mr Mugabe's troops, armed
with machineguns and rocket-propelled grenades, took to the streets
to deter protests and surrounded the mdc's offices in Bulawayo. And
Mr Tsvangirai himself now faces a legal challenge, as the regime
presses treason charges against him and two of his lieutenants.
Of nearly 3m votes cast, Mr Mugabe won 1,685,212, or 56%
of the total, excluding spoiled ballots. Mr Tsvangirai could only
manage 1,258,401, or 42%; three minor candidates scooped the
remainder. Mr Mugabe's party, the Zimbabwe African National
Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), said their man won because
voters liked his policy of seizing white-owned farmland and giving
it to blacks, and also because they saw Mr Tsvangirai as a stooge of
Britain, the former colonial power.
But there are one or two reasons for suspecting that the
election was unfair. The electoral roll was fiddled to reduce the
number of educated, urban voters and to swell the ranks of rural,
illiterate and dead ones, who were thought more likely to vote for
Mr Mugabe. During the campaign, Mr Mugabe's militia had
rampaged through the Zimbabwean countryside, sometimes
torching the huts of suspected opposition supporters or holding their
heads in buckets of water until they passed out. According to one
charity, three-quarters of Zimbabweans saw or were affected by
state-sponsored violence.
Once the polls opened, Mr Mugabe's supporters found it easy
to vote. In rural areas, where most of them live, government trucks
ferried them to the polls. Some waverers were reportedly escorted
into polling stations by militiamen, and told that secret cameras,
microphones or even mobile telephones would somehow be used to
reveal their choice. Despite this, many said they believed that their
ballot was secret: "I felt I could vote for what was in my heart" was
used as code for "I voted MDC".
The number of polling stations in urban areas, where almost
everyone supports Mr Tsvangirai, was slashed. This led to mile-
long queues, which officials processed as slowly as they could,
sometimes reading through the entire voters' roll, starting with A, to
find voters' names beginning with Z. In Harare, thousands waited all
weekend in the searing sun, but still failed to reach the front of the
queue.
After a petition by the MDC, a judge ordered the polls to open
for another day. The registrar-general, a Mugabe flunkey, assented
but delayed the reopening for half a day "to test the equipment". In
rural areas, some polling stations were erected in the middle of
camps formed by self-proclaimed veterans of Mr Mugabe's old
guerrilla army, who have spent the past two years beating up his
opponents.
The sites of polling stations were kept secret until the last
moment. In rural areas, perhaps half the polling stations lacked
independent monitors. Some had been refused accreditation, while
others were simply chased away. mdc polling agents tried valiantly
to monitor the voting, but were not allowed to ride in the same cars
as ballot boxes. Some who tried to follow in their own cars were
stopped at police roadblocks. According to Amnesty International,
1,400 polling agents and observers were arrested, usually on
suspicion of "vote-rigging".
In one rural constituency, polling agents reported that only
about 300 people had voted, but official results showed over 1,000
ballots, mostly with the cross by Mr Mugabe's name. In another
constituency, observers said only 12,000 ballot papers had been
cast-yet officials in Harare produced 20,000. Mr Mugabe did
surprisingly well in Matabeleland, where his soldiers killed and
tortured thousands of people in the 1980s, suprisingly well in
eastern Masvingo province, where the local ZANU leader actually
campaigned against him, and magnificently in his home region,
Mashonaland, where turnout in some constituencies reached over
90%. To accept these results you have to believe that Mr Mugabe
and his party have grown more popular since a parliamentary
election in 2000, despite the fact that Zimbabweans have grown
dramatically poorer and more frightened since then.
Most observers, including some African mps, condemned the
poll. But two groups from South Africa called Mr Mugabe's victory
"legitimate" and blamed the difficulties faced by opposition
supporters on "administrative oversights". For Kenya's president,
Daniel Arap Moi, Mr Mugabe's victory was "testimony of the
confidence and high esteem the people of Zimbabwe hold you in."
Thabo Mbeki, South Africa's president, refused to comment
immediately, letting it be known that he wants to work through the
Commonwealth. It appears that he is reluctant to offend Mr
Mugabe. Last week, Mr Mbeki suggested that governments that
sought Zimbabwe's suspension from the Commonwealth were
"inspired by notions of white supremacy."
Mr Mbeki's attitude has baffled outsiders. Mr Mugabe's antics
have dashed confidence in the whole region. South Africa's
currency, for example, has lost 32% of its value in the past year,
partly because of spillover jitters from Zimbabwe. Western fund
managers have jitters not merely because they do not know the
difference between one African country and another; they also note
that African leaders such as Mr Mbeki are deeply reluctant to
criticise the despot on their doorstep. Their reluctance may reflect
Mr Mugabe's standing as an elder statesman in a continent where
age is revered. Or perhaps they defer because he leads the party that
liberated Zimbabwe from white rule, which gives him kudos in a
region where the parties of liberation still rule many countries. But
pessimists worry that some African rulers ignore Mr Mugabe's
ballot-stuffing because they do not altogether disapprove.
The Economist March 16 th 2001
a. 1. What was the result of the election?
b. 2. What charges were pressed against Mr
Tsvangirai?
c. 3. What are the reasons to suspect that the
election was unfair?
d. 4. Why were polling agents and observers
arrested?
e. 5. What did most observers say?
f. 6. Why did South Africa president refuse
to comment?
g. 7. What violations of human rights took
place in the region before the elections?
h. 8. Is it the case when criticism of another
country is justified?
i. 9. Is it the case when the outside
intervention is necessary to protect the rights
of the citizens or should it be left to the
people of Zimbabwe to decide for
themselves?
Portion 19
Exercise 1.
p. 115 ignorance of the law, to have wide powers to do smth.,
to search and question people, to be in possession of smth., to issue
a formal warning, to refer the matter to a court, to deter smb. from
(doing) smth.;
p. 116 to detect a crime, law-abiding, to falsify evidence, to
mistreat smb., to overlook offences, to obtain a confession;
p. 117 to obtain a confession by trickery, to supervise smth.,
misconduct (ненадлежащее поведение);
p. 118 community services (службы общины), to
suspend a sentence, a life sentence, parole,
deprivation of liberty (to deprive smb. of liberty), to
cane smb., to whip smb., capital punishment, to hang
smb. (hanged), electrocution, gassing, lethal injection,
beheading, stoning;
p. 119 to rectify a mistake, a juvenile detention centre, death
row, revenge, retribution.
a. 1. What ways of enforcing the law used by
governments do you know?
b. 2. How do governments ensure the legal
awareness of their citizens?
c. 3. What are the functions of the police?
d. 4. Do you agree that their mere presence is
a factor in deterring people from committing
offences?
e. 5. What factors must be considered in
analyzing crime figures of different
countries?
f. 6. What is independent, honest police
force like? Is illegally obtained evidence
universally disallowed?
g. 7. What steps have been taken in Britain to
regulate the conduct of the police?
h. 8. How do the roles of the police and the
army differ in enforcing the law?
i. 9. How do different countries ensure the
independence and impartiality of the
judiciary? What is the function of the prison
authorities?
j. 10. Name the kinds of punishment available
to the courts in civil and criminal cases.
k. 11. May a life sentence allow the prisoner
to be released?
l. 12. What is the argument of supporters of
capital punishment?
m. 13. What are the arguments of its
opponents? Give at least 3 of them. ”Capital
punishment is used inconsistently”. What
does it mean?
n. 14. Is the main function of punishment to:
o. a. deter
b. to take revenge
c. to keep criminal out of society
d. to reform and rehabilitate criminals
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 115 “But ignorance of the law is almost never a defence for
breaking it.”
also : to be ignorant of smth.
1. Когда ему объяснили, за что он был
задержан, он признался, что не знал закона, в
нарушении которого его обвиняют. 2. Поскольку
он был подростком, полиция сочла допустимым,
что он не знал ряда законов, и сделала ему
официальное предупреждение. 3. Незнание им
некоторых фактов и обстоятельств совершения
преступления делало защиту его клиента крайне
сложной. 4. Часто полиция закрывает глаза на
некоторые преступления, а когда ее в этом
обвиняют, заявляет о незнании каких-либо
доказательств. 5. Хотя он знал, что в этой стране
суд может приговорить обвиняемого к порке, он
пока не знал о фактах физического наказания.
II.
p. 115 “ In Britain when someone is found in possession of
marijuana, the police may confiscate it ...”
to be in possession of smth. - owing (The government is in
possession of the file.)
to be in the possession of smth. - owned by (The file is in the
possession of the government.)
1. Он был задержан, обыскан и допрошен в
аэропорту, поскольку полиция получила
информацию о том, что у него с собой было
опасное оружие. 2. Информация о признаниях,
полученных силой у подозреваемых, находится у
начальства. 3. Кажется, никто не владеет
информацией о том, действительно ли смертная
казнь удерживает людей от совершения тяжких
преступлений. 4. Эти документы уже у налоговой
полиции. Слишком поздно исправлять ошибку! 5.
Проект закона, предусматривающий новую
систему наказаний, уже у правительства.
III.
p. 115 “Could this be one reason there is less crime in Japan
than the United States?”
crime ( C ) - offence for which there is severe
punishment by law - преступление
crime ( U ) - such offences collectively, serious
law-breaking - преступность
1. За некоторые мелкие преступления
правонарушителей могут приговорить к
общественным работам. 2. Заявляют, что в
сельской местности совершается гораздо меньше
преступлений, чем в городской. 3. Преступления,
в которых он был признан виновным, влекут за
собой смертную казнь. 4. Казалось, что сейчас
совершается меньше серьезных преступлений,
чем раньше. 5. Делом полиции является
предотвращение и расследование преступлений, а
делом суда - наказание за преступления.
IV.
p. 116 “Because of their wide powers it would not be difficult
for corrupt police forces ... to mistreat someone they have arrested.”
p. 117 “The Police Complains Authority was set up in 1984 to
supervise the investigation of allegations of police misconduct.”
mis - pref bad, wrong, not
1. Он спросил у прохожих, как пройти к
детскому исправительному центру, но они
направили его не в ту сторону. 2. Он совершенно
неправильно действовал в этой ситуации: он
специально закрыл глаза на ряд отягчающих
факторов, фальсифицировал ряд доказательств и
заявил о незнании того, что по этому делу
существуют свидетели. 3. Подозреваемый создал
у следователя ложное впечатление о том, что
последний сможет получить у него признание. 4.
Как оказалось, следователь неправильно
истолковал мотивы совершения преступления и
зря направил дело на рассмотрение в суд, хотя
мог всего лишь вынести официальное
предупреждение. 5. Сотрудник злоупотребил
доверием своего начальника, и, получив доступ к
конфиденциальной информации, использовал ее в
личных целях.
Exercise 3.
1/ community service a/ delaying (the
punishment)
2/ corporal punishment b/ a number of people
sentenced to death but still
alive
3/ capital punishment c/ unpaid work done by
the offender as punishment for
(usually) a social institution
4/ death row d/ death as a form of
punishment
5/ suspension e/ physical punishment
Exercise 4.
Read the following text and do the exercise that follows.
THE LONG ARM
It is almost a century and a half ago that Sir Robert Peel

