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Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries

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 Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries
Dr. Subhendu Datta
Sr. Scientist
CIFE Centre, Salt Lake City, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
subhdatta@gmail.com

What is a weed?
Weeds are plants which grow out of their place, interfere with the utilization of natural
resources, prolific, persistent, resistant, competitive, harmful and even poisonous in nature and
can grow under adverse climatic conditions. Some times economical plants may also grow out
their proper places which are termed as rouge and not weeds e.g. presence of mustard plats in
wheat fields, plants of durum wheat variety growing in aestivum variety etc. The process of
removing (uprooting) these plants is called rouging.

What are aquatic weeds?

Aquatic plants are essential parts of natural aquatic systems and form the basis of a water
body’s health and productivity. Invariably aquatic plants become over abundant or unsightly and
require control (Whetstone, 2005). Aquatic weeds are those unabated plants which grow and
complete their life cycle in water and cause harm to aquatic environment directly and to related
eco-environment relatively (Lancar and Krake, 2002).

Aquatic plants are essential parts of natural aquatic systems and form the basis of a water
body’s health and productivity. On the other side, when aquatic plants become over abundant it
requires control. Water is one of most important natural resource and in fact basis of all life
forms on this planet. Therefore, appropriate O2 management of water from source to its
utilization is necessary to sustain the normal function of life. It is an important part of the natural
resource management. The presence of excessive aquatic vegetation influences the management
of water in natural waterways; man made canals and reservoirs which amount to millions of
kilometres of such water bodies. They pose serious threat to fish and fisheries. They compete
with fish for water, nutrients, light, niche and oxygen and thus reduce the yields. Fish worth
millions of rupees are lost every year at the hand of weed menace. Considering the losses caused
by aquatic weeds, their management is of utmost importance to improve the availability of water
from the source to its end users. This does not only improve availability but also the conveyance
efficiency. Growth of aquatic weeds interferes with the storage and delivery systems of irrigation
water, maintenance of canals, drains, barrages, lakes, ponds etc. These systems often get choked
with the weeds and cause environmental pollution. On low lying areas, adjoining irrigation and
drainage channels, soil salinity and alkalinity problems do arise.

Different types of aquatic weeds

Proper identification of aquatic weeds is of primary importance for their control. They are
classified according to various habitats which form their eco-environment and become conducive
for their growth, reproduction and dissemination. Aquatic weeds can be divided into two
botanical groups; algae and flowering plants.

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 1

Algae are usually very simple in structure with no apparent leaves or stems. However, some (for
example, Chara) can resemble flowering plants. For effective chemical control, it is essential
that you distinguish between algae and flowering plants. Aquatic flowering weeds are broadly
divided into three groups:
a. Emergent weeds – shore & marginal
b. Floating weeds - Free floating, rooted floating
c. Submerged weeds – Rooted and non-rooted

Algae
Microscopic algae are planktonic and their rapid proliferation results in to algal blooms,
in which they form scums and/or color the water green or yellow-green. Sometimes they cause
red, black, or oily streaks in the water called "blooms". Examples of this group are Microcystis
and Anabaena. Blooms usually occur where abundant nutrients are reaching the water. They
should be treated with chemicals before they cause a noticeable color but a sudden die-off of
these algae can cause fish kills. Filamentous algae also known as moss (Fig 1) form floating,
mat-like growths which usually begin around the edges and bottom of ponds in the early spring.
Most prominent filamentous algae in ponds are Spirogyra, Nitella and Pithophora. Often,
repeated chemical treatments during the summer season are necessary for effective control.
Chara (Fig 2) or stonewort usually grows in very hard water and is often calcified and brittle.
The plant is rooted, and leaves are arranged along the stem in whorls. It grows completely
underwater and has a musky smell. Chara can be difficult to control once it has become
established and has a heavy coating of calcium carbonate. Use contact herbicides when the plants
are still young and not heavily calcified. Although this plant resembles some flowering plants, it
is an alga.

Fig 1. Filamentous algae Fig 2. Chara

Flowering Plants
Flowering plants can be grouped into three broad categories according to where they are
found in a body of water.

Emergent weeds (shore or marginal)

These weeds grow in shallow waters and situations existing near the water bodies where
water recedes and rises with the seasons or regular releases from a large water body or reservoir.
Most of such situation is of permanent in nature where minimum and maximum water levels are
consistent. Such situations includes banks of canals, rivers, periphery of water bodies which are
Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 2
mostly in earthen dams, and partly in masonry dams, drainage ditches and water ponds near
villages. These weeds may be called semi-aquatic but more appropriately referred to as emergent
aquatic weeds. These grow on the margins or on the shore line of the water body and are also
called marginal weeds. They are mostly rooted in water logged soils, e.g. Typha, Nymphaea,
Trapa, Otellia, Phragmites etc.

