Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization
By
Antilkumar Gandhi
Abstract
One of the world's first civilizations developed in the Indus River valley over 5,000 years
ago. In terms of influence and importance, it is on par with the great civilizations of
Egypt and Sumer. While there is much known about these latter two civilizations, almost
next to nothing was known about the Indus Valley civilization until the 20th century.
There is still much to be learned and the excavations of hundreds on Indus sites are
ongoing. What has been discovered about this culture through their settlements and cities
authority. But, much is yet to be discovered about this culture. The following discussion
centers on what has been learned thus far and areas for further study of Indus Valley
civilization.
The Indus Valley Civilization 3
Almost five thousand years ago, an advanced civilization flourished in the Sind
and the Punjab regions of the Indian subcontinent. At that time in the Indus River valley
and beyond, there were well-planned towns and cities with elaborate drainage systems,
paved streets, granaries and large private dwellings. All the houses were made of
standardized bricks and all were strictly maintained by municipal authorities. There were
also ports from which ships sailed as far away as Mesopotamia to trade various goods.
The people who built these cities and these ships also constructed many steatite seals.
These seals have images and script engraved upon them that provide evidence of the
strong influence of these people and their civilization on the later peoples of the
subcontinent. Considering the important place that is reserved for the Indus Valley
civilization (or Harappan civilization) in Indian history and the fact that it is regarded as
one of the birthplaces of civilization (along with Egypt and Sumer), (Jarrige and
Meadow, 1980, p. 122), it is quite amazing how relatively little the world knows about it.
No one even knew of the existence of this civilization until the twentieth century.
The first Indus Valley artifacts were recovered from Harappa, one of the two Indus cities,
who was fascinated by the artifacts he had picked up at the ruins of Harappa, but at that
time, neither he nor anyone else was able to recognize their significance. The
Archaeological Survey of India, run by the British, was aware that there were ancient
ruins at Harappa, but the Survey assumed that these ruins belonged to the Vedic period of
Indian history. The world already had extensive knowledge of this civilization, so the
ruins were not considered to be of monumental importance. It was not until the year
The Indus Valley Civilization 4
1920 that the Survey was able to excavate Harappa and discover the existence of the
Indus Valley civilization, (Piggott, 1950, p. 18). Unfortunately, not as much as possible
could be learned about this civilization from the Harappan ruins because decades earlier
it had been plundered for bricks by a railroad company. Fortunately, after this initial
discovery, it did not take archaeologists very long to find other Indus ruins all over the
Sind and the Punjab. In 1922, the other Indus city, Mohenjo-daro, was discovered and
excavated. In the late 1920s and 1930s, many other Indus towns and settlements were
found in the areas surrounding Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, (Piggott, 1950, pp. 18-19).
The ruins are so extensive that even today, archaeologists are discovering Indus
settlements. To date, more than 200 Indus sites have been recognized, (Bag, 1985, p. 8).
The sites are spread out over a half million square miles in Pakistan and northwestern
India.
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were the first Indus settlements to be excavated and,
for a short time, were the only known Indus sites. During this time, archaeologists were
understandably mystified by the ruins and had many questions about the origins of this
civilization. But soon, the excavation of more ancient sites such as Mehrgarh provided
scholars with many clues about the origins of the Harappan culture. The current belief
among Indus experts is that this culture did develop over centuries, in ways similar to
Egypt and Sumer. Walter A. Fairservis, Jr., an expert on the Harappan culture, has been
four separate stages, (Bag, 1985, pp. 6-7). Stage I occurred before c. 3300 BCE, during
which the first human settlements such as Mehrgarh began to appear. Stage 2 lasted from
c. 3300 BCE to c. 2500 BCE and can be called the pre-Harappan phase. During this
The Indus Valley Civilization 5
stage, cultivation of crops and pastoralism were becoming widespread practices. Stage 3
can be called the Early Harappan phase, lasting from c. 2500 BCE to c. 2300 BCE. This
contacts," (Bag, 1985, p. 7). Stage 4 is the Mature Phase, which lasted from c. 2300 BCE
to c. 1700 BCE. Most of the artifacts and ruins of this culture that have been discovered
belong to this period. These years were marked by urbanization, the construction of
monumental buildings, the use of copper, bronze and flake-blade tools, the making of
steatite seals, beadwork, and sculpture and many other accomplishments, (Bag, 1985, p.
7). After roughly 1700 BCE, the Indus Valley civilization went through an extended
Some of the main sites of Indus ruins from the Mature Phase are the two cities of
Harappa and Mohenjo-daro and the towns of Chanhu-daro, Kot-diji, Kalibangan, Amri,
Lothal, Rangpur and many others. This time period was believed to have been the height
of the Indus culture, when their prosperity was greatest and the most significant
achievements were made. Of course, the greatest examples of this prosperity were the
two great cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. The very existence of cities in a culture
implies the existence of prosperous rural areas, capable of supporting large urban
populations that are not directly involved in food production, (Bag, 1985, pp. 8-9). This
is why these cities play such a prominent role in the archaeological record of the Indus
culture. The people living in these cities were not farmers, but traders, crafts workers and
artists. The cities were the centers of Indus culture - where civilization was developed to
its highest level. Therefore, it is not surprising that the ruins of these cities yielded many
The Indus Valley Civilization 6
of the most important artifacts of this civilization and provided the best insights into its
nature.