founded the British Police Force with his peelers or bobbies (an
abbreviation for Robert) as they were then known, to serve
metropolitan London.
The friendly village policeman, however - a loveable, if
occasionally pompous figure in children’s story books, with his
twinkling eyes, squeaky bicycle and wobbly, ill-fitting helmet has
now become a figure of the past. The man on the beat has been
replaced by the man in he Panda car or local patrol car.
The modern British Police Force has had to keep up with the
times. It has changed beyond recognition since those early days. A
different social climate and new social, material and political
pressures have in recent years modified many people’s attitude
towards the police. Nevertheless, the British Police Force remains
proud of its working relationship with the British Public as a whole.
Thus British police are not armed, except with truncheons and two-
way radios or walkie-talkies, for their routine duties of crime
prevention. It is only when a criminal is known to be armed and
dangerous that the police are issued with rifles or revolvers from
their own armoury. Their ammunition is carefully counted out to
them.
Mounted policemen - a common sight in the past when they
were used in controlling crowds—have now become quite a rarity.
People will often stop to stare at them whenever they appear in the
street. Nowadays the men and women of our Police Force must be
equipped to deal with sophisticated, efficient and ruthless criminals
who try to prove that crime does pay. The new law-breakers use fast
cars (stolen of course!) and our modern motorways to escape the
clutches of the law - a very different kind of horse-power! And so
any police officer (or, for that matter, any of us if we dial 999) can
now call upon a vast crime prevention network to assist him. This
may range from patrol cars, police motorcycle units or motorway
crews and Flying squads to plain clothes men, police frogmen or the
handlers of specially trained police dogs. And they, in turn, are
supported by a complicated system of information and traffic
control forensic departments, television surveillance, breathalysers
and radar-operated speed traps. In short, the police are equipped
with almost every scientific and technological device practicable.
And yet, in spite of all this, some villains are not caught and
some crimes still go undetected or unsolved. Surprising as it may
seem, the long arm of the law - despite police training programmes
and improved techniques in crime prevention - does not, it seems,
reach everywhere.
Note:
THE LONG ARM - this comes from the expression ‘the long
arm of the law’, indicating power and resourcefulness of the Police,
in that it can reach out over time and distance to catch someone
suspected of a crime.
Choose the best answer.
1 A century and a half is