Examples of the emergent weeds

Botanical Name Common Name Family
Typha latifolia Cattail common Typhaceae
Typha angustata Cattail narrow leaved Typhaceae
Typha orientalis Cattail Typhaceae
Phragmites communis Common reed Poaceae
Commelina benghalensis Watergrass Commelinaceae
Alisma plantago Water cattail Alismataceae
Cyperus difformis Umbrella plant Cyperaceae
Ipomea carnea Besharam Convolvulaceae
Ipomea aquatica Floating morning glory Convolvulaceae
Trapa bispinosa Water chestnut Trapaceae
Hydrocotyle umbrella Water pennywort Hydrocolylaceae
Jussiaea repens Water primrose Onagraceae
Ludwigia parviflora Water purslane Onagraceae

Fig 3. Infestation of Typha latifolia

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 3

Floating weeds
These are plant which grow and complete their life cycle in water. In case of drying of
water bodies most of them give their seeds and other vegetative reproductive organs in base
ground lands. These weeds are observed in the surface of the large, deep and shallow depths of
water bodies; deep continuous flowing canals; continuously flowing rivers, large ponds tanks etc.
Some of the weeds in this ecosystem freely float and move long distances, while some of them
do float on the water surface but anchor down to soil at the bottom of the water body. These
weed species make loss of water through evapo-transpiration in addition to impediment caused
in flow of water. Therefore, these weeds can be classified in two sub groups viz. a) Free floating
and b) Rooted floating weeds. Examples of common weeds under each sub group are given
below:

Free floating weeds

Botanical Name Common Name Family
Eichhornia crassipes Water hyacinth Pontederiaceae
Salvinia auriculata Water fern Salviniaceae
S. molesta Water fern Salviniaceae
S. natans Water fern Salviniaceae
Pistia stratiotes Water lettuce Araceae
Lemna minor Duck weed Lemnaceae
Spirodela polyrhiza Giant duck weed Lemnaceae
Azolla imbricate Water velvet Salviniaceae
A. pinnata Water velvet Salviniaceae
Polygonum amphibium Water smart weed Polygoneaceae

Rooted floating weeds

Botanical Name Common Name Family
Sagittaria guayanensis HBK Arrowhead Alismataceae
Ipomea hederacea Nilkal Convolvulaceae
Nelumbo nucifera Lotus

Fig 4. Water hyacinth Fig 5. Pistia Fig 6. Salvinia

Submerged weeds
Weeds species belonging to this group germinate/sprout, grow and reproduce beneath the
water surface. Their roots and reproductive organs remain in the soil at the bottom of the water
body. These weeds damage the maximum, because they are not visible on the surface and
Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 4
impede the flow water varying upon the degree of their intensity and growth. Most of these
weeds are found in shallow and medium deep water bodies, continuous flowing canals and
drainage ditches. Submerged weeds may be further categorized as (a) Rooted and (b). Non-
rooted or floating-submerged weeds.
Rooted and non-rooted submerged weeds: Submerged weeds which are completely
submerged within water and rooted in the bottom soil e.g. Hydrilla, Najas etc.
Non-rooted free floating submerged weeds e.g. Ceratophyllum.

Fig. 7. Hydrilla Fig. 8. Najas

Fig. 9. Vallisneria Fig. 10. Ceratophyllum

Usefulness (Economic importance) of Aquatic weeds:

Economic importance is a new concept which has originated due to heavy costs entailed
on the control of aquatics by manual, mechanical and chemical methods. Aquatic plants, when in
limited quantity, are useful and necessary for the ecology of the pond. They form natural food for
many species of fishes; they provide shade and shelter and oxygenate water. They reduce
turbidity and provide spawning beds. The utilization of aquatic weed, in fact, an indirect method
of their control and it should be given serious consideration. In parts of tropics and subtropics,
summer vegetation is limited on land, but it is abundant in water. A complete mat of water
hyacinth has been found to produce 350-1700 tons/ha green vegetation, growing at a remarkable
rate of 5 q/ha/day (Westlake, 1963). An infestation of Typha spp. 'cattails' can yield up to 500
t/ha of vegetation (Steward, 1970). Obviously, it will be a mistake to let these enormous
quantities of vegetation goes waste, besides being bothered by them. Usefulness of Aquatic
weeds can be categorized as:

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 5

Aquatic Weeds as compost, soil conditioners and green manure
Several aquatic plants can form valuable source of nutrient-rich compost. But, thus far,
water hyacinth alone has been exploited. The compost made from water hyacinth is superior to
town compost and farm yard manure. The fresh water hyacinth plants contains about 3.5%
organic matter, 0.04% N, 0.06% P2O5 and 0.02% K2O and on dry weight basis 1.5% N, 0.15% P
which are equivalent to 1250 Kg/ha N and 125 Kg/ha P (Steward, 1970). India has potential of
3.0 million tones of hyacinth compost, annually. The main hurdle in composting water hyacinth,
and other aquatic weeds, is its higher water content of over 90% (Little and Henson, 1967). This
leads to anaerobic decomposition of the materials in piles. Therefore, partially dried plants
should be composted. Biomass of water hyacinth can be directly used in the form of mulch in
wider row sown crops (Mukhopadhyay and Hossain, 1990). Besides composting fresh aquatic
weed can be used as green manure. AzolIa and some blue green algae viz. Anabaena, Nostoc,
Rivularia are known to fix atmospheric nitrogen and can be utilized for increasing nitrogen level
of fish ponds. In the USA, energy-intensive, complete drying and grinding of aquatic weeds are
practiced to prepare organic soil conditioners.

