Screw theory

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Sir Robert Ball, author of treatises on screw theory in 1876 and 1900
Screw theory is the algebraic calculation of pairs of vectors, such as forces and
moments or angular and linear velocity, that arise in the kinematics and dynamics
of rigid bodies.[1][2] The mathematical framework was developed by Sir Robert
Stawell Ball in 1876 for application in kinematics and statics of mechanisms (rigid
body mechanics).[3]

Screw theory provides a mathematical formulation for the geometry of lines which is
central to rigid body dynamics, where lines form the screw axes of spatial movement
and the lines of action of forces. The pair of vectors that form the Pl�cker
coordinates of a line define a unit screw, and general screws are obtained by
multiplication by a pair of real numbers and addition of vectors.[3]

An important result of screw theory is that geometric calculations for points using
vectors have parallel geometric calculations for lines obtained by replacing
vectors with screws. This is termed the transfer principle.[4]

Screw theory has become an important tool in robot mechanics,[5][6] mechanical

design, computational geometry and multibody dynamics. This is in part because of
the relationship between screws and dual quaternions which have been used to
interpolate rigid-body motions.[7] Based on screw theory, an efficient approach has
also been developed for the type synthesis of parallel mechanisms (parallel
manipulators or parallel robots).[8]

Fundamental theorems include Poinsot's theorem (Louis Poinsot, 1806) and Chasles'
theorem (Michel Chasles, 1832). Felix Klein saw screw theory as an application of
elliptic geometry and his Erlangen Program.[9] He also worked out elliptic
geometry, and a fresh view of Euclidean geometry, with the Cayley-Klein metric. The
use of a symmetric matrix for a von Staudt conic and metric, applied to screws, has
been described by Harvey Lipkin.[10] Other prominent contributors include Julius
Pl�cker, W. K. Clifford, F. M. Dimentberg, Kenneth H. Hunt, J. R. Phillips.[11]

Contents
1 Basic concepts
1.1 Screw
1.2 Wrench
1.3 Twist
2 Algebra of screws
3 Wrench
4 Twist
4.1 Revolute joints
4.2 Prismatic joints
5 Coordinate transformation of screws
6 Twists as elements of a Lie algebra
7 Screws by reflection
8 Homography
9 Work of forces acting on a rigid body
9.1 Reciprocal screws
9.2 Twists in robotics
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Basic concepts

The pitch of a pure screw relates rotation about an axis to translation along that
axis.
A spatial displacement of a rigid body can be defined by a rotation about a line
and a translation along the same line, called a screw displacement. This is known
as Chasles' theorem. The six parameters that define a screw displacement are the
four independent components of the Pl�cker vector that defines the screw axis,
together with the rotation angle about and linear slide along this line, and form a
pair of vectors called a screw. For comparison, the six parameters that define a
spatial displacement can also be given by three Euler Angles that define the
rotation and the three components of the translation vector.

Screw
A screw is a six-dimensional vector constructed from a pair of three-dimensional
vectors, such as forces and torques and linear and angular velocity, that arise in
the study of spatial rigid body movement. The components of the screw define the
Pl�cker coordinates of a line in space and the magnitudes of the vector along the
line and moment about this line.

Wrench
The force and torque vectors that arise in applying Newton's laws to a rigid body
can be assembled into a screw called a wrench. A force has a point of application
and a line of action, therefore it defines the Pl�cker coordinates of a line in
space and has zero pitch. A torque, on the other hand, is a pure moment that is not
bound to a line in space and is an infinite pitch screw. The ratio of these two
magnitudes defines the pitch of the screw.

Twist
A twist represents the velocity of a rigid body as an angular velocity around an
axis and a linear velocity along this axis. All points in the body have the same
component of the velocity along the axis, however the greater the distance from the
axis the greater the velocity in the plane perpendicular to this axis. Thus, the
helicoidal field formed by the velocity vectors in a moving rigid body flattens out
the further the points are radially from the twist axis.

The points in a body undergoing a constant screw motion trace helices in the fixed
frame. If this screw motion has zero pitch then the trajectories trace circles, and
the movement is a pure rotation. If the screw motion has infinite pitch then the
trajectories are all straight lines in the same direction.