a 250 years
b 75 years
c 125 years
d 150 years
2 Policemen were originally called bobbies because

a it was short for 'Robert'
b that was the name given to them by Sir Robert Peel
c there were a lot of other names for policemen
d they belonged to London
3 Metropolitan London means

a London and its outskirts
b London and the home counties
c the city area of London
d the heavily populated part of London
4 The friendly village policeman, according to the passage,

a has completely disappeared
b has mostly disappeared
c has never existed, except in story books
d has always been a remote figure
5 Why, does the passage suggest, has Britain's police
force changed? Because
a times have changed
b the British public demanded it
c it needed to create a new public image
d it was under pressure
6 In recent years people have come to look on the police

a in a friendlier way than they did before
b in a different way than they did before
c in exactly the same way as they did before
d in a way that goes beyond ordinary pride
7 How has police equipment changed over the years?

a It has been modernised in accordance with public
demand.
b It has been scientifically tested.
c It has been modernised to cope with modern crime.
d It has had to give up horse power completely.
8 To escape the clutches of the law here means

a to escape from prison
b to escape arrest
c to avoid a crash
d to accelerate
9 What would be the result if we dialled 999?

a We would be in touch with the local prison.
b We would be told to telephone the police.
c We would be put in touch with a local Automobile
Association.
d We would be put in touch with emergency services
including the police.
1O What exactly seems surprising in the last paragraph?

