Direct sum

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The direct sum is an operation from abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics. For
example, the direct sum {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} \oplus \mathbf {R} } \mathbf{R}
\oplus \mathbf{R} , where {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} } \mathbf{R} is real
coordinate space, is the Cartesian plane, {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{2}}
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} ^{2}}. To see how direct sum is used in abstract
algebra, consider a more elementary structure in abstract algebra, the abelian
group. The direct sum of two abelian groups {\displaystyle A} A and {\displaystyle
B} B is another abelian group {\displaystyle A\oplus B} A\oplus B consisting of the
ordered pairs {\displaystyle (a,b)} (a,b) where {\displaystyle a\in A} a\in A and
{\displaystyle b\in B} b\in B. (Confusingly this ordered pair is also called the
cartesian product of the two groups.) To add ordered pairs, we define the sum
{\displaystyle (a,b)+(c,d)} (a, b) + (c, d) to be {\displaystyle (a+c,b+d)} (a + c,
b + d); in other words addition is defined coordinate-wise. A similar process can
be used to form the direct sum of any two algebraic structures, such as rings,
modules, and vector spaces.

We can also form direct sums with any finite number of summands, for example
{\displaystyle A\oplus B\oplus C} A \oplus B \oplus C, provided {\displaystyle
A,B,} A, B, and {\displaystyle C} C are the same kinds of algebraic structures
(that is, all groups, rings, vector spaces, etc.). This relies on the fact that the
direct sum is associative up to isomorphism. That is, {\displaystyle (A\oplus
B)\oplus C\cong A\oplus (B\oplus C)} {\displaystyle (A\oplus B)\oplus C\cong
A\oplus (B\oplus C)} for any algebraic structures {\displaystyle A} A,
{\displaystyle B} B, and {\displaystyle C} C of the same kind. The direct sum is
also commutative up to isomorphism, i.e. {\displaystyle A\oplus B\cong B\oplus A}
{\displaystyle A\oplus B\cong B\oplus A} for any algebraic structures
{