Algebra of screws
Let a screw be an ordered pair

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {S}}=(\mathbf {S} ,\mathbf {V} ),} \mathsf{S}=(\mathbf{S},

\mathbf{V}),
where S and V are three-dimensional real vectors. The sum and difference of these
ordered pairs are computed componentwise. Screws are often called dual vectors.

Now, introduce the ordered pair of real numbers �=(a, b) called dual scalars. Let
the addition and subtraction of these numbers be componentwise, and define
multiplication as

{\displaystyle {\hat {a}}{\hat {c}}=(a,b)(c,d)=(ac,ad+bc).\!} \hat{a}\hat{c}=(a,

b)(c, d) = (ac, ad+bc). \!
The multiplication of a screw S=(S, V) by the dual scalar �=(a, b) is computed
componentwise to be,

{\displaystyle {\hat {a}}{\mathsf {S}}=(a,b)(\mathbf {S} ,\mathbf {V} )=(a\mathbf

{S} ,a\mathbf {V} +b\mathbf {S} ).\!} \hat{a}\mathsf{S} = (a, b)(\mathbf{S},
\mathbf{V}) = (a \mathbf{S}, a \mathbf{V} +b \mathbf{S}).\!
Finally, introduce the dot and cross products of screws by the formulas:

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {S}}\cdot {\mathsf {T}}=(\mathbf {S} ,\mathbf {V} )\cdot

(\mathbf {T} ,\mathbf {W} )=(\mathbf {S} \cdot \mathbf {T} ,\,\,\mathbf {S}
\cdot \mathbf {W} +\mathbf {V} \cdot \mathbf {T} ),} \mathsf{S}\cdot \mathsf{T} =
(\mathbf{S}, \mathbf{V})\cdot (\mathbf{T}, \mathbf{W}) =
(\mathbf{S}\cdot\mathbf{T},\,\, \mathbf{S}\cdot\mathbf{W}
+\mathbf{V}\cdot\mathbf{T}),
which is a dual scalar, and

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {S}}\times {\mathsf {T}}=(\mathbf {S} ,\mathbf {V} )\times

(\mathbf {T} ,\mathbf {W} )=(\mathbf {S} \times \mathbf {T} ,\,\,\mathbf {S} \times
\mathbf {W} +\mathbf {V} \times \mathbf {T} ).} \mathsf{S}\times \mathsf{T} =
(\mathbf{S}, \mathbf{V})\times (\mathbf{T}, \mathbf{W}) = (\mathbf{S}\times
\mathbf{T},\,\, \mathbf{S}\times \mathbf{W} +\mathbf{V}\times \mathbf{T}).
which is a screw. The dot and cross products of screws satisfy the identities of
vector algebra, and allow computations that directly parallel computations in the
algebra of vectors.

Let the dual scalar ?=(f, d) define a dual angle, then the infinite series
definitions of sine and cosine yield the relations

{\displaystyle \sin {\hat {z}}=\sin \phi +d\cos \phi ,\,\,\,\cos {\hat {z}}=\cos
\phi -d\sin \phi .\!} \sin \hat{z} = \sin\phi + d \cos\phi, \,\,\, \cos\hat{z}
= \cos\phi - d \sin\phi.\!
In general, the function of a dual variable is defined to be f(?)=(f(f), df'(f)),
where f'(f) is the derivative of f(f).

These definitions allow the following results:

Unit screws are Pl�cker coordinates of a line and satisfy the relation
{\displaystyle |{\mathsf {S}}|={\sqrt {{\mathsf {S}}\cdot {\mathsf {S}}}}=1;}
|\mathsf{S}|=\sqrt{\mathsf{S}\cdot \mathsf{S}} =1;
Let ?=(f, d) be the dual angle, where f is the angle between the axes of S and T
around their common normal, and d is the distance between these axes along the
common normal, then
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {S}}\cdot {\mathsf {T}}=|{\mathsf {S}}||{\mathsf {T}}|\cos
{\hat {z}};} \mathsf{S}\cdot \mathsf{T}=|\mathsf{S}||\mathsf{T}|\cos\hat{z};
Let N be the unit screw that defines the common normal to the axes of S and T,
and ?=(f, d) is the dual angle between these axes, then
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {S}}\times {\mathsf {T}}=|{\mathsf {S}}||{\mathsf {T}}|\sin
{\hat {z}}{\mathsf {N}}.} \mathsf{S}\times \mathsf{T} =
|\mathsf{S}||\mathsf{T}| \sin\hat{z} \mathsf{N}.
Wrench
A common example of a screw is the wrench associated with a force acting on a rigid
body. Let P be the point of application of the force F and let P be the vector
locating this point in a fixed frame. The wrench W=(F, P�F) is a screw. The
resultant force and moment obtained from all the forces Fi i=1,...,n, acting on a
rigid body is simply the sum of the individual wrenches Wi, that is