a the fact that some police forces are more efficient than
others
b the fact that the police catch fewer criminals today than
they did in the past
c the fact that individual police officers are able to call up
such a vast network of support systems
d the fact that wrong-doers can still manage to slip through
the vast crime prevention net
Exercise 5.
A recent report shows that there has been a notable increase in
all kinds of crime in the past five years. The report also suggests
that jail is not the answer to the problem.
A group of people have been invited to a television studio to
give their opinions on crime and punishment.
Citizen A: In my opinion, prison is a punishment, not a rest
cure. Criminals must pay for their crimes. The price they have to
pay depends on the seriousness of the crime. For a small crime,
criminals should go to prison. But for murder, they ought to pay
with their lives.
Citizen B: I disagree. If criminals “pay” for their crimes, they
can come out of prison and commit the same crime again. The aim
shouldn’t be to make criminals pay for their crimes, but to correct
the behaviour so that no more crimes are committed.
Criminal: We pay for a crime all our lives. You try to get a job
after you’ve been in prison. Society never lets us forget we’ve been
in prison. That’s why so many of us go back to crime. You talk
about correction, but society has to correct its own attitude first.
Prison guard: At least prisoners can leave when they’ve served
their sentence. I’m here for life. I’ve worked here for 26 years. this
is my job.
Policeman: Prisoners will always be there - until society finds
another way of dealing with criminals.
Citizen C: I think criminals should do something constructive
and useful - like social work.
Social worker: That’s a fine idea, but you’ll never solve the
problem of crime until you deal with the causes - poverty,
overcrowding, poor schools and broken homes.
Discussion Points
1. Summarise the viewpoints of each speaker.
2. Which speaker do you agree with most? Why?
3. Do criminals in this country do social work, build roads,
etc.? If so, is this good? Why?
4. Discuss a programme which you think would help eliminate
crime in this country.
5. If you had the power, what would you do for prisoners?
Why?
Take a stand.
Say how you feel about each of the following statements.
Give reasons for you statements.
1. Prison is deterrent. If there were no prisons, we’d all be
criminals.
2. There is more crime in the city than in the country.
3. Criminals are sick, not evil. They should be treated like
mental patients.
4. Crime does pay. Only stupid criminals get caught.
Exercise 6.
Согласно опросам, проведенным в США,
жертвы преступлений считают, что источником их
бед и страданий наряду с преступником является
правоохранительная система, поскольку она
уделяет гораздо больше внимания преступникам,
а не жертвам преступлений. Это происходит из
традиций английского права, которое полагает,
что справедливость может быть достигнута, если
сторонами процесса являются ответчик и
государство, а не ответчик и его жертва. В США
это означает, что права, предусмотренные
законом, предоставляются подозреваемым. За
последние тридцать лет Верховный Суд
значительно расширил права ответчиков,
ограничив права полицейских на проведении
допроса подозреваемых без адвоката защиты и
права собирать улики и доказательства без
ордера.
Но еще больше жертвы страдают от
недостатков самой правоохранительной системы.
Наказание не является неизбежным и быстрым.
Полиция раскрывает лишь одно из пяти серьезных
преступлений. А, если полицейскому все же
удается схватить подозреваемого, может пройти
больше года, прежде чем дело будет
рассмотрено. Тем временем каждый шестой из
отпущенных под залог подозреваемых совершает
новое преступление. 90 процентов дел
заканчиваются попыткой подсудимого выговорить
себе более мягкий приговор (plea bargain). И, хотя
были приняты более жесткие законы,
увеличившие срок заключения за многие
преступления, пенитенциарные учреждения
настолько переполнены, что только по одному из
шести дел приговор означает тюремное
заключение, а многие заключенные
освобождаются досрочно, чтобы их место заняли
новички.
How can imbalances in the way the law treats victims be
addressed? What can be done to ease the inner pain and financial
difficulties of victims?
Consider the following:
- to pass laws aimed at giving victims broad new rights to
participate in the cases against their assailants;
- to toughen penalties for those who threaten victims;
- to bar criminals from profiting when their stories are told in
books and movies;
- to provide counselling and some measure of financial relief
for the losses suffered by victims;
- to hold mediation sessions where victims and offenders talk
out their differences;
- to open restitution centres (where inmates would live and
hold down jobs in the community paying a certain part of their
earnings to the victims and splitting the rest wit the state);
- to develop government programmes to provide for financial
losses suffered by crime victims;
- to speed preliminary hearings, to streamline jury selection,
to curb stalling tactics of defence lawyers;
- to retool the juvenile system, to transfer particularly violent
cases to adult court.
Will all this help to assuage the awful violation each victim
has endured? Or do some wounds never heal?
Exercise 7.
You have just read an article supporting corporal punishment

with the headline 'A short, sharp shock is the only answer for most
of today's criminals'. Write to the newspaper, putting the opposite
view and criticising what was probably in the article.
Exercise 8.
Read the article and comment on the issues presented in it:
Prison and beyond
A stigma that never fades
CHICAGO
America may want to rethink a system that creates so
many hardened criminals
AT THE end of August, Mike, a 31-year-old Latino from