Weeds as feed for Animal, bird or fish

The leafy parts of the aquatic plants such as duck weed, water hyacinth and some submerged
weeds contain, 25-35% protein on dry matter basis, which is exceptionally high (Tylor et al.,
1971, Matai, 1976). Certain fresh water algae such as Chlorella pyrenoides synthesis has
considerable amounts of protein. Some submerged aquatic weeds, such as Hydrilla and
Mariophyllum are particularly rich in carotenes and Xanthophyils (Pirie, 1971 and 1973). These
valuable pigments are being added to poultry rations in many countries. In China, pig farmers
boil chopped water hyacinth with vegetable wastes, rice bran, copra cake and salt to make a
suitable feed. In Malayasia, the fresh water hyacinth is cooked with copra meal as feed for pigs,
ducks and fish. Aquatic weeds are used as feed by pigs (Boyd, 1968 and 1969).
Feed for farm birds: Ducks, geese, swans and other water fowl feed on vegetation,
controlling, weeds on the banks of water ways and often clearing aquatic weeds and algae from
small lakes, ponds and canals. Dried duck weeds (30-50 gm) can be added to the daily poultry
ration for their weight increase.
Feed for fish: There are number of herbivorous fishes which directly consume aquatic weeds.
The growth performance, food conversion ratio and protein efficiency ratio along with
nutritional qualities of weeds what are incorporated in pelleted feeds in fish was reported (Hazra
and Tripathi, 1985). The grass carp is efficient in this Endeavour (Edward, 1974). This fish
relishes most submerged and some floating weeds. A gain of one kilograms body weight for
50kg of grazed hydrilla has been recorded. Tilapias also reported to eat several weeds and grow
to a marketable size, up to 2.7kg. It was observed that incorporation of the aquatic weed, N.
cristatum in the diet of L. rohita substituted the conventional feed ingredients (Patra et. al.,
2002).

Aquatic weeds as food crops

Aquatic plants can provide three types of food, foliage for use as green vegetable, grain
or seed that provide protein, starch, oil and fleshy swollen roots that provide carbohydrates.
Some common aquatic plants and their parts are consumed by human (Gupta, 1987).
o Ipomea aqutica- Young leaves and stem.
o Nelumbo nucifera- flowers, leaves, rhizome.
o Euryaleferox- seeds.
o Trapa- fruit.
Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 6
 o Colcoasia- petiole, rhizome and tubers.

Aquatic weeds as a source of energy

For Present energy crisis, all efforts are being made to find out the unconventional
sources of energy from Water hyacinth and Salvania. Water hyacinth is used as a source of
methane-rich biogas. The high moisture content of aquatic weeds is helpful in maintaining
anaerobic condition and bacterial decomposition to produce methane. Each Kg of water hyacinth
on dry weight basis yielded about 370 L of biogas with 69% of methane (Casfbow, 1967).

Waste water treatment

Many aquatic plants are able to scavenge inorganic and some organic compounds from
water e.g. Water hyacinth, which is found to be very efficient in this regard. Ceratophyllum
demersum, Hydrilla verticillata, Phragmites, Scripus, Myriophyllum, Elodea spp., Spirodella
polyrhiza and Lemna minor are common pollution demolioshing aquatic plants (Steward, 1970;
Rao, et al., 1973; Haller and Sutton, 1973). The industrial and domestic effluents containing
heavy metals like mercury, iron, manganese, Zinc, aluminum, cadmium, nickel, silver, cobalt,
copper, lead, sodium, chromium etc. phenols, phenolic derivatives (Zafar, 1976) and pesticide
residues (Sutton et al., 1969) are removed to certain extent by water hyacinth, Lemna and
Myriophyllum and hence improves its quality. Potamogeton and Elodea were very effective in
removing asbestos fibres from drinking water (Pfister, 1980).

For pulp, paper and fibre

The common reed Phragmites communist is extensively used in Romania, for making
printing cheaper, cellophanes, card board and various synthetic fibres. The aquatic plants like
Typha (Cattails) and Cyperus are the sources of pulp for paper and fibre although these are
cultivated as fibre crop (Frank, 1976).

For Mushroom cultivation

Substrate made from water hyacinth plants has high biological efficiency (8-9%) for
mushroom cultivation. Due to high cost of wheat straw, mushroom farming can be made
economical by using water hyacinth for preparing substrate (Nageswaran et al., 2003;
Murugesan et al., 1995).

Production of methane gas

In goober gas plants crow dung can be substituted by water hyacinth plants (biomass) and
methane gas, produced through anaerobic digestion can be used as food for cooking.
Consistently warm daily temperature, 32 to 360C as found in tropics, greatly enhances the rate of
gas production. The slurry can be used directly or after sun drying as organic manure (Kivaisi
and Mtila, 1998).

Fish poisons:
Few weeds are also used for fish poisons. The bulb of Chlorogelum pomeridinum is used
for fish poison. Leaves of turkey mullein is also used as fish poison.

Other uses of Aquatic weeds

Rough and tough marginal weeds can be used for making huts, thatching roofs,
traditional fishing rafts, fishing rods, musical instruments, writing pens and floats. They can be

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 7

used for making screens and mats (Nolan and Kirmse, 1974). Water hyacinth is very helpful in
reclaiming alkaline soils.

Effects of aquatic weeds on ecosystems and aquaculture

(a). Aquatic weeds create situation which are ideal for mosquito growth:
The mosquitoes are sheltered and protected from their predators by aquatic weeds roots
and leafy growth and are responsible for the spread of malaria, yellow fever, river blindness and
encephalitis.

(b). Aquatic weeds also affect quality of water:

Aquatic weeds are responsible for lowering quantity as well as quality of water. These
weeds cause taste and odor problems and also increases biological oxygen demand because of
organic loading (Gopal and Sharma, 1979).

(c). Increase the organic matter content of water:

Aquatic weeds increase the organic matter content of water, which may of affects the
strength of the concrete structures when used as curing and mixing water. It is due to organics
matter that combined with cement to reduce bond strength and may cause large amount of air
entailed concrete.

(d). Hindrance for water flow

Aquatic weeds impede the free flow of water which may contribute to increase seepage
and may cause rises in water tables in the adjoin areas. This may lead to water logging. This may
also create saline or alkaline condition in the soil and also give rise to many other land weeds.
Aquatic weeds reduce flow water in canal, drainage and ditches etc. Floating weeds retardnt
coefficient (n) of water in canal to over twice than the clean water flowing in that canal.
Submerged weeds can raise it almost 20 folds. It has been reported that water hyacinth raise the
‘n’ value of a channel from 0.024 to 0.55 i.e. about 2 folds. Najas spp. raise from 0.04 to 0.68 i.e.
approximately 16 folds (Varshney and Singh,1976).