One of the most striking characteristics of the mature Harappan civilization is its
strong governmental authority and large bureaucracy. There are no surviving government
records to support this conclusion, but there is an abundance of physical evidence that
does. First and foremost are the neat, gridiron pattern layouts of the Indus settlements.
Indus settlements were not like those of Egypt, Sumer or almost any other civilization.
Usually, urban centers start out as small settlements, slowly growing larger over decades
and even centuries. Streets and blocks are added when the need arises. As a result, urban
centers have many crooked lanes and streets which have been built arbitrarily and do not
fit any pattern. Indus urban centers had layouts which fit a pattern, which indicates that
their towns and cities started out as towns and cities. They were each constructed
according to a master plan in the space of a few years. These kinds of settlements could
not have been constructed without a great deal of thought and a tremendous amount of
resources. Thousands of people lived in each of these urban centers. The cities,
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, had a population of about 30,000 each (Bag, 1985, p. 40).
Clearly, mapping out an urban center of this size would be no easy task. Also, all Indus
settlements were made almost entirely of baked bricks. Building such a place would
require an enormous supply of bricks. Only some sort of governmental authority would
Other evidence that points to government involvement is the fact that there are
many features that are common to the more than two hundred known Indus sites. Besides
all being built in a gridiron layout, all settlements consisted of three main areas - a
The Indus Valley Civilization 7
residential area, a citadel area and a cemetery. Also, the town plans of the two cities are
so similar that they are believed to have been planned by the "same central board of
imperial urban planners," (Wolpert, 1989, p. 15). Considering the massive effort required
building an Indus town and taking into account all the similarities between these
Additional evidence also supports this conclusion. There was a standard system
of weights that was used by the Indus people. Many living in the towns and cities were
traders, and it was no doubt very important to have a standard system in place. In
Mohenjo-daro, Chanhu-daro and Harappa, sets of stone weights have been found. The
system is unlike the Egyptian or Sumerian systems, so the Indus system was not an
import but an original Indus invention. This indicates the existence of some kind of
bureau (probably governmental, due to the importance of trade in this culture), which
Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Kalibangan and in all the other mature phase Indus sites, very
nearly all the bricks were constructed following the standard ratio of 4:2:1 (length : width
: thickness), (Bag, 1985, p. 62). They did vary in size, of course, from one settlement to
another and depending on their intended uses, but the standard ratio of 4:2:1 was nearly
always maintained. The primary significance of this evidence is the fact that there were
standard ratios for brick sizes at all. These facts indicate that some type of organization
existed which decided on and upheld standard ratios for brick dimensions. The
likelihood that it was a governmental organization can be inferred from the fact that
The Indus Valley Civilization 8
standardized bricks were found at all Indus sites; some located hundreds of miles apart.
Also, knowing the importance of bricks in the building of Indus settlements, which were
set the standards for brick dimensions, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p. 10). All of this evidence,
take together, points to "the existence of a functioning state system," governing the
The government also provided many other services to its citizens. One of these
was an elaborate system of drains in each settlement that was maintained by civic
authorities, and which was unlike both the Egyptian and Sumerian drainage systems.
Each bathroom in each house of an Indus settlement was paved with special bricks that fit
together perfectly to form a watertight floor. The drains which led from each bathroom
emptied into large troughs or jars outside each home. Municipal authorities saw to it that
each of these areas was cleared of refuse on a regular basis, (Bag, 1985, p. 57). There
were also drains on each street which would clear away excess rainwater. They were
located below the level of the street and were especially important during the rainy
season to prevent flood and water damage, (Bag, 1985, p. 58). These street drains were
made with meticulous care, allowing for no cracks between bricks. Details such as
making the corners of the drains round instead of square (to reduce friction) were seen to
by the Indus city planners. These systems of drains in the Indus settlements were so well-
made and well-maintained by the Indus governmental authorities that even after three
The urban planners of the Indus towns and cities divided every Indus settlement
into 3 areas - the citadel, the residential area and the cemetery. The citadel was the
The Indus Valley Civilization 9
religious, cultural and civic center of each town, (Wheeler, 1966, p. 18). It was always
built on higher ground and overlooked the rest of the settlement like an acropolis. The
citadel at Mohenjo-daro is relatively very large, second in size only to the citadel at
Harappa. It is also the best excavated citadel. There are three principal structures located
there - the Great Bath, the college and the collection of granaries. The Great Bath of
Mohenjo-daro (Figure 1) was a large brick pool and it was a public facility. It was
located next to several small rooms which were probably private bathing rooms reserved
for the college of priests that were believed to have been the spiritual leaders of the city,
(Bag, 1985, p. 53). Every house did have private bathing facilities, but the Indus people
did not bathe only for sanitary purposes, but for ritualistic purposes as well, (Kosambi,
1965, p. 66). By building a Great Bath, the municipal authorities were providing a
service of great religious and cultural significance to their citizens. Other settlements
also had bathing facilities in their citadel area, but they were less grand than the Great
Bath.