Chicago's south side, will walk away from prison a free man. Again.
"Nothing really scares me about leaving," says Mike. "It's just the
thought of coming back."
America's incarceration rate was roughly constant from 1925
to 1973, with an average of 110 people behind bars for every
100,000 residents. By 2000, however, the rate of incarceration in
state and federal prisons had more than quadrupled, to 478. America
has overtaken Russia as the world's most aggressive jailer. When
local jails are included in the American tally, the United States locks
up nearly 700 people per 100,000, compared with 102 for Canada,
132 for England and Wales, 85 for France and a paltry 48 in Japan.
Roughly 2m Americans are currently behind bars, with some 4.5m
on parole or on probation (the probationers are on suspended
sentences). Another 3m Americans are ex-convicts who have served
their sentences and are no longer under the control of the justice
system.
Christopher Uggen and Melissa Thompson, sociologists at the
University of Minnesota, and Jeff Manza, a sociologist at
Northwestern University near Chicago, have done rough
calculations suggesting that some 13m Americans — 7% of the
adult population and nearly 12% of the men — have been found
guilty of a serious crime. Not all of these have been behind bars but,
legally speaking, the felony conviction is the crucial distinction.
American job applicants are asked whether they have been
convicted of a felony, not whether they have served time.
How did it happen?
The imprisonment rate is tied to the crime rate. America has a
high number of violent criminals, particularly those who use guns;
America's homicide rate is five to seven times higher than the rate in
most industrialised countries.
But America is also "tough on crime". For similar offences, an
American convict is more likely to go to prison and to draw a longer
sentence than his European peer. America has taken a particularly
punitive approach to its drugs problem.
This keenness to lock people up is matched by a complete lack
of interest in them when they get out. Which they do — and faster
than you might think. The average prison sentence is still only 28
months. Two-fifths of state prisoners will be released in the next 12
months.
The typical inmate goes into prison disadvantaged by almost
every measure. He is more likely than other Americans to be poor
and poorly educated, to have a sorry employment record, to be a
junkie, to be mentally ill, and to be a member of a minority group.
A survey of Californian inmates found that half were functionally
illiterate. Prison could fix some of those social disadvantages;
usually it does not. So the typical inmate is released from prison
with all the problems he went in with — plus a prison record that
makes finding a job or a place to live even harder.
When inmates walk away from a state prison in Illinois, they
are given $10, a set of street clothes and a one-way bus or train
ticket to some approved destination. They leave the structured
environment of prison, in which they are at least guaranteed a bed,
meals and basic health care, and return to a world full of
temptations, often to the very neighbourhood in which they first fell
foul of the law.
Charles, a boyish-looking 25-year-old who has spent three-
and-a-half years in prison for guns and drugs offences, will be
released this year. He worries both about his old friends, who have
not mended their ways, and his old enemies, who may still have
scores to settle. "There's people who left here and got killed the first
day," he says.
A survey of employers in five large cities found that 65%
would not knowingly hire an ex-convict. Many would not be
allowed to do so legally anyway. Another facet of the "tough on
crime" movement has been to exclude ex-convicts from certain
kinds of employment. In Illinois, ex-felons are banned from some
57 different professions, including such jobs as manicurist and
barber.
Ex-convicts, whose families are often less than enthusiastic
about their return, can also be excluded from public housing. It
should be no surprise that ex-inmates have high rates of
unemployment and homelessness.
Doing time
The sentencing laws also skew the system in another way.
Sentences used to be indeterminate: a man might get five to 20
years, with a parole board deciding when he was to be released.
Of course, most of these people are released conditionally,
usually for a period of parole in which they must live by certain
rules (such as staying off drugs). But nowadays a typical parole
officer may be responsible for 50% more people on parole than he
was in the 1970s. Methods of broad surveillance, such as drug
testing, have replaced more personal support and supervision.
Unsurprisingly, more inmates are failing their first big test
outside prison. Those who break their parole now account for a third
of prison admissions, the fastest-growing category.
Altogether, roughly two-thirds of released prisoners are
rearrested within three years of release; 40% are already back in
prison in that time. And those are just the ones who get caught. "If
you return the guy to the community with $10 and a suit of clothes
and no support systems, you can just about guarantee that that
person is going to resort to some kind of criminal behaviour," says
Mr Butler. And the crimes the ex-inmate commits could well be
nasty ones: one in four prisoners is a violent offender.
“They come back with their own baggage," says Jeffrey
Fagan, a professor of law and public health at Columbia University.
They also come back dangerously ill in many cases. In 1997, a
quarter of the people living with HIV or AIDS in the United States
had come out of prison that year. The numbers are even higher for
hepatitis C and tuberculosis. When a resistant form of tb hit New
York city in the late 1980s, 80% of cases were traced to prisons.
America's huge criminal class also has profound political
implications. Most states limit the voting rights of felons and ex-
felons. As a result, 4.7m Americans, or 2.3% of the voting
population, have lost their rights. One in six black men cannot vote
in Virginia and Kentucky. This causes alienation, and changes
elections. Felons may not be enthusiastic voters, but they vote
overwhelmingly for Democrats. Messrs Uggen and Manza have
calculated that if felons had been able to vote in Florida, Al Gore
would be president.
The Economist August 10 th 2002
Vocabulary to the text
Incarceration – лишение свободы, взятие под
стражу
Tally – число, группа
paltry (48 in Japan) – ничтожный, незначительный
To be on probation – находиться на пробации
An inmate - заключенный
To fall foul of the law – столкнуться с законом
A parole board – совет по условно-досрочному
освобождению
To skew smth – уклоняться, сворачивать в
сторону