(e). Water clogging

Aquatic weeds propagate at a tremendous rate. Eichhornia needs a special mention in this
category. A pair of these plants can multiply up to four thousand times in one season.

Fig 10. Clogging of Canals by water hyacinth

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 8

A canal of drain surface normally gets covered and clogged in one season, from just a few
germinating or introduced plants. The surface floating weeds get interwoven and from dens mats
that move downstream. Often these moving mats packs up against bridges and structures creating
enormous pressure that sometimes results in serious damage begin caused. Over time if left
unchecked, the weed mats become so dense that people and animals can walk on them although
at the risk of injury or drowning (Varshney and Singh,1976). Masses of detached weeds drift
down the stream clogging the culverts, bridges, pump intake and even the hydraulic schemes.

(f). These are water wasters

Evapotranspiration losses of water through mats of weeds are much more than from open
water surface. Consumption of water by aquatic weeds is much higher because of their high
water needs (Walia, 2003).

(g). Pose pollution and health problem

Decaying masses of aquatic weeds pollute drinking water. Decomposing weeds omit
offensive odor. Moreover, decomposing of certain blue-green algae can prove toxic to life of
water. Similarly, allelochemicals released by certain aquatic weeds can prove harmful to the fish
(Lancer and Krake, 2002).

(h). Hinder navigation:

Aquatic weeds obstruct netting operations. They bind around the propellers of boats and
stop their working. Water hyacinth can stop the movement of even ship.

(i). Increase sedimentations

Aquatic weeds particularly emerged ones growing in seasonal drain not only add a lot of
organic matter after completion of life cycle but are also responsible for sedimentation of loose
clay or sand particles from flowing water or air. Due to growth of aquatic weeds, the depth of
pond, drain, rivers etc. goes on decreasing every year resulting in over flow of water.

(j). Reduce the aesthetic value:

Charm of boating, swimming, bathing and other recreations in water is lost due to
infestation of water bodies’ with weeds.

(k). Effect on Fish production

Fish production is greatly affected by the presence of aquatic weeds (Wiley et al., 1984).
Isolated weed beds may be tolerated, providing shelter and shade for fish, but when the growth
become thick and cover entire water body, it can lethal for fish growth. Fish may suffocate from
a lack of oxygen and may cause death. When floating and submerged aquatic weeds become
extremely dense, many fish species are unable to exist in such environment and vanish. For
example, fish’s production in Harike Lake in Punjab is decreasing and is a matter of concern to
all. As they cause oxygen depletion, and accumulation of Carbondioxide, gases like hydrogen
sulphide and methane are formed; these gases are harmful to the fishes. Algal blooms choke the
gills of the fishes and spoil the water on rotting. They effect fish production by-
(i). Limiting the space for many culturable fishes
(ii). Competing with phytoplankton and absorbing nutrients.
(iii). Causing imbalance in dissolved oxygen concentration.
(iv) Causing siltation.
(v). Hampering netting operations of harbouring unwanted predatory fishes, molluscs etc.
Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 9
Management of Aquatic weeds

Management of aquatic weeds consists of two approaches

1. Preventive approaches
2. Control of existing infestation

The habitat and the type of aquatic weed flora influence the technique of weed control. In
broader sense, weed “control” means keeping the weeds at a level where they do not cause
economic damage. Aquatic weed can be brought under control to manageable limits by various
methods. Broadly, these methods can be grouped under four groups: -

(1) Physical or Mechanical methods

(2) Cultural and physiological methods
(3) Biological methods
(4) Chemical methods

Preventive Approaches
Quarantines are legislative tools that may be used to mitigate the effect of weeds.
Quarantine is defined as the restriction imposed by duly constituted authorities whereby the
production, movement or existence of plants, plant products, animals, animal products, any other
article or material or the normal activity of persons is brought under regulation in order that
introduction or spread of a pest may be prevented or restricted. If a pest has already been
introduced and established in a small area, quarantine is necessary so that it may be controlled or
eradicated or dissemination stopped in newer areas, thereby reducing the losses that would
otherwise occur through damage done by pest. Preventive weed programs usually require
community action through enactment and enforcement of appropriate laws and regulations. In
India, irrigation canals appear to be a potential source for spreading water hyacinth.
Proper design and construction of ponds is an important factor in preventive control of
weeds. Shallow water at the margins provides an ideal habitat for immersed weeds, such as
cattails. These weeds can spread then to deeper water. Banks should be sloped steeply so that in
shallow region water is at least 2' to 3' deep. Proper design and construction of ditches and
channels makes weed control easier in the future. If the banks are leveled and smoothed, hard-to-
reach places will be eliminated. Lining canals will help to alleviate water weed problems, too.
When prevention and eradication fail to give desired results under aquatic environment, the only
alternative left is to keep aquatic weeds under manageable limits so that water use efficiency
with respect of water storage in reservoirs and transportation through canals is not reduced.

Control Methods
Controlling weeds in an aquatic environment is greatly complicated because of lack of
ownership of water bodies. Most of these are places of public interest. Often frequent approvals
are needed from public health Dept., water surveyor, fish and other wildlife agencies before
weed control works may be carried out. In many developing and under developed countries there
is no control on water use. In many Asian countries a water body can be used for a number of
purposes including bathing, drinking, stock watering and irrigation.