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {R}}=\sum _{i=1}^{n}{\mathsf {W}}_{i}=\sum _{i=1}^{n}

(\mathbf {F} _{i},\mathbf {P} _{i}\times \mathbf {F} _{i}).} \mathsf{R} =
\sum_{i=1}^n \mathsf{W}_i = \sum_{i=1}^n (\mathbf{F}_i,
\mathbf{P}_i\times\mathbf{F}_i).
Notice that the case of two equal but opposite forces F and -F acting at points A
and B respectively, yields the resultant
{\displaystyle {\mathsf {R}}=(\mathbf {F} -\mathbf {F} ,\mathbf {A} \times \mathbf
{F} -\mathbf {B} \times \mathbf {F} )=(0,(\mathbf {A} -\mathbf {B} )\times \mathbf
{F} ).} \mathsf{R}=(\mathbf{F}-\mathbf{F}, \mathbf{A}\times\mathbf{F} -
\mathbf{B}\times\mathbf{F}) = (0, (\mathbf{A}-\mathbf{B})\times\mathbf{F}).
This shows that screws of the form

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {M}}=(0,\mathbf {M} ),} \mathsf{M}=(0, \mathbf{M}),

can be interpreted as pure moments.

Twist
In order to define the twist of a rigid body, we must consider its movement defined
by the parameterized set of spatial displacements, D(t)=([A(t)],d(t)), where [A] is
a rotation matrix and d is a translation vector. This causes a point p that is
fixed in moving body coordinates to trace a curve P(t) in the fixed frame given by,

{\displaystyle \mathbf {P} (t)=[A(t)]\mathbf {p} +\mathbf {d} (t).}

\mathbf{P}(t) = [A(t)]\mathbf{p} + \mathbf{d}(t).
The velocity of P is

{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{P}(t)=\left[{\frac {dA(t)}{dt}}\right]\mathbf {p}

+\mathbf {v} (t),}
\mathbf{V}_P(t) = \left[\frac{dA(t)}{dt}\right]\mathbf{p} + \mathbf{v}(t),
where v is velocity of the origin of the moving frame, that is dd/dt. Now
substitute p= [AT](P-d) into this equation to obtain,

{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{P}(t)=[\Omega ]\mathbf {P} +\mathbf {v} -

[\Omega ]\mathbf {d} \quad {\mbox{or}}\quad \mathbf {V} _{P}(t)=\mathbf
{\omega } \times \mathbf {P} +\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {d} \times \mathbf {\omega } ,}
\mathbf{V}_P(t) = [\Omega]\mathbf{P} + \mathbf{v} -
[\Omega]\mathbf{d}\quad\mbox{or}\quad\mathbf{V}_P(t) =
\mathbf{\omega}\times\mathbf{P} + \mathbf{v} + \mathbf{d}\times\mathbf{\omega},
where [O]=[dA/dt][AT] is the angular velocity matrix and ? is the angular velocity
vector.

The screw

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {T}}=({\vec {\omega }},\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {d} \times

{\vec {\omega }}),\!} \mathsf{T}=(\vec{\omega}, \mathbf{v} + \mathbf{d}\times
\vec{\omega}),\!
is the twist of the moving body. The vector V=v + d�? is the velocity of the point
in the body that corresponds with the origin of the fixed frame.

There are two important special cases: (i) when d is constant, that is v=0, then
the twist is a pure rotation about a line, then the twist is

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {L}}=(\omega ,\mathbf {d} \times \omega ),}

\mathsf{L}=(\omega, \mathbf{d}\times\omega),
and (ii) when [O]=0, that is the body does not rotate but only slides in the
direction v, then the twist is a pure slide given by

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {T}}=(0,\mathbf {v} ).} \mathsf{T}=(0, \mathbf{v}).