a. 1. What are the statistics about America’s
incarceration rate? What calculations have the
two sociologists done?
b. 2. What accounts for such a high
incarceration rate?
c. 3. What facts prove a lack of interest in
people when they get out of prison?
d. 4. Why else might people fear the thought
of coming back?
e. 5. Why is the spirit of parole said to have
changed? What are the consequences?
f. 6. What “baggage” do people return with
according to Jeffry Fagan?
g. 7. What political implications does
America’s criminal class have?
h. 8. In his book “The laws” Plato claims that
the prime aim of punishment is to cure the
injustice in the soul of the criminal. Do you
agree with him? Does the modern pattern of
deprivation of freedom serve this purpose?
What should be done to improve it?
Portion 20
Exercise 1.
p. 121 environment, medieval, tension, a prisoner of war;
p. 122 a signatory, a peacekeeping operation, the UN Charter,
to interfere in smth., internal affairs, non-intervention, to be at stake,
sovereignty;
p. 124 to repeal a law;
p. 125 an environmental disaster, ethnic factions, to facilitate
trade, to protect the environment, an air traffic controller, space
debris, outer space, the right of passage through straits, deep-sea
mining, a landlocked state, piracy, a collision, hijacking, inevitable.
a. 1. What are the reasons for the
development of international law?
b. 2. What does public international law
concern? Private international law?
c. 3. What forms of international law existed
before the 20-th century?
d. 4. When and why was the League of
Nations set up? What important international
legislation did it help to bring about?
e. 5. What are the differences between
international and domestic laws?
f. 6. How are international laws enforced in
practice?
g. 7. What factors hamper the
internationalization of the legal profession?
h. 8. In what two directions is international
law developing rapidly?
i. 9. What problems and issues demonstrate
the need for further development of
international law?
Exercise 2.
I.
p. 121 “Yet it has also been argued that many countries face
similar social, economic and political problems ...”
to argue - to maintain a case, give reasons (in support of, for,
against esp with the aim of persuading smb.)
to argue - to express disagreement; quarrel
to argue - to debate (The lawyers argued the case for hours.)
1. Выступающий излагал свои соображения по
данному вопросу, направленные на защиту
окружающей среды и облегчение
международного сотрудничества в этой области.
2. Депутат привел доводы против отмены данного
закона, что по его мнению могло бы привести к
новым этническим разногласиям. 3. Он утверждал,
что данные действия будут означать отмену
принципа невмешательства во внутренние дела
другого государства и поставят жизненные
интересы страны на карту. 4. Председатель
международного комитета утверждал
необходимость новой международной
миротворческой операции для снижения
напряженности в регионе. 5. Он утверждал, что
существует постоянно растущая необходимость в
международных законах в области защиты
окружающей среды.
II.
p. 121 “Nevertheless, most international law has been created
in the twentieth century.”
law ( C ) - rule made by authority for the proper regulation of
a community or society or for correct conduct in life
law ( U ) - the law - the whole body of laws considered
collectively
1. Если человек не соблюдает закон, он может
быть наказан, и незнание закона не освобождает
его от ответственности. 2. Международное право
быстро развивается с целью облегчения торговли
между государствами. 3. Позволяет ли нам закон
делать это? Насколько я знаю, это может быть
рассмотрено как вмешательство во внутренние
дела другого государства. 4. Новые
международные соглашения не нарушают закона.
5. Конституция утверждает, что все граждане
равны перед законом.
III.
p. 122 “One of the basic principles of the UN Charter was that
one nation should not interfere in the internal affairs of another.”
to interfere in smth. (of persons) - to break in upon (other
person’s affairs) without right or invitation
to interfere with smth. (of events, circumstances, etc) - to
come into opposition, hinder or prevent
to interfere with smth. (of persons) - to tamper with smth. (Do
not interfere with this machine.)
1. Депутат утверждал, что данный закон
станет помехой развитию международного
сотрудничества в области защиты окружающей
среды. 2. Он работает над проектом нового
закона, облегчающего торговлю с приграничными
государствами, а эта командировка помешает его
планам. 3. Этот банк - частное юридическое лицо,
государство не может вмешаться в его
инвестиционную политику. 4. Их интересы
неизбежно столкнутся. 5. Вмешательство в дела
других государств исключается Уставом ООН,
невмешательство и суверенитет провозглашаются
как одни из основных принципов международного
права.
IV.
The UN, an intergovernmental organization established in
1945 as the successor to the League of Nations, is concerned with
the maintenance of international peace and security Its headquarters
are in New York City On December 10, 1948, the Declaration of
Human Rights was issued, defining the civil, political, economic,
social and cultural rights of human beings Below are extracts from
the first 10 articles (there are 30 in all). Complete the text by
choosing the correct word from the box.
charge detention discrimination free exile
freedoms law liberty punishment race remedy rights
slavery tribunal
Article 1. All human beings are born ________ and equal in
dignity and rights.
Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and
___________ set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of
any kind, such as _______ , colour, sex, language, religion, political
or other opinion, national or social
origin, property, birth or other status.
Article 3. Everyone has the right to life, _______ and
security of person.
Article 4. No one shall be held in _______ or servitude;
slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or _______ .
Article 6. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere
as a person before the _______ .
Article 7. All are equal before the law and are entitled
without any _______ to equal protection of the law.
Article 8. Everyone has the right to an effective _______ by
the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental
rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest,
_______ or ________ .
Article 10. Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and
public hearing by an independent and impartial _______ , in the
determination of his _______ and obligations and of any criminal
_______ against him.
V.
Below is a short text on the sources of Public International
Law. Read through the text and then find the definitions of the key
words.
Public International Law derives its authority from three main
sources.
1 Treaties and international conventions are written
agreements concluded by two or more sovereign nations or by a
nation and an international organization, such as the European
Union. The power to enter into treaty relations is an essential
attribute of sovereignty. There is a cardinal law of international law
that treaties validly concluded must not be broken by the
signatories. This source is also known as conventional international
law.
2 International agreements or conventions create law for the
parties of the agreement. They may also lead to the creation of
customary international law when they are intended for adherence
generally and are in fact widely accepted. Treaties and conventions
were, at first, restricted in their effects to those countries that ratified
them. They are particular, not general, international law; yet
regulations and procedures contained in treaties and conventions
have often developed into general customary usage, that is, have
come to be considered binding even on those states that did not sign
and ratify them. Some customs may become part of international
law because of general acceptance by most nations, even if not
embodied in a written treaty instrument.
3 General principles common to systems of national law fall
into the same category and are, in fact, often difficult to distinguish
from customs as a source of international law.
Word Definition
1 convention a the customary
method of performing or
carrying out an activity that is
followed by a particular group
of people
2 sovereign b to give formal
approval to something in order
that it can become law
3 conclude c self-governing and
not ruled by another state
4 binding d rule
e legally required
5 treaty f the action of