and several brick paved rooms off to the sides. Archaeologists have conjectured that
these structures were the home of a college of priests. Part of the reason why the college
is believed to be the home of some priests is because of its close proximity to the "Stupa
Mound." This mound is a large, unexcavated section of the citadel located east of the
college. It is unexcavated because a Buddhist stupa which has been built over this mound
and Buddhist authorities refuse to let anyone disturb it. But archaeologists have been
able to excavate all around it and have theorized that an Indus temple lies underneath the
stupa, (Bag, 1985. p. 54). Another reason to assign the college as the home of the priests
is because many Indus experts believe that the government of the Indus civilization,
although secular in outlook, was theocratic in character. "We must assume that there was
continuity of government throughout the life of the civilization," (Piggott, 1950, p.84).
This unparalleled continuity suggests "the unchanging traditions of the temple," rather
than the "secular instability of the court," (Moore and Eldredge, 1970, p. 18). Given the
high status of religious leaders in Indus society, it is reasonable to think that the college,
The other major feature of the citadel at Mohenjo-daro was the collection of
granaries located west of the Great Bath. These storehouses were too large to have been
owned by one person. Indus experts have concluded that they must have been owned by
the municipal government. First of all, they were located at the citadel, which is
community property. Secondly, in those times, a granary that large would serve the same
authority, (Marlow, 1967, p. 604). Also, the granaries could be used as a reserve of food
The Indus Valley Civilization 11
for the urban population during a time of food shortage or famine - a use which would
also indicate that it was under government control, (Wolpert, 1989, p. 15). All of these
reasons make it reasonable to conclude that the granaries were owned by the municipal
government. Granaries were usually located at other Indus sites as well and were no
The people of the Indus Valley civilization had an advanced urban culture that
thrived in the extraordinary cities and towns that they built. The main occupation of the
people who lived in these urban centers was trade - in all kinds of goods and with
different peoples within and without the Indian subcontinent. The Indus people built
ships to carry on this trade. At Lothal, which is one of the main Indus sites, a port has
been found. Representations of ships have been found on square steatite seals discovered
at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and other settlements. Trade was probably conducted
using overland routes as well. There is some evidence that Indus traders used bullock
cart caravans to get their goods to foreign markets, (Bag, 1985, p. 10). Using ships and
caravans, the Indus traders exported a great variety of goods, including cotton, grains,
gold, silver, copper, lapis lazuli, ivory ornaments, stone beads and even pearls, (Wheeler,
1966, p. 64).
There is a great deal of evidence to prove that Indus traders brought items such as
these to Mesopotamian markets thousands of miles away. The distinctly Indus square
steatite seals with the unique Indus script have been found at ruins in Mesopotamia,
(Buchanan, 1967, p. 104). The script is still undeciphered but Indus experts believe that
the seals were used as personal trademarks and were brought to Mesopotamia by Indus
traders. Some unusual seals, which have been named the Persian Gulf seals, have also
The Indus Valley Civilization 12
been found in Mesopotamia and at Lothal. Persian Gulf seals are a combination of
typical Mesopotamian and Indus seals. They are round like the former but bear the
typical designs and script of the latter, (Wheeler, 1966, p. 37). The existence of these
types of seals shows that there was contact between these two civilizations.
There have also been objects of Indus origin found on the island of Bahrain in the
Persian Gulf, near Mesopotamia. Excavations at Bahrain have identified it as the place
"Dilmun" mentioned in the Sumerian texts, (Bag, 1985, pp. 10-11). These texts say that
there was trade between "Dilmun" and "Mesopotamia". Archeologists have also been
able to identify the "Meluhha" mentioned in Sumerian texts as the coast of the Sind and
Saurashtra, where the Indus port Lothal is located, (Bag, 1985, pp.10-11). The evidence
The Indus people did not trade only with Mesopotamia, though, and they did not
only export goods. Numerous objects have been found in the Indus settlements which are
made of materials that were not indigenous to that region. They could only have been
imports - either from Mesopotamia or a number of other peoples that the Harappans
traded with, (Bag, 1985, pp. 11-12). By all accounts, the Indus Valley civilization was an
In order to maintain the substantial trading that the Indus people were engaged in
and also to meet the domestic demands of the urban areas, a large portion of the
population must have been crafts workers. One of the largest classes of crafts workers
must have been the brick makers, obviously, since the Harappans built their settlements
out of brick. Another important class of crafts workers was the potters. In every Indus
The Indus Valley Civilization 13
settlement, an abundance of clay ware and potsherds have been found. Clay pots held a
special significance for the Indus people. They were not just household items. In almost
every grave found at Indus sites, clay pots have been found buried along with the dead.