Revolute joints
For a revolute joint, let the axis of rotation pass through the point q and be
directed along the vector ?, then the twist for the joint is given by,

{\displaystyle \xi ={\begin{Bmatrix}\omega \\q\times \omega \end{Bmatrix}}.} \xi =

\begin{Bmatrix} \omega \\ q \times \omega \end{Bmatrix}.
Prismatic joints
For a prismatic joint, let the vector v pointing define the direction of the slide,
then the twist for the joint is given by,

{\displaystyle \xi ={\begin{Bmatrix}0\\v\end{Bmatrix}}.} \xi = \begin{Bmatrix}

0\\v \end{Bmatrix}.
Coordinate transformation of screws
The coordinate transformations for screws are easily understood by beginning with
the coordinate transformations of the Pl�cker vector of line, which in turn are
obtained from the transformations of the coordinate of points on the line.

Let the displacement of a body be defined by D=([A], d), where [A] is the rotation
matrix and d is the translation vector. Consider the line in the body defined by
the two points p and q, which has the Pl�cker coordinates,

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {q}}=(\mathbf {q} -\mathbf {p} ,\mathbf {p} \times \mathbf
{q} ),} \mathsf{q}=(\mathbf{q}-\mathbf{p}, \mathbf{p}\times\mathbf{q}),
then in the fixed frame we have the transformed point coordinates P=[A]p+d and
Q=[A]q+d, which yield.

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {Q}}=(\mathbf {Q} -\mathbf {P} ,\mathbf {P} \times \mathbf
{Q} )=([A](\mathbf {q} -\mathbf {p} ),[A](\mathbf {p} \times \mathbf {q} )+\mathbf
{d} \times [A](\mathbf {q} -\mathbf {p} ))} \mathsf{Q}=(\mathbf{Q}-\mathbf{P},
\mathbf{P}\times\mathbf{Q}) = ([A](\mathbf{q}-\mathbf{p}), [A]
(\mathbf{p}\times\mathbf{q}) + \mathbf{d}\times[A](\mathbf{q}-\mathbf{p}))
Thus, a spatial displacement defines a transformation for Pl�cker coordinates of
lines given by

{\displaystyle {\begin{Bmatrix}\mathbf {Q} -\mathbf {P} \\\mathbf {P} \times

\mathbf {Q} \end{Bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}A&0\\DA&A\end{bmatrix}}
{\begin{Bmatrix}\mathbf {q} -\mathbf {p} \\\mathbf {p} \times \mathbf {q}
\end{Bmatrix}}.}
\begin{Bmatrix} \mathbf{Q}-\mathbf{P} \\ \mathbf{P}\times\mathbf{Q} \end{Bmatrix}
= \begin{bmatrix} A & 0 \\ DA & A \end{bmatrix}
\begin{Bmatrix} \mathbf{q}-\mathbf{p} \\ \mathbf{p}\times\mathbf{q} \end{Bmatrix}.
The matrix [D] is the skew symmetric matrix that performs the cross product
operation, that is [D]y=d�y.

The 6�6 matrix obtained from the spatial displacement D=([A], d) can be assembled
into the dual matrix

{\displaystyle [{\hat {A}}]=([A],[DA]),} [\hat{A}] =([A], [DA]),

which operates on a screw s=(s.v) to obtain,

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {S}}=[{\hat {A}}]{\mathsf {s}},\quad (\mathbf {S} ,\mathbf

{V} )=([A],[DA])(\mathbf {s} ,\mathbf {v} )=([A]\mathbf {s} ,[A]\mathbf {v} +
[DA]\mathbf {s} ).} \mathsf{S} = [\hat{A}]\mathsf{s}, \quad (\mathbf{S},
\mathbf{V}) = ([A], [DA])(\mathbf{s}, \mathbf{v}) = ([A]\mathbf{s}, [A]\mathbf{v}+
[DA]\mathbf{s}).
The dual matrix [�]=([A], [DA]) has determinant 1 and is called a dual orthogonal
matrix.