(a). Physical or mechanical control methods

Mechanical control of aquatic weeds primarily consists of removing the weeds of any
group physically from the water body. It may also involve any physical power which may
Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 10
directly or indirectly inhibit the growth and development of aquatic weeds. This could be done
manually by hand, using hand tools or machine power. It may also consist of altering the
environment or creating conditions/situations which may inhibit or do not permit growth and
development of weeds.

(i). Manual Cleaning

Manual cleaning is the oldest, cheapest method of aquatic weeds control. In areas
sparsely infested, weeds can be removed by hand. In this method, human labour is employed
with or without the aid of simple implements. Generally, this method is applied to emergent
weeds eg. Typha spp., Phragmites spp., Justicia spp. (Willow), where men cut the vegetative
growth with heavy knives and hooks. In shallow water the propagules, rhizomes and other
underground reproductive organs can be removed. The emergent and marginal weeds are
removed by pulling them with hand or can be kept under check by cutting their floating leaves
repeatedly. This could also be applied to the removal of floating weeds likewater hyacinth which
can either be hand picked or removed by wire, coir or nylon nets. This method requires constant
vigil because of temporary effect.

(ii). Cutting
This method consists of physically cutting the biomass over and under the water with the
help of heavy knives, or mechanical weed cutters. In the case of Typha, it has been observed that
if plants are cut under the water and remain submerged for more than a week to 10 days, control
is possible. This may also hold good for Phragmites, spp. Also mechanical cutting of water
hyacinth, Chara spp, Filamentous algae, Potamogeton spp. will give temporary relief from weed
infestations. A mechanical weed cutter is used to cut floating and submersed weed at 1-1.5 m
depth in water reservoirs. It consists of sharp cutter bar and operates from a boat. The harvested
weeds are collected and water is squeezed from them to hasten dehydration and desiccation.
Water weed cutters and harvesters: In high discharge canals and very large water bodies weed
cutters/harvesters are used to control rooted submerged weeds.
Under water cutters: These are normally attached to a motorboat. The equipment consists of
sharp and strong cutter bars with heavy reciprocating blades, sliding against a fixed blade.
Harvesters: Machine that cut and picks up the weeds from water body and convey these to shore
simultaneously.
Under water weed cutters were employed at Kota (India) to clear Chambal canal from
aquatic weeds (Gupta, 1973). At the Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT), a portable
machine gadget has been developed which can clear both floating and submersed weeds at the
rate of 1-1.5 ha area per day.

(iii) Chaining:
Chaining consists of a heavy iron drag chain attached between two tractors, which is
dragged down a densely weed infested ditch or medium canal. The chains tear the rooted weeds
and loosen them from the bottom. This method has been found effective where there is
dominance of emergent and submersed weeds. The practice of chaining should be followed when
new shoots of weed are around 30-50cm above water level. Dragging the chain up and down the
stream may be effective in dislodging most of the weeds. For effective weed control the practice
should be repeated at frequent intervals if found successful. One of the limitations of this method
is that ditches need to have uniform width, accessible from both the sides with tractors and free
from trees and other such obstructions. The debris thus collected at the end should be removed to
avoid reinfestation by plant propagules further downstream.
Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 11
(iv) Dredging:
Dredging is one of the techniques by which the weed vegetation along with excess silt is
removed. A Dredger is a machine equipped with a forked bucket which can be opened and
closed on command. The machine could operate from the ground or from a boat in water.
Dredging is done in large water bodies, canals and drains. It is a slow, time consuming and costly
operation. Small lakes, water reservoirs etc. get silted if area surrounding them is under
cultivation or surrounded by erodable lands with poor aforestation. When silts gets sedimented at
bottom the water retention gets decreased and emergent weeds (Typha, Scirpus spp. etc.)
establish. Such a situation demands the use of dredging facilities to remove silt and increase the
water capacity of lakes. This also reduces the problem of emergent weeds.

Fig. 11. Dredging essentially meant for desilting along shores also helps in removal of aquatic
weed vegetation

(v) Mowing
This process consists of cutting the weeds close to the ground with the help of manual or
power operated mowing machines. Mowing is effective on tall growing plants. Repeated
mowing not only prevents seed production of emergent weeds but may also starve the under
ground parts which store carbohydrate reserves and provides energy to vegetative reproductive
organs. The best time to mow is when carbohydrate reserves are low. For many species it is
when the active growth phase is over and the time of flowering initiation starts. Repeated
mowing hastens carbohydrate depletion and slow death of plants. Generally, this practice
effectively controls emergent weeds on canals, water reservoirs etc banks. The effect of mowing
is short lived. The operation needs to be done frequently to exhaust carbohydrate resources.
Therefore this process does not give any effective control on long term basis.

(vi) Netting: Scattered floating weeds can be skimmed out of small water bodies using nets
usually made of 3 mesh coir ropes.

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 12

(vii) Barriers:
Bamboo or inflatable rubber boom fencing is used to restrain the drift of free floating
aquatic weeds. The barriers are made to allow water to pass through them and to sustain the
wave and wind action.

(viii) Checking weeds seeds through irrigation water

Irrigation water often carries the seeds of aquatic weeds such as Eichhornia crassipes,
Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta. It is important to control weeds near and in reservoirs and
irrigation canals to prevent them form shedding seeds into the water. Weed seeds can be
collected by screens and removed from the source of supply. The screens should be made of
woven plastic cloth of less then 1.0 mm mesh supported on rigid metal 1.5 cm screens. Allowing
a square meter of screen for each 0.05 m3 per second of water flow with the fine screen tightly
stretched to encourage vibration and self cleaning as water falls on it.