following a rule or keeping to
an agreement
6 usage g legally binding
agreement between states
sponsored by an international
organization
7 custom h legally binding
agreement between two or
more states
8 regulation i a formal legal
document
9 adherence j a long established

tradition or usage that becomes
customary law if it is (a)
consistently and regularly
observed and
10 ratify (b) recognized by those
states observing it as a practice
that they must follow
11 instrument k to make a formal
agreement complete and fixed,
especially after long
discussions or arrangements
Exercise 3.
Assignment 1
Read the text and sum it up in one or two sentences. Omit
insufficient information and use linking devices extensively.
Drugs in Mexico
The end of the Arellanos

MEXICO CITY
The police, and the gangsters, are modernising
FOR more than a decade, the Arellano Felix clan imposed a

reign of terror on Tijuana, to protect its hold over the export of
cocaine and other drugs to California. So the sudden elimination of
the clan's two leading figures is a rare triumph for Mexico's police
forces. But their downfall, may also mean that in the drug industry,
as in politics, Mexico is becoming more modern and pluralist.
Benjamin Arellano Felix, the baby-faced chief executive of the
family drug firm and the "number one target" of the United States'
Drug Enforcement Administration, was arrested in Puebla, south of
Mexico city, on March 9th. In the past, such raids were often
thwarted by tipoffs. Until Vicente Fox defeated the longruling
Institutional Revolutionary Party in 2000, police chiefs and even
army generals were routinely paid off by drug traffickers. But this
time the surprise was total. A commando unit swooped on the
suburban house where Mr Arellano had been lying low for months,
and seized him without a shot being fired. Officials later confirmed
that his younger brother, Ramon, the clan's enforcer, was among
several men killed in a gun battle with police in Mazatlan, a Pacific
resort, last month. Ramon was believed to be behind more than 300
killings, including those of judges, prosecutors and, probably, a
Roman Catholic cardinal.
The demise of the Arellanos is a result of the greater trust, and
therefore closer intelligence cooperation, between American and
Mexican officials. That trust has survived a ruling by Mexico's
Supreme Court that bans extradition of trafickers to the United
States, if they are likely to face a life sentence. The break-up, of the
Arellano gang will strengthen the arguments of Mr Fox, who will
play host to Mr Bush next week, that Mexico deserves to be treated
as a loyal ally on matters such as migration and border security.
But the drug industry in Mexico will survive. A bloody turf
war over the Arellanos' business may have already started: it is said
that Ramon was killed while on a mission to kill a leader of the
Sinaloa drug mob. There are signs, too, that the industry has become
more decentralised, with many smaller firms. They are harder to
detect. In Colombia, nobody talks about the Medellin and Cali
"cartels" anymore, but the drugs keep coming.
The Economist March 16th 2002
To be thwarted by tip-offs – to be prevented by a warning that
smth is going to happen
The demise (of a gang) -
To swoop on smb’s (flat)- to make a sudden, surprise attack
A turf war – a fight or argument over the things you think
belong to you
Do you think that closer intelligence cooperation and the
development of international law will be the key factors in fighting
international terrorism, drug trafficking and other “plagues” of the
kind?
Should countries unwilling to become signatories to
international agreements be made to sign by various sanctions if
interests of the international community are at stake?
Assignment 2
Read the following text about how international disputes
between companies are resolved and answer the questions.
BUSINESS AND THE LAW DISPUTES
Resolution in a neutral forum

Arbitration settles international commercial cases, says
Jeremy Winter
You have been in a conference room in your lawyer's office