Twists as elements of a Lie algebra

Consider the movement of a rigid body defined by the parameterized 4x4 homogeneous
transform,

{\displaystyle {\textbf {P}}(t)=[T(t)]{\textbf {p}}={\begin{Bmatrix}{\textbf

{P}}\\1\end{Bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}A(t)&{\textbf {d}}(t)\\0&1\end{bmatrix}}
{\begin{Bmatrix}{\textbf {p}}\\1\end{Bmatrix}}.} {\textbf {P}}(t)=[T(t)]{\textbf
{p}}={\begin{Bmatrix}{\textbf {P}}\\1\end{Bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}A(t)&{\textbf
{d}}(t)\\0&1\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{Bmatrix}{\textbf {p}}\\1\end{Bmatrix}}.
This notation does not distinguish between P = (X, Y, Z, 1), and P = (X, Y, Z),
which is hopefully clear in context.

The velocity of this movement is defined by computing the velocity of the

trajectories of the points in the body,

{\displaystyle {\textbf {V}}_{P}=[{\dot {T}}(t)]{\textbf {p}}={\begin{Bmatrix}

{\textbf {V}}_{P}\\0\end{Bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {A}}(t)&{\dot {\textbf
{d}}}(t)\\0&0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{Bmatrix}{\textbf {p}}\\1\end{Bmatrix}}.}
{\textbf {V}}_{P}=[{\dot {T}}(t)]{\textbf {p}}={\begin{Bmatrix}{\textbf
{V}}_{P}\\0\end{Bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {A}}(t)&{\dot {\textbf {d}}}
(t)\\0&0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{Bmatrix}{\textbf {p}}\\1\end{Bmatrix}}.
The dot denotes the derivative with respect to time, and because p is constant its
derivative is zero.

Substitute the inverse transform for p into the velocity equation to obtain the
velocity of P by operating on its trajectory P(t), that is

{\displaystyle {\textbf {V}}_{P}=[{\dot {T}}(t)][T(t)]^{-1}{\textbf {P}}(t)=[S]

{\textbf {P}},} \textbf{V}_P=[\dot{T}(t)][T(t)]^{-1}\textbf{P}(t) = [S]\textbf{P},
where

{\displaystyle [S]={\begin{bmatrix}\Omega &-\Omega {\textbf {d}}+{\dot {\textbf

{d}}}\\0&0\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}\Omega &\mathbf {d} \times \omega +\mathbf
{v} \\0&0\end{bmatrix}}.} [S] = \begin{bmatrix} \Omega & -\Omega\textbf{d} +
\dot{\textbf{d}} \\ 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} \Omega &
\mathbf{d}\times\omega+ \mathbf{v} \\ 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix}.
Recall that [O] is the angular velocity matrix. The matrix [S] is an element of the
Lie algebra se(3) of the Lie group SE(3) of homogeneous transforms. The components
of [S] are the components of the twist screw, and for this reason [S] is also often
called a twist.

From the definition of the matrix [S], we can formulate the ordinary differential
equation,

{\displaystyle [{\dot {T}}(t)]=[S][T(t)],} [\dot{T}(t)] = [S][T(t)],

and ask for the movement [T(t)] that has a constant twist matrix [S]. The solution
is the matrix exponential

{\displaystyle [T(t)]=e^{[S]t}.} [T(t)] = e^{[S]t}.

This formulation can be generalized such that given an initial configuration g(0)
in SE(n), and a twist ? in se(n), the homogeneous transformation to a new location
and orientation can be computed with the formula,

{\displaystyle g\left(\theta \right)=\exp(\xi \theta )g\left(0\right),}

g\left(\theta\right) = \exp(\xi\theta) g\left(0\right),
where ? represents the parameters of the transformation.

Screws by reflection
In transformation geometry, the elemental concept of transformation is the
reflection (mathematics). In planar transformations a translation is obtained by
reflection in parallel lines, and rotation is obtained by reflection in a pair of
intersecting lines. To produce a screw transformation from similar concepts one
must use planes in space: the parallel planes must be perpendicular to the screw
axis, which is the line of intersection of the intersecting planes that generate
the rotation of the screw. Thus four reflections in planes effect a screw
transformation. The tradition of inversive geometry borrows some of the ideas of
projective geometry and provides a language of transformation that does not depend
on analytic geometry.
Homography
The combination of a translation with a rotation effected by a screw displacement
can be illustrated with the exponential mapping. This idea in transformation
geometry was advanced by Sophus Lie more than a century ago. Even earlier, William
Rowan Hamilton displayed the versor form of unit quaternions as exp(a r)= cos a + r
sin a. The idea is also in Euler's formula parametrizing the unit circle in the
complex plane.