Fig. 12. Lining of canals helps in reducing weed vegetation (Yamuna Canal at Haryana)

Fig. 13.High velocity of water in flow water system discourages weed growth

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 13

(ix) Burning/Fire/Heat treatment
Aquatic weeds especially emergent bank weeds can also be brought under control with
the help of fire. The general thermal death point of most of the weeds is in between 45-550C.
Higher temperature treatment than this, results in coagulation of cell protoplasm, which
inactivates the enzymic process resulting in the death of the plant. Burning may be used to
control bank weeds in irrigation canals, ditches etc. Usually green plants are also given
preliminary shearing and after two to three weeks vegetation may be dry enough to be
successfully re-burnt. Burning can be combined with herbicides and mowing to increase its
efficiency. Often mowing followed by burning or burning followed by herbicide application on
regrowth will help the efficacy of each other treatment.

(b). Eco-physiological alterations

(i) Drying or water level manipulations

This method is a simple and effective way of controlling submerged weeds. Most of the
aquatic weeds respond quickly to changes in water level. Control is achieved by either
dehydration of the vegetation or by exposure to high temperatures. In tanks, fish ponds and
canals emptying the water periodically to kill the weeds susceptible to desiccation is practiced.
To kill submersed weeds in the canals of Bhakra Canal System in Haryana (India) (Malhotra,
1976) and in Chambal Command Area (India) in Rajasthan exposure to sun is given by draining
the water and this practice prevents regrowth for nearly six months. Drying or water level
manipulation is generally practiced in flowing water system like irrigation canals, drainage
ditches. In some cases where facilities exists, in tanks and ponds. During the process the water is
removed and the base of the tanks, canals etc. are made dry by exposing the land to sun & air.
This totally changes the eco-environment, which is very adverse to the eco-environment required
for growth and development of submerged weeds. Frequent drying and wetting for several days
may control the growth of roots and propagules in the bottom soil. This method is not effective
for control of emergent weeds. The Irrigation and Power Research Institute, Amritser (India) has
developed a weed cutter operative from banks of the canals (Singh,1987). Thereafter, applied
drying method i.e., plants were exposed to the sunlight for 7 days by affecting closure in canals.
Following the exposure water was delivered for 2 weeks. Four such cycles were necessary. The
weeds were disintegrated after the fourth cycle. This method has the limitation of alternate
closure and operation of the canals.

b) Light
Light is an essential component of the photosynthetic process, which is necessary for the
growth and development of aquatic plants, especially submersed aquatic weeds. Growth of
submerged aquatic plants in small tanks and ponds can be checked by reducing light penetration.
Use of fiber glass screen is popular in some countries. Coloring chemicals have also been tried
for intercepting solar radiation reaching the water. Planting of trees on the banks of canals may
create shade to reduce light intensity hence checking the weed growth. However care should be
taken that trees or their appendages do not impede water flow. Light intensity can also be
checked by adding dyes to the water. This type of control is more effective in static water such as
ponds or tanks where dye remain suspended for a longer time. Ponds that are adequately
fertilized develop millions of tiny plants which give the water a cloudy appearance. If this water
is nearly 75 cm deep, submerged aquatic weeds have almost no chance to grow. This is due
primarily to shading the submerged plants.

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 14

Fig. 14. Covering the water surface with Azolla Fig. 15. Movement of turbid water reduces the
helps to check under water weed vegetation growth of submerged aquatic weeds

(c) Sub-mergence
Typha is one of the most important emergent weed growing all along the unlined canals
margins of the water bodies and shallow submersed area s along canals. Cutting Typha close to
the ground followed by subsequent submergence or cutting Typha under the water provides
effective control of this weed.

(d) Competitive displacement

This is an approach of replacing harmful vegetation by relatively less harmful and
beneficial vegetation. Planting of Paragrass (Brachiaria mutica) in drainage ditches in the
Chambal Irrigation Project eliminated Typha angustata after 10 to 12 months and yielded green
fodder. Besides direct competition, growth is also suppressed by some plants by shading effect.
For example, the growth of Azolla in rice fields effectively controls the growth of other weeds.

(C). Biological Control of Weeds

Biological management of aquatic weeds is a broad term for the exploitation of living
organisms or their products to reduce or prevent the growth and reproduction of weeds. The
organisms that are used for biological control are diverse e.g. insects, pathogens, nematodes,
parasitic and competing plants. Biological control involves the deliberate use of organisms such
as insects or fungi to control weeds. Biological control is more complex than chemical control
because it requires (a) long term planning (b) multiple tactics and (c) manipulation of cropping
system to interact with the environment.