for the whole day, negotiating a crucial international contract. Term
by term, detail by detail, the lawyers have argued it out. Someone
says: 'What are we going to put in for dispute resolution?' When you
started the negotiations you thought that the deal was a certain
money-spinner for both parties, so no disputes could arise. Now you
are not so sure. So what do you say? What do your lawyers advise?
Ideally, you might want to be able to have recourse to the courts in
your own country: the other party would probably like to do the
same in its home country. Neither is acceptable to the other, for fear
of home-team advantage or even local bias.
The answer is to opt for arbitration. This is not really a
difficult decision, and that is why arbitration is the recognised way
of resolving international commercial disputes. For at least a
century, it has been the dominant force in dispute resolution in areas
such as shipping, commodities and construction. You can opt for a
neutral forum and have a panel of three arbitrators, one chosen by
each party, and the third (the chairman) chosen either by the parties
or the two party-appointed arbitrators. In addition, you can keep
your disputes away from the public eye, because arbitration takes
place in private, unlike litigation in the court.
The main centres for international arbitration are: Paris,
London, Geneva, Stockholm, New York, Hong Kong and
Singapore. Which is used depends on the background and
businesses of the parties. Stockholm, for example, was always the
place for arbitrating east-west trade disputes, London for shipping
and commodities. Singapore looks set for a busy time in the coming
months and years after the Asian financial crisis. These locations,
and the arbitration centres and lawyers working there, compete
intensely. Arbitration bodies try hard to get their standard arbitration
clause put into people's contracts, so they have a captive market
once disputes arise. They do this by publicising their activities and
their rules.
What they are looking for is 'name recognition'. In Europe,
Paris (home of the International Chamber of Commerce and its
rules) probably has the best name recognition, followed by London
(home of the London Court of International Arbitration), and
Geneva. What people look for in an arbitration is speed, cost
effectiveness, confidentiality and reliability of the arbitrators and
hence their decisions.
The choice of venue involves a complex balancing of a
number of factors:
- the availability of good experienced arbitrators
- the availability of good experienced arbitration lawyers, and
expert witnesses such as accountants and engineers
- the cost of these people
- the support or otherwise that the local legal system gives to
arbitration. (For example, if the arbitration gets bogged down as a
result of delaying tactics by one party, what powers does the
arbitrator, or court, have to speed things up? Will the courts readily
interfere or overturn arbitrators' decisions?)
- accessibility - basic things like flight access, good facilities
(some of the best are now in the Gulf states), administrative back-
up, good telecommunications, IT support and even climate.
National legislation also has to lend its support to such an
important economic activity as arbitration. England has taken steps
to improve English arbitration law in the form of the Arbitration Act
1996, which came into force at the beginning of 1997.
FINANCIAL TIMES World business newspaper
a. 1. Why might you prefer not to go to court in
the country of your business partner?
b. 2. What are the three main business areas which
have traditionally been resolved by arbitration?
c. 3. How is a forum made up for a neutral
arbitration
d. 4. What is the main difference between
arbitration and litigation according to the text?
e. 5. Which are the main arbitration centres?
f. 6. Which specific aspects of a contract are
named in the text?
g. 7. What do clients look for from an arbitration
service?
h. 8. Do all the venues share the same arbitration
rules?
Sources
a. 1. Gilbert Law Summaries, Dictionary of
Legal Terms, Harcourt Brace Legal &
Professional Publications, Inc.
b. 2. Guy Wellman. The Heinemann English
Worldbuilder: Heinemann ELT, - 1998-266p.
c. 3. Nick Brieger. Test your professional
English. Law: Penguin English , - 2002-104
p.
d. 4. Комаровская C.Д. Английский
язык для юристов Justice and the Law
in Britain “: Книжный дом”
Университет”, - 2001 – 352 p.
e. 5. T.Price. Mastering Business Law:
Macmillan, - 1995
f. 6. Tricia Smith MARKET LEADER
Business Law, Business English: Longman, -
2000-96 p.
g. 7. Тихомирова Е.В., Гуманова
Ю.Л., Королева В.А., Свешникова
М.Л. JUST ENGLISH Английский
для юристов: Ассоциация
“Гуманитарное знание”, “Теис”,
Москва, - 1997

LawToday Доп материалы

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

LawToday Доп материалы

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Portion 1

*Stephen Wilkinson was sent to a mental hospital for the

Справка: Европейский союз (European Union) –

In a civil case, the ________ , normally a ________ ________

An action in a magistrates’ court is begun by a complaint on

Vocabulary to the text:

domestic proceedings – местные дела

Translate into English.

THE COURT SYSTEM OF THE USA

The American court system is complex. It functions as part of

Advocacy in the lower Advocacy in all courts

7 GETTING THE ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS

7/ replevin g/ person with legal

8/ solicitor h/ the right to be heard in

13/ barrister m/ as near as possible

Heretofore – до этого, до сих пор

*The Plain English alternative:

Translate into English.

B. Arson slander theft smuggling espionage robbery

Translate into English.

'The criminal look'

Законодательство о гражданских деликтах

Законодательство о гражданских деликтах,

“Plaintiffs commenced this negligence action against

Vocabulary to the text

Answer the questions:

1. Is the institution of trust well established in your country?

8/conveyancing h/ a person who has

15/ leasehold estate o/ ownership

Земельный Кодекс РФ Статья 53.

Собственники земельных участков,

Aboriginal groups and environmentalists are planning protests

BHP makes a pipe dream come true

Canada's Ekati diamond mine is a triumph of cooperation.

Translate into English.

Юристы российского отделения фирмы

Answer the questions:

Ruling says where the rot sets in

An action brought by the buyer of a damaged consignment of

p. 84 “ ... he had given up (waived) his right to discharge the

Child Custody Estates and Trusts

Children's Rights Insurance

Ликвидация детской бедности

В то время как Россия пытается решить

Answer the following questions:

The Odd Couple

The story of Charlotte and John Fedders rocked Washington.

По закону покупатель имеет право в течение

Marketing to the old

IN THE next few decades, the "baby boomers", the large

Have you ever come across this technique?

Translate into English.

It's Not Lie Detection, It's Mental Rape

WASHINGTON — Two million times a year, American

Can 'Cannon' be confused with 'Canon'?

Canon Kabushiki Kaisha vs Metro-Goldwyn-Meyer Inc

1 among other things (Latin)

В самом начале войны 2003 года в Ираке

Book Banning Must Be Stopped

"I can't wait to go home and relax," my friend Marianne

Diana tragedy photographers cleared by court

From Charles Bremner in Paris

Invasion of privacy – нарушение прайвеси

Translate into English.

In a civil case, the , normally a