Since e2 = 0 for dual numbers, exp(a e) = 1 + a e, all other terms of the

exponential series vanishing.

Let F = {1 + er : r ? H}, e2 = 0. Note that F is stable under the rotation q ? p -1

q p and under the translation (1 + e r)(1 + e s) = 1 + e (r + s) for any vector
quaternions r and s. F is a 3-flat in the eight-dimensional space of dual
quaternions. This 3-flat F represents space, and the homography constructed,
restricted to F, is a screw displacement of space.

Let a be half the angle of the desired turn about axis r, and b r half the
displacement on the screw axis. Then form z = exp((a + b e) r ) and z* = exp((a - b
e) r ). Now the homography is

{\displaystyle U[q,\ 1]{\begin{pmatrix}z&0\\0&z^{*}\end{pmatrix}}=U[qz,\

z^{*}]\thicksim U[(z^{*})^{-1}qz,\ 1].} {\displaystyle U[q,\ 1]
{\begin{pmatrix}z&0\\0&z^{*}\end{pmatrix}}=U[qz,\ z^{*}]\thicksim U[(z^{*})^{-
1}qz,\ 1].}
The inverse for z* is {\displaystyle 1/(\exp(ar-b\epsilon r))=} 1/(\exp(ar - b
\epsilon r)) =

{\displaystyle (e^{ar}e^{-br\epsilon })^{-1}=} (e^{ar} e^{-br \epsilon} )^{-1} =

{\displaystyle e^{br\epsilon }e^{-ar},} e^{br \epsilon} e^{-ar},
so, the homography sends q to

{\displaystyle (e^{b\epsilon }e^{-ar})q(e^{ar}e^{b\epsilon r})=e^{b\epsilon r}(e^{-

ar}qe^{ar})e^{b\epsilon r}=e^{2b\epsilon r}(e^{-ar}qe^{ar}).} (e^{b \epsilon} e^{-
ar}) q (e^{ar} e^{b \epsilon r}) = e^{b \epsilon r} (e^{-ar} q e^{ar} )e^{b
\epsilon r} = e^{2b \epsilon r} (e^{-ar} q e^{ar}).
Now for any quaternion vector p, p* = -p, let q = 1 + p e ? F where the required
rotation and translation are effected.

William Kingdon Clifford initiated the use of dual quaternions for kinematics,
followed by Aleksandr Kotelnikov, Eduard Study (Geometrie der Dynamen), and Wilhelm
Blaschke. However, the point of view of Sophus Lie has recurred.[12] In 1940,
Julian Coolidge described the use of dual quaternions for screw displacements on
page 261 of A History of Geometrical Methods. He notes the 1885 contribution of
Arthur Buchheim.[13] Coolidge based his description simply on the tools Hamilton
had used for real quaternions.

Evidently the group of units of the ring of dual quaternions is a Lie group. A
subgroup has Lie algebra generated by the parameters a r and b s, where a, b ? R,
and r, s ? H. These six parameters generate a subgroup of the units, the unit
sphere. Of course it includes F and the 3-sphere of versors.

Work of forces acting on a rigid body

Consider the set of forces F1, F2 ... Fn act on the points X1, X2 ... Xn in a rigid
body. The trajectories of Xi, i=1,...,n are defined by the movement of the rigid
body with rotation [A(t)] and the translation d(t) of a reference point in the
body, given by
{\displaystyle \mathbf {X} _{i}(t)=[A(t)]\mathbf {x} _{i}+\mathbf {d} (t)\quad
i=1,\ldots ,n,} \mathbf{X}_i(t)= [A(t)]\mathbf{x}_i + \mathbf{d}(t)\quad
i=1,\ldots, n,
where xi are coordinates in the moving body.

The velocity of each point Xi is

{\displaystyle \mathbf {V} _{i}={\vec {\omega }}\times (\mathbf {X} _{i}-\mathbf

{d} )+\mathbf {v} ,} \mathbf{V}_i = \vec{\omega}\times(\mathbf{X}_i-\mathbf{d})
+ \mathbf{v},
where ? is the angular velocity vector and v is the derivative of d(t).