Fig. 15. Neochetina eichhorneae feeding on the

leaf of water hyacinth

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 15

 Bioagents introduced in India for biological suppression of aquatic weeds are given below
Weeds and its Bioagents and its origin
origin
Eichhornia Neochetina bruchi
crassipes Hustache (Coleoptera,
(Mauritius) Solms, Curculionidae)
South America
Neochetina eichhorneae
Warner (Coleoptera,
Curculionidae)
Orthogalumna terebrantis
Wheelwork, (Acar:
Galumindae)
Salvinia molesta Cyrtobagous Salviniae
D.S. Mitchell Calder and Sand
South America (Coleoptera;
(Water fern, curculionidae)
Salvinia)
Paulinia acuminata (Da
Geer) (Orthoptera;
Acrididea)
Alternanthera Agasicles hygrophilla
Philoxeroides Selman and Vogt.
(Mauritius)
Grisebach
Submerged Ctenopharyngodon idella
aquatic weeds like (Cuvier and
Hydrilla, Valenciennes) (Pisces;
Ceratophyllum Cyprinidae) Grass carp
Najas
------do-------- Osphronemus goramy
Lacepedes (Pisces;
Osphronemidae)
------do--------- Tilapia mossamabia
Peters (Pisces; Cichlidae)
---------do------ Hypophthalmichthys
moitrix (Cuvier and
Valenciennes) (Pisces;
Cyprprinidae) (Silver
Carp)
Jhingran (1968) reported grass carp to feed voraciously on Hydrilla, Azolla,
Nechamandra and Lemna spp. In India. Ponds choked with Hydrilla have been cleared within a
month by stocking 300 to 375 grass carps (weighing 78 to 173 kg/ha). Grass carp is a poor
Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries
Introduced Present status and remarks
and
released in
India
1983 Ex. Argentina via USA. Released
in Bangalore, Central India, North
eastern India. Established very
good control
1983 Ex. Argentina via USA. Released
in Bangalore, Trichur, Hyderabad,
Central and North eastern India.
Established very good control.
1982 Ex. Argentina via USA. Released
in Bangalore, Established.
1982 Ex. Brazil, via Australia. Released
in Bangalore and Trichur.
Established excellent control.
1974 Ex. Trinidad. Established at one
site. Establishment elsewhere
uncertain because of Predatory
action of frogs and lycosid spiders.
Ex. South America via USA.
Damages foliage.
1959 Ex. China via Hong-Kong widely
established and successful in fish
ponds and tank etc.
From early Ex. Java and Mauritius. Well
1800 to established in Tamil Nadu and
1916 successfully distributed to other
areas.
1953 Ex. Africa, limited value in
controlling soft leaf weeds in
ponds, tanks etc.
!959 Established but not very effective.
Subhendu Datta 16
breeder in the warm water, therefore, for weed control purposes it is bred artificially and released
in the water when fingerling are 100g each. About 1500 fingerlings must be released per hectare
area of water. Fry and fingerlings of the carp are being distributed to different states in India by
Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore, India.

Fig. 16. Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), voracious feeder of submerged aquatic weeds

Allelopathy:
The concept that some plants may be allelopathic to certain weeds is receiving increased
attention in the search for weed control strategies. A great deal of literature is available on the
phenomenon of allelopathy which has been defined as “the direct or indirect harmful effect of
one plant on another through the production of chemical compounds that escape into the
environment.” Dry Casitta powder was added at the rate of 50g, 100, 150 and 200g/10 liters of
water (0.5,1.0,1.5 and 2.0 percent respectively) and water hyacinth plants were grown in plastic
tubs. All the treatments showed reduction in number of leaves and biomass in the treated tubs
when compared with untreated ones. Casitta powder @ 1 to 2% w/v could completely kill the
leaves and reduce the biomass two fold.

Chemical control of Aquatic Weeds

Aquatic weeds can be controlled effectively by use of herbicides. The time and method of
herbicide application varies with the type of weed flora and the habitat in which the weeds are to
be controlled. Control of aquatic weeds by herbicides is generally easier, quick and usually
cheaper, when compared to mechanical methods. The use of herbicides has the disadvantage of
being in water as residue and more especially in areas where there is no control on water use.
Not all herbicides can be used for weed control in aquatic environment.
A herbicide should have certain specifications for its use in different types of aquatic
environments;
(a). It should have high degree of phytotoxicity to kill weeds fast.
(b). The chemical should degrade or dissipate from water immediately after the action on weeds.
(c). Technology should be available for their use in static or flow water systems.
(d). It should be environmentally safe for humans, fish and other aquatic fauna. Many herbicides
are harmless to fish at concentrations required for control of weeds.

Some of the advantages of using herbicides are

(a). Herbicides are economical and fair in action thus save time.
(b). The dead weed biomass sinks to the bottom of the water body avoiding loss of nutrients and
biomass.

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 17

(c). Herbicides kill even the roots and other deep rooted reproductive organs which generally can
not be removed by mechanical means.
(d). One or two applications of herbicides are sufficient while mechanical methods may need to
be applied a number of times.

Controlling Algae by algaecide

Copper sulfate specifically known as Copper sulfate pentahydrate is one of the most
common and largely used chemicals for control of algal growth in aquatic system all over the
world. It was first used in 1904. It controlled water bloom at 0.1 ppm, common sown algae at 1.0
ppm and Chara sp. at 5 ppm. Pithophera spp. are difficult to control (Gupta, 1987). It is one of
the cheapest chemicals available and that is why it is used so widely as an algaecide. It does not
degrade in water hence, repeated applications may accumulate to toxic levels in the substrate of
the water body. The safe limits are 2.3 – 12.0 ppm Cu in human drinking water and 100 ppm in
animal drinking water.
Chelated copper: Copper that is held in an organic complex is known as chelated copper.
Chelated copper formulations do not readily precipitate in high alkalinity waters or hard waters
but stay in solution and remain active longer than copper sulfate. Chelated copper is less
corrosive to application equipment than copper sulfate. Because it is more soluble, chelated
copper is generally used at slightly lower rates than copper sulfate. Chelated copper formulations
are slightly less toxic to fish than copper sulfate. However, in waters with low alkalinity (≤ 20
ppm), or in water with an alkalinity of ≤ 50 ppm that contains trout, using chelated copper is
extremely risky, particularly during the summer. Some of the chelated copper compounds work
on higher plants (e.g. Hydrilla, Najas spp. etc.). Some other chemicals have been proposed and
used for algal control such as sodium arsenite, potassium permanganate, bleaching powder.
Some scientists have proposed heavy application of nitrogenous fertilizers to irrigation water.
Chelates of Cu are used in hard water to avoid in-activation. It also reduces Cu toxicity to
fish culture. In alkaline water having >100ppm CaCO3, Cu gets precipitated as oxychloride to
insoluble forms. In turbid water Cu gets adsorbed to suspended fine pentacles. Copper chloride is
a Cu based algaecide made for use in irrigation water and stored recreational water. It is less
harmful to fish and other crustaceans. It is less corrosive to sprayers. Copper sulphate should be
applied to water which has a pH of approximately 6. However, in alkaline water ( pH > 7) the
successful application of Copper Sulphate is carried out with a pre dosage of sulfuric acid which
reduces pH of the water (Labrada and Fornasari, 2003).