Almost all of these clay wares from the mature phase of the Harappan civilization were
was decorated with designs and pigments. But the pots were not pieces of art as they are
in some other cultures. The representations of animals and people are very simplistic and
The metallurgists of the Indus civilization worked mainly with gold, silver, copper
and bronze. Copper was the most commonly used of these metals. It was found in
abundance in this region. It was probably the first metal that the Harappans' ancestors
worked with since it was the most easily malleable. At the Indus ruins, everything from
copper jewelry to copper weaponry has been found - beads, arrowheads, needles, kitchen
utensils, amulets, fish hooks, hairpins, etc. Copper was also an important export, with
copper ingots found at the port city of Lothal, (Bag, 1985, p. 81).
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and in the Indus valley; the ores of these two
metals could often be found together. The Harappans' ancestors probably started using it
not long after the discovery of copper. Bronze was also used for a broad variety of
purposes in the Indus civilization. One of the most prominent Indus artifacts that have
ever been discovered is the statuette of a dancing girl cast in bronze (Figure 2). It is one
of the finest works of Harappan art. But the Indus people did prefer to use bronze to
make weaponry and cutting utensils instead of art. Bronze was much more commonly
The Indus Valley Civilization 14
used for these purposes than copper. It was and is a stronger metal than copper, better
suited to their purposes, and the Harappans recognized that, (Bag, p. 1985, p. 79).
Gold has been found in the Indus region and experts believe it was the next metal
that the Harappans utilized. Silver is not believed to have been located in this area, but is
thought to have been an import from outside the subcontinent. The import business in
silver must have been strong because Indus metallurgists often worked with silver. But
these two metals, unlike copper and bronze, were not used for any other purpose than for
ornamentation. The Indus people were believed to have worn a great deal of ornaments,
though. Figurines found at Indus sites all "wear" necklaces, armbands and bangles, even
the male figurines, (Marlow, 1967, [p. 603). The use of gold and silver was quite
extensive and no doubt there were many metallurgists who specialized in gold or silver.
Considering the extensive use of all four metals, it is reasonable to believe that
urban centers.
The Indus Valley Civilization 15
Textile workers were also included in the class of crafts workers. The Indus
civilization was one of the first in the world to cultivate cotton and weave it into cloth (c.
3000 BCE). The Harappan textile workers wove cloth by hand by interlacing two or
more sets of strands. There was no type of loom. Cotton thread was made by using
terracotta spindles. Dye vats have also been found at some Indus sites and it has been
determined that they were used to dye the cotton cloth red, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p. 11).
example, a common household implement was a parallel-sided chert flake which served
as a blade. Sculptors also used stone for statues. Three exquisite pieces have been found:
a male torso, a female torso and the bust of a bearded "wise man," This last bust has been
the subject of much debate among Indus experts. Most experts believe that this statue is
Indus seal makers also worked in stone, creating seals that were miniature works
of art. They worked mostly with steatite, occasionally with agate and chert and
sometimes even with terracotta, faience and copper, (Bag, 1985, p. 74). Every seal is
unique, but they do follow a general form. Most of the seals are square or rectangular,
though there are some round seals e.g. the Persian Gulf seals. The typical Indus seal
design is carved in a sunken pattern, so that the impression the seal makes appears in
relief. Animals are usually depicted on the seals, both real and fantastical. They were
carved on the seals with great skill and attention to detail. Seals have been found which
feature an elephant, a rhinoceros, a tiger, an antelope and a crocodile. Bulls have also
been found on the Indus seals. The bull, in particular, seems to have been a focal point of
interest of the Indus people. Speculations about a link between a religious bull cult and
the bull cult of the Minoans have been made, but "no direct link between their bull cult
and that of the Minoans...has been established," (Cunningham and Reich, 2006, p. 173).
Also creatures that are composites of many animals have been featured on several seals
and one seal even shows an animal that appears to be a unicorn (Figure 4).
Human figurines are only sometimes depicted on the seals but are usually much
cruder renderings than the animal depictions. Sailors are depicted on a ship on some
seals. One of the most elaborate Indus seals is the "Seal of the Seven Deities" (Figure 5),
which has seven identical stick figures representing the deities. Three seals, including
one nicknamed "The Lord of the Beasts" (Figure 6) appear to be a prototype of the later
Hindu god Shiva. These seals show that there was an apparent continuity between the
Indus age and the later Aryan age in Indian history. The Indus culture did have an
Most of the Indus seals also have writing on them, but the Indus script has not
been deciphered as of yet. There is no equivalent of the Rosetta stone for the Indus valley
language, (Moor and Eldredge, 1970, p.16), and the script is not at all similar to Egyptian
or Sumerian. "The pictographs are as phenomenon that, within a short range of time and
space, three great civilizations produced three utterly divergent systems of notation,"
(Wheeler, 1966, p. 40). Another impediment to deciphering this script is that there are no
long Indus texts which scholars can work with. The Indus seals, along with some graffiti
found on some clay pots, are the only examples of Indus writing that have been
recognized in Indus script. This number of characters in a language rules out the
more complex than an alphabetic or logographic one, which makes deciphering it that
Some progress has been made, though. Indus experts have been able to analyze
the graffiti on the clay pots, and have determined that the Indus script was read from right
to left, (Bag, 1985, p.111). They were able to come this conclusion because the script on
the pots was handwritten, not carved, and some of the characters that were written
partially overlapped each other. Careful analysis of these overlapped areas revealed that
the first character written on the pot was the rightmost one, (Bag, 1985, p.111). But the
direction of the writing is the only characteristic of this language that Indus experts have
been able to conclusively determine. These experts have been reduced to conjecture and
educated guesses as to the translation of the script. The probable uses of the seals during
The Indus Valley Civilization 19
Indus times have provided some clues. Evidence suggests that the seals were a kind of
marker, which could be stamped on certain objects. The impressions of one seal have
been found on many clay pots, and Indus experts believe that this was the way potters or
pot sellers branded their wares, (Bag, 1985, p 74). But the seals were not for trading
purpose only. Experts speculate that people used them also as marks of social rank--they
would identify the owner as the holder of a certain office or title, (Fairservis, 1983, p.66).