The work by the forces over the displacement dri=vidt of each point is given by

{\displaystyle \delta W=\mathbf {F} _{1}\cdot \mathbf {V} _{1}\delta t+\mathbf {F}
_{2}\cdot \mathbf {V} _{2}\delta t+\ldots +\mathbf {F} _{n}\cdot \mathbf {V}
_{n}\delta t.} \delta W = \mathbf{F}_1\cdot\mathbf{V}_1\delta
t+\mathbf{F}_2\cdot\mathbf{V}_2\delta t + \ldots +
\mathbf{F}_n\cdot\mathbf{V}_n\delta t.
Define the velocities of each point in terms of the twist of the moving body to
obtain

{\displaystyle \delta W=\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {F} _{i}\cdot ({\vec

{\omega }}\times (\mathbf {X} _{i}-\mathbf {d} )+\mathbf {v} )\delta t.} \delta W
= \sum_{i=1}^n \mathbf{F}_i\cdot (\vec{\omega}\times(\mathbf{X}_i -\mathbf{d})
+ \mathbf{v})\delta t.
Expand this equation and collect coefficients of ? and v to obtain

{\displaystyle \delta W=(\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {F} _{i})\cdot \mathbf {d} \times

{\vec {\omega }}\delta t+(\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {F} _{i})\cdot \mathbf {v} \delta
t+(\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {X} _{i}\times \mathbf {F} _{i})\cdot {\vec
{\omega }}\delta t=(\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {F} _{i})\cdot (\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {d}
\times {\vec {\omega }})\delta t+(\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {X} _{i}\times \mathbf {F}
_{i})\cdot {\vec {\omega }}\delta t.} \delta W = (\sum_{i=1}^n
\mathbf{F}_i)\cdot\mathbf{d}\times \vec{\omega}\delta t+ (\sum_{i=1}^n
\mathbf{F}_i)\cdot\mathbf{v}\delta t + (\sum_{i=1}^n \mathbf{X}_i
\times\mathbf{F}_i)\cdot\vec{\omega}\delta t = (\sum_{i=1}^n
\mathbf{F}_i)\cdot(\mathbf{v}+\mathbf{d}\times \vec{\omega}) \delta t +
(\sum_{i=1}^n \mathbf{X}_i \times\mathbf{F}_i)\cdot\vec{\omega}\delta t .
Introduce the twist of the moving body and the wrench acting on it given by

{\displaystyle {\mathsf {T}}=({\vec {\omega }},\mathbf {d} \times {\vec {\omega }}

+\mathbf {v} )=(\mathbf {T} ,\mathbf {T} ^{\circ }),\quad {\mathsf {W}}=(\sum
_{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {F} _{i},\sum _{i=1}^{n}\mathbf {X} _{i}\times \mathbf {F}
_{i})=(\mathbf {W} ,\mathbf {W} ^{\circ }),} \mathsf{T} =
(\vec{\omega},\mathbf{d}\times \vec{\omega}
+\mathbf{v})=(\mathbf{T},\mathbf{T}^\circ),\quad\mathsf{W} = (\sum_{i=1}^n
\mathbf{F}_i, \sum_{i=1}^n \mathbf{X}_i
\times\mathbf{F}_i)=(\mathbf{W},\mathbf{W}^\circ),
then work takes the form

{\displaystyle \delta W=(\mathbf {W} \cdot \mathbf {T} ^{\circ }+\mathbf {W}
^{\circ }\cdot \mathbf {T} )\delta t.} \delta W = (\mathbf{W}\cdot\mathbf{T}^\circ
+ \mathbf{W}^\circ \cdot\mathbf{T})\delta t.
The 6x6 matrix [?] is used to simplify the calculation of work using screws, so
that

{\displaystyle \delta W=(\mathbf {W} \cdot \mathbf {T} ^{\circ }+\mathbf {W}
^{\circ }\cdot \mathbf {T} )\delta t={\mathsf {W}}[\Pi ]{\mathsf {T}}\delta t,}
\delta W = (\mathbf{W}\cdot\mathbf{T}^\circ + \mathbf{W}^\circ
\cdot\mathbf{T})\delta t = \mathsf{W}[\Pi]\mathsf{T}\delta t,
where

{\displaystyle [\Pi ]={\begin{bmatrix}0&I\\I&0\end{bmatrix}},} [\Pi]

=\begin{bmatrix} 0 & I \\ I & 0 \end{bmatrix},
and [I] is the 3x3 identity matrix.

Reciprocal screws
If the virtual work of a wrench on a twist is zero, then the forces and torque of
the wrench are constraint forces relative to the twist. The wrench and twist are
said to be reciprocal, that is if

{\displaystyle \delta W={\mathsf {W}}[\Pi ]{\mathsf {T}}\delta t=0,} \delta W

=\mathsf{W}[\Pi]\mathsf{T}\delta t = 0,
then the screws W and T are reciprocal.

Twists in robotics
In the study of robotic systems the components of the twist are often transposed to
eliminate the need for the 6x6 matrix [?] in the calculation of work.[4] In this
case the twist is defined to be

{\displaystyle {\check {\mathsf {T}}}=(\mathbf {d} \times {\vec {\omega }}+\mathbf

{v} ,{\vec {\omega }}),} \check{\mathsf{T}} = (\mathbf{d}\times \vec{\omega}
+\mathbf{v},\vec{\omega}),
so the calculation of work takes the form

{\displaystyle \delta W={\mathsf {W}}\cdot {\check {\mathsf {T}}}\delta t.} \delta

W =\mathsf{W}\cdot\check{\mathsf{T}}\delta t.
In this case, if

{\displaystyle \delta W={\mathsf {W}}\cdot {\check {\mathsf {T}}}\delta t=0,}

\delta W =\mathsf{W}\cdot\check{\mathsf{T}}\delta t= 0,
then the wrench W is reciprocal to the twist T.

See also
Screw axis
Newton�Euler equations uses screws to describe rigid body motions and loading.
Twist (mathematics)
Twist (rational trigonometry)
References
Dimentberg, F. M. (1965) The Screw Calculus and Its Applications in Mechanics,
Foreign Technology Division translation FTD-HT-23-1632-67
Yang, A.T. (1974) "Calculus of Screws" in Basic Questions of Design Theory,
William R. Spillers (ed.), Elsevier, pp. 266�281.
Ball, R. S. (1876). The theory of screws: A study in the dynamics of a rigid body.
Hodges, Foster.
McCarthy, J. Michael; Soh, Gim Song (2010). Geometric Design of Linkages.
Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-7892-9.
Featherstone, Roy (1987). Robot Dynamics Algorithms. Kluwer Academic Pub. ISBN
978-0-89838-230-3.
Featherstone, Roy (2008). Robot Dynamics Algorithms. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-
74315-8.
Selig, J. M. (2011) "Rational Interpolation of Rigid Body Motions," Advances in
the Theory of Control, Signals and Systems with Physical Modeling, Lecture Notes in
Control and Information Sciences, Volume 407/2011 213�224, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-
16135-3_18 Springer.
Kong, Xianwen; Gosselin, Cl�ment (2007). Type Synthesis of Parallel Mechanisms.
Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-71990-8.
 Felix Klein (1902) (D.H. Delphenich translator) On Sir Robert Ball's Theory of
Screws
Harvey Lipkin (1983) Metrical Geometry Archived 2016-03-05 at the Wayback Machine
from Georgia Tech University
Clifford, William Kingdon (1873), "Preliminary Sketch of Biquaternions", Paper XX,
Mathematical Papers, p. 381.
Xiangke Wang, Dapeng Han, Changbin Yu, and Zhiqiang Zheng (2012) "The geometric
structure of unit dual quaternions with application in kinematic control", Journal
of Mathematical Analysis and Applications 389(2):1352 to 64
Buchheim, Arthur (1885). "A Memoir on biquaternions". American Journal of
Mathematics. 7 (4): 293�326. doi:10.2307/2369176. JSTOR 2369176.
External links
Joe Rooney William Kingdon Clifford, Department of Design and Innovation, the Open
University, London.
Ravi Banavar notes on Robotics, Geometry and Control
Categories: Mechanical engineeringMechanicsRigid bodiesKinematics
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