Controlling weeds by herbicides

General considerations:

a) Spray of herbicides should be made when aquatic weeds are tender or they have just started
growth.
b) Emergent and floating perennial weeds are most susceptible when the herbicide is sprayed in
the mid to late summer when the leaves are fully emerged and succulent.
c) Annual weeds are sprayed before flowering to prevent production of seeds.
d) Treatment of submerged weeds and algae is normally recommended in spring and early
summer when the weeds are young and actively growing.

2,4-D, Glyphosate, Diquat, Paraquat are used to control the emergment and floating weeds.

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 18

o 2,4-D is a translocated herbicide used for control of broad leaved weeds and sedges.

o Glyphosate is a post emergent, non selective herbicide. Glyphosate is effective in controlling

grassy, broad-leaved weeds & sedges. It is equally effective on annual & perennial weeds.
Therefore, Glyphosate is classified as a broad spectrum herbicide.

o Diquat and Paraquat are contact, non selective herbicides and are very effective for control of
floating and submerged aquatic weeds and algae. However, the use of Diquat and Paraquat is
not permitted in fisheries.

2, 4-D
2,4-D is available in salt, ester or amine formulations. Few Trade names of 2,4-D in
India:
Na-Salt of 2,4-D (80% WP) - Killweed,
2,4-D Ethyl Ester (38% EC) -U-Kill
2,4-D Dimethyl amine salt (58% SL) – Aeromine
2,4-D is a translocated herbicide that is available as a granular or liquid formulation.
Liquid formulations of 2,4-D are used to control floating weeds such as water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) and several emerzed weeds. Amine formulations are slightly better for
aquatic applications because they are less toxic to fish. Granular 2,4-D controls submersed weeds
such as coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum) and emersed weeds such as waterlily (Nymphaea
spp.) in still water condition. In case of emergent ditch and bank weeds like Ipomea carnea such
situation develop during March-June in subtropical part of the world when it is most effective
time for spray treatment as water levels are low and crops not in nearby vicinity. Plant roots
absorb polar (salt) forms of 2,4-D most readily. Leaves absorb non-polar (ester) forms most
readily. A rainfree period of 4 to 6 hours is adequate for uptake and effective control of weeds. It
is effective in controlling water hyacinth; Sagittaria and Alamos spp., water lettuce (Pistia spp),
Nymphaea and other floating and broad-leaved emergent weeds. Post emergence spray
applications are effective. Apply 2,4-D when weeds are in active growth phase. If surface sprays
are used, they are most effective if entire plant is treated. Therefore in the case of ponds and
other reservoirs, decrease in water level will increase herbicide effectiveness. 2 to 4 kg 2,4-D/ha
is an effective rate for controlling floating and emergent weeds. Ester formulations being oil like
and contain oil soluble materials are toxic to fish. The granular ester form is safer to use in
aquatic applications than the liquid ester form.

Glyphosate (Roundup®)
Glyphosate translocates from the treated foliage to underground storage organs such as
rhizomes. It is most effective when applied during a perennial weed’s flowering or fruiting stage
@ 1.5-4 Kg/ha. If rainfall occurs within 6 hours of application, the effectiveness of glyphosate
will be reduced. It may take 7 to 10 days or more to observe the symptoms and may take 30 days
or more for complete destruction.
2,4-D, glyphosate etc. are not effective against submerged weeds. Till today there is not a
single herbicide registered in India which can give effective control against submerged weeds
(Datta, S., 2009; unpublished data from the research experiment on herbicidal control of floating
and submerged aquatic weeds).

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 19

 Fig. 17. Trade chemical of 2,4-D & Glyphosate

Fluridone (Sonar®, Avast®)

Fluridone is a translocated herbicide that slowly kills plants over a 30 to 90 day period. It
was important to maintain the fluridone in contact with the target plants for a minimum of 45
days. The herbicide is not yet registered in India. Fluridone controls most submersed and
emersed weeds and is available as a liquid or pelleted formulation. Its slow action generally
prevents the depletion of dissolved oxygen. Fluridone is not effective as a spot treatment. The
entire pond must be treated to control the target weed species. Not toxic to fish at recommended
dosages. Recommended dose: The maximum application rate or sum of all application rates is 90
ppb in ponds and 150 ppb in lakes, reservoirs and static canals per annual growth cycle. 2,4-D
Na salt, ester, amine and glyphosate 15-20 Kg/ha did not produce any effect (see the photos
given below) after 30 days on submerged weeds in the experiment in fibre tanks.

Fig.18a. Ceratophyllum and hydrilla Fig.18b. Najas Fig.18c. Vallisneria

Effect of fluridone on 90 days after treatment on different submerged weeds are given below
(Lab. experiment results of fluridone on submerged weeds, Datta, S. 2009 unpublished):

Fig. 19a. Ceratophyllum and Fig. 19b. Najas at 20 ppb Fig. 19c. Vallisneria at 25 ppb
Hydrilla at 25 ppb Fluridone

Aquatic Weeds and Their Management for Fisheries Subhendu Datta 20

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