The seals themselves also suggest that they were used as personalized markers--most of
them have a perforated boss on the back, for handling and suspension, (Fairservis, 1983,
p.59; Wheeler, 1966, p. 37). Based on this, it is reasonable to assume that the language on
the seals refers to personal names, occupations, and family affiliations. This helps Indus
script experts by allowing them to put the foreign writing into a specific context.
The Indus script experts have also looked for clues in the modern languages of the
Indian subcontinent. They believe that, based on archaeological evidence, the Harappan
language cannot have completely died out--it was probably still spoken in some form
after the civilization declined, and must have been transformed throughout the centuries
into one of the languages or language groups of today, (Bag, 1985, p.115). Comparisons
have been made between the pictographic Indus script and the Dravidian language group,
spoken by the peoples of South India, and similarities have been found, (Fairservis, 1983,
pp. 62-63). Many Indus script experts have tried to translate the Harappan language using
a Dravidian language framework. "But the translations reached by this method are not
always satisfactory"' (Bag, 1985, p.116). The Indus experts involved in this endeavor do
believe, though, that they are using the correct approach. "The Dravidian solution is the
most likely choice of many historical linguists, though other possibilities have not been
The Indus Valley Civilization 20
totally excluded," (Bag, 1985, p.119). The other possibilities are that the Harappan
language was related to the Brahmi language (the script of the two languages is very
similar), or to the Indo-European family of language, which are associated with the
Aryans, (Bag, 1985, p. 113). The seal makers of the Indus valley civilization have left
behind a legacy that will undoubtedly occupy the time and thoughts of many Indus
The evidence left behind by the Indus traders and crafts-workers give the people
thousands of years ago. The urban centers are monuments to municipal and other
governmental authority. The existence of a brisk Indus import and export business and a
large and varied crafts industry are a testament to the prosperity and advanced nature of
this civilization. However, none of the Indus urban centers would have existed, nor would
there have been any traders or crafts workers if the Indus people had not been able to
master the art of agriculture and food production, (Bag, 1985, pp.8-9). Because they did,
not all people had to devote all of their time to these pursuits, and could become the crafts
workers and merchants needed to develop an urban civilization. The Indus people came
up with many innovations in food cultivation that helped them shift from a rural to an
urban-based culture. The main crop that was cultivated was wheat, but many others were
cultivated as well, such as field peas, dates, mustard seeds, sesamum, and possibly rice,
(Wheeler, 1966, pp.63-64). No doubt the cultivation of a variety of crops created a better,
more nutritious diet for the Indus people. Their diet was also greatly improved by the
domestication of this fowl was great advancement for the Indus people because it not
The Indus Valley Civilization 21
only enriched their diet, but greatly increased their food output. This step was also
significant in the development of world civilization. The Indus people were the first ones
to domesticate fowl for human consumption, and many cultures since have followed in
their footsteps, (Wolpert, 1989, p.20). The Indus people also were able to develop a very
complex irrigation-and-inundation system, which helped them greatly increase their grain
supply. They were able to farm more land and raise crops on ground that would have
system, the Harappans would not have been capable of supporting a large surplus urban
There has also been much evidence that has been uncovered at the Indus ruins to
provide insight into the type of society and culture the Indus people lived in. The
theocratic nature of the Indus government was mentioned earlier, as were the religious
rituals that the Harappans observed. The nature of the Harappan religion has been found
worship, (Marlow, September 1967, p.605). Many crude clay figurines have been found
at Indus sites which archaeologists have concluded are representations of the Indus
Mother Goddess. A few stones have also been found at the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
sites that are in the shape of male and female genitalia, and Indus experts believe that
they are religious artifact, (Bhattacharya, 1988, p.12). The prototype of the later Hindu
God Shiva, which was found on three of the steatite seals, was also probably linked to
this phallic worship. In the Hindu religion, Shiva is often represented by a phallic shaped
idol, (Rai, 1992, p.22). Considering that the origins of Shiva were in the Harappan
religion, and that the Harappans engaged in phallic worship, it seems probable that the
The Indus Valley Civilization 22
link between Shiva and a phallus also originated in the Harappan religion, (Rai, 1992, p.
22).
The social structure of this society seems to have included a large middle class,
which makes it very unlike the Sumerian and Egyptian societies, which consisted of a
few rich and many poor, (Wheeler, 1966, p.21). The remains of the houses found in the
Indus cities indicate this. The thickness of the foundations of the walls of most Indus
dwellings indicates that there were many two and three story houses. There was also a
working class, which lived in smaller cottages in both cities and in barracks near the
granaries, (Moore and Eldredge, 1970, p.19). Of course, there was the elite as well, which
included the college of priests, who lived at the citadel of the settlement, and some of the
wealthiest families. There have been no ruins of palatial building found as of yet, though,
in either the residential areas or at the citadels of any Indus site. Indus experts have
concluded from this lack of evidence that there was no "superrich" class in Indus society
that was many, many times wealthier than other Harappans. This is also one of the
reasons why Indus experts believe that this society was ruled by a theocracy, and not by a
monarchy or oligarchy.
The houses that the Indus people lived in were of different sizes, but all were
constructed according to the same basic floor plan. All houses had a square interior
courtyard, around which the rooms were located. There were no windows facing the
streets, and the main entrance of every house was located on the side of the residence. It
could only be reached by walking down a narrow side lane that intersected the main
street, (Moore and Eldredge, 1970, p.18). It seems that the Harappans were not very
creative when it came to architecture. Nor could they be characterized as quick to change
The Indus Valley Civilization 23
-- the excavations at Mohenjo-daro have revealed a total of ten cities so far, one built
right on the top of the other, (Wolpert, 1989, p.16). The houses of one level are built
exactly as they were on the level underneath, and the ten cities are believed to have been
built over centuries, (Wolpert, 1989, p. 16). Conservatism, utilitarianism, and practical-
mindedness seem to have been the distinguishing characteristics of the people of this
civilization.
Of course, as one can imagine, in a culture such as this one, art was not a primary
concern. There have been only four really noteworthy pieces of Indus art that have been
found--the male and female stone torsos, the bronze "dancing girl", and the stone bust of
the bearded wise man. There are some well-made animal figurines that have been found,
but most of the other pieces of art are crude representations, and are poorly made. Of
course, there are the magnificent Indus seals, each a miniature work of art, but Indus
artisans were not just creating art for art's sake when they constructed these seals. They
had practical purpose. In addition, no evidence has been found of any other kind of art,
The cemeteries of the Indus sites, which are the third main feature of an Indus
settlement, have been excavated also and dozens of bodies have been exhumed. The
funerary customs of the Harappans included the burial of a number of clay pots that
contained various human belongings, along with the dead body. The body was always
inhumed on its back, with the head facing north, (wheeler, 1966, p.35). No "royal tombs"
have ever been located, but wealthier citizens were interred in mud-brick graves or brick
chambers, (Wheeler, 1966, p.35). The Harappans usually buried their dead singly, but
three double graves, each containing a male and a female skeleton, have been found at
The Indus Valley Civilization 24
the cemetery at Lothal. This is interesting because it might possibly be the earliest known
instance of the archaic Indian custom of "sati", whereby a widow killed herself upon the
death of her husband--the idea being that a wife should follow her husband in death as
well as in life, (Wolpert, 1989, p.21). The existence of these double graves might indicate
that this Indian custom, which was widely practiced for many centuries, and was last
The decline of the Indus civilization occurred slowly, over centuries, and was
attributed to several causes. One of the major factors in the decline was the
geomorphologic changes in the flood plain of the Indus River, which probably took place
towards the end of the mature phase of Harappan civilization, (Raikes, 1964, p.290). The
changes were believed to have been caused be tectonic shifts in the earth's crust, most
likely manifested as an earthquake, which led to an uplift of the flood plain of the Indus
River. These changes in the flood plain resulted in the massive flooding of several of the
abundant. Raikes points out that the amount of silt that accumulated over the duration of
the Indus civilization and during the following centuries at Mohenjo-daro is much too
great. It could not have occurred through the normal accumulation that would have taken
place every year, (Raikes, 1964, pp.288-289). Only a series of catastrophic floods could
have caused that level of accumulation, and that scenario is highly unlikely, according to
Raikes, who is hydrologist, (Raikes, 1964, pp. 288-289). Furthermore, along the banks of
the Indus River, prehistoric beaches can be found, which indicate that at one time, the
flood plain was lower than it is today, (Raikes, 1964, p.292). Also relevant is the fact that
the lowest levels of Mohenjo-daro have not been able to be fully excavated because they
The Indus Valley Civilization 25
are almost perpetually flooded. This indicates that the Indus River does not run the exact
same course today as it did in Harappan times, (Raikes, 1964, p.290). The resultant
damage from an uplift of the Indus River flood plain would have been great enough to
send this part of the empire into a decline. An uplift of this kind, especially if caused by
an earthquake, would have caused massive flooding, destroying smaller settlements and
the flood plain would have been permanent, changing not only the water level of the
areas adjacent to the River, but also shifting slightly the course of the river itself, (Raikes,
1964, p.294). These changes would not only have disrupted trade and communications
between Indus settlements, it would also have destroyed the carefully balanced irrigation-
and-inundation system in the rural areas along the river, (Raikes, 1964, p. 294). This was
especially catastrophic because of the nature of the soil in this area, "...even in a brief
phase of neglect, the land, with its heavy salt-content, readily turns sour," (Wheeler,
1966, p.77). Even a slight disruption of the irrigation-and-inundation system would have
caused much damage, which the combined earthquake and flood would undoubtedly have
done. These changes were a major disaster for the Indus citizen who lived here, in the
heart of the empire. They also negatively affected Indus citizens in other parts of the
empire, because this vital part of it never really recovered from this catastrophe.
Raikes also suggested that the later drying up of the Ghaggar River, which is
located near Harappa, might have had a negative impact on Harappa and the settlements
in this area of the empire, (Raikes, 1964, pp. 294-295). If it did, this blow to the other
major Harappan center would most certainly have contributed to the decline of this
civilization.
The Indus Valley Civilization 26
conditions that the Harappans had to deal with. The landscape surrounding the great cities
today is harsh and desert-like, with sparse vegetation, despite the proximity of the rivers.
This, however, was not the case more than four thousand years ago, when the mature
phase of the Harappan civilization was just beginning. Experts believe that, at the time,
the landscape was lush and green, and, in place, it was marshy or jungle-like, (Wheeler,
1966, p.61). It was suitably fertile to support an urban culture. But over the course of
centuries, the Indus settlements just wore out the landscape, (Wheeler, 1966, p.77). A
tremendous amount of bricks were necessary to build just one Harappan settlement, and
there were hundreds of them. Each site was also periodically rebuilt a number of bricks
that the Harappans manufactured over the course of a few centuries all had to be baked.
The baking of these bricks was done by using firewood. The Harappans must have cut
down most of their forests and vegetation in order to manufacture these bricks, (Wheeler,
1966, p. 76). And what little wood they did not use to bake the bricks was probably used
to build the fires and heat the kilns that they employed to manufacture the tremendous
amount of ceramic pots that they created. Overgrazing of domesticated animals also
could have contributed to the loss of vegetation, (Wheeler, 1966, pp. 76-77). The
complete sapping of the wood resources of the region profoundly affected the landscape.
Not only did it bare the land, but it reduced the transpiration of moisture, which resulted
in a decreased amount of rainfall to the region, (Wheeler, 1966, p.76). Less rain, of
course, would affect the Harappans' agricultural output. This had a great impact on the
lives of the urban-dwelling Harappans, who depended on the agricultural surplus for
food. Over the years, as the agricultural problems got worse, the lives of the Harappans
The Indus Valley Civilization 27
became harder and harder. "I have suggested that Mohenjo-daro was steadily wearing out
its landscape; alternatively, Mohenjo-daro was being steadily worn out by its landscape",
(Wheeler, 1966, p.77). This ecological crisis, combined with the catastrophic destruction
caused by the tectonic shifts in the Indus River valley, touched off a period of decline
Most cities of the Harappan civilization continued to decline during the next few
centuries. Many of the hallmarks of the Indus civilization began to be lost. International
trade was becoming a thing of the past in the second millennium B.C.E. since it became
more expensive to bring goods to market, and eventually profit margins disappeared,
(Raikes, 1964, p.294). The characteristic gridiron pattern of the settlements began
breaking down, and the drainage system was not maintained at most Indus sites.
Apparently, the strong municipal authority was breaking down as well. Homes were also
of shoddier construction. The homes of the uppermost level of Mohenjo-daro were not
nearly as well made as the homes of lower levels. Pottery was also of poorer quality than
It is during this decline, at about the middle of the second millennium B.C.E. that
the experts believe the Aryan invasion of the subcontinent occurred. The Aryans, a
nomadic and less sophisticated people, invaded form the northwest and fought the
indigenous population, according to the Rigveda, an early Aryan text. They had one great
military advantage--the horse-drawn chariot. It is believed that they brought the first
horses into the Indian subcontinent. The Rigveda goes on to describe how the Aryans
attacked and conquered the walled cities of these non-Aryan aborigines. There is a great
ongoing debate about whether the people the Aryans conquered were the Harappans or
The Indus Valley Civilization 28
not. There is evidence to indicate that they were. The only fortifications that have ever
been found in that area are the massive brick structures which protected the Indus
settlements. And, in Mohenjo-daro, the skeletal remains of dozens of people have been
found that were not buried. Many of the remains belong to the highest (most recent) level
of the city. With the other remains, it is not possible to assign them to a certain level of
the city with absolute certainty, although, it is not unlikely that they do belong to the
uppermost level, (Wheeler, 1966, p.80). It is apparent from the positioning of the bodies
that these people meet a sudden and violent end. Axe or sword cuts have also been
identified on some of the skulls, (Wheeler, 1966, p.80). It seems clear that Mohenjo-daro
was attacked and invaded by some group of people. There is no conclusive evidence,
though, to prove that the invaders were the Aryans--although circumstantial evidence
does not seem to point in their direction. Based on this circumstantial evidence, some
Indus experts believe that the Aryans might have been the final death below the Indus
civilization, (Wheeler, 1966, p.78). However, remains like these have only been found at
One fact that is not in dispute is that the city of Mohenjo-Daro ceased to exist
after this invasion and massacre. In the words of Wheeler, one of the foremost Indus
experts, "I will merely add the comment that the end of Mohenjo-daro, if it was marked
deeper causes of decline; which may well have included disastrous floods, salination of
the soil, obstructed irrigation...," (Wheeler, 1966, p.83). As far as scholars have been able
to tell, this statement is most likely true for many of the other Indus settlements as well.
The Indus Valley Civilization 29
areas of the Indus Empire, the Harappan people did not completely disappear. The
descendants of the urban dwellers regressed back into the village life of their pre-
Harappan ancestors. "Whatever the reason, the decline did not mean the complete
destruction of the entire population of the area, but only a reduction from urban culture to
the village level. There are many clear archaeological and ethnological proofs, which
testify that traditions survived and continued in the succeeding heliolithic cultures," (Bag
1985, p.138). These late Harappans eventually fused cultures with the Aryans
newcomers, (Bag, 1985, p. 138), which is one of the ways many facets of the Harappan
In some parts of the Indus Empire, though, the mature Harappan civilization
survived intact longer than the other Indus settlements, and did not decline. In the
southernmost settlements, such as Lothal, Rojdi, and Rangpur, there is evidence which
indicates that these Indus towns flourished for possibly centuries longer than the other
Indus towns. "It is becoming increasingly clear that the more southerly towns of the Indus
civilization endured for an appreciable time after the fall of Mohenjo-daro," (Wheeler,
1959, p.117). These mature phase Harappan holdovers were all located in the modern
Indian state of Gujarat, in the area known Saurashtra (or Kathiyawad), and have been
named the Saurashtrian Indus culture by Wheeler. Many typical features of the Indus
civilization were found there after the fall of Mohenjo-daro--the steatite seals with the
Indus script, the Indus drainage system, the neat gridiron layout of the towns. What sets
them apart from the more central Indus sites is the Black and Red ware pottery that was
found at these sites. It is normally associated with a later time period in Indian history,
The Indus Valley Civilization 30
(Wheeler, 1959, p. 116). The black and Red ware pottery has been found at the highest
levels of the Saurashtrian Indus site. Indus experts speculate that these sites probably
escaped the general decline of the Indus civilization because they were not located on
Indus River, and thus, did not have to go through the destruction that Mohenjo-daro and
many other settlements went through. Also, located in the southern part of the Empire,
they did not have to deal with any invaders, Aryan or otherwise, from outside the
subcontinent until much later than the northern Indus sites (or perhaps not at all on the
battlefield), (Wheeler, 1966, p.88). These towns began to develop their own distinct traits,
also. Eventually, the Saurashtrian Indus cultures were transformed into other highly
developed successor cultures that were some of the antecedents of modern-day Indian
culture. They never went through a period of decline. "...in Kathiyawad, the Indus culture
was not obliterated, but was transmuted into successor cultures which adapted Indus
Conclusion
The Indus valley civilization ranks among the most ancient civilizations in human
history. But though we know a great deal about ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and ancient
China, we have only started learning about this mysterious civilization. The Harappans
did wield great influence over the course of Indian and of human history. They were the
first to domesticate and use the chicken for human consumption. The Harappan religion
was a major force in shaping Hinduism, one of the world's predominant religions. Many
modern-day Indian customs can be traced back to the Harappans--for example, Indian
Hindus still lay out dead bodies on their backs, with the head facing north. It is also
possible that the Harappans were the ones who invented the windmill and the game of
chess, (Fairservis, 1983, p.58). The Harappan civilization occupies an important place in
Ancient World history and in Indian history. What we know about these people is very
minimal at this time, but, hopefully, as excavations of known Indus sites proceed and new
Indus ruins are discovered, evidence will be found that will shed more light on these
References
Bag, A. K. - Science and Civilization in India: Harappan Period (c. 3000 B.C. -
Buchanan, Briggs. - "A Dated Seal Impression Connecting Babylonia and Ancient
Marlow, A. N. - "The Cities of the Indus, Part I " History Today, August 1967, pp.
519-524
Marlow, A. N.- "The Cities of the Indus, Part II" History Today, September 1967,
-"Ancient India and Indian Civilization" (New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc.
1967)
Moore, Clark D., and Eldredge, David - India Yesterday and Today (New York:
Naidis, Mark. - India: A Short Introductory History (New York: The Macmillan
Company, 1966)
Piggott, Stuart - Prehistoric India to 1000 B.C. (New York: Barnes and Nobel, Inc.
1950)
Raikes, Robert L., and Dyson, Robert H., Jr. - "The prehistoric Climate of
Baluchistan and the Indus Valley," "American Anthropologist, April 1961, pp.
265-280
Raikes, Robert L. - "The End of the Ancient Cities of the Indus," American
Wheeler, Sir Mortimer. - Early India and Pakistan (New York: Frederick A.
Wheeler, Sir Mortimer - Civilizations of the Indus Valley and Beyond (New York:
Wolpert, Stanley - A New History of India, Third Edition. (New York: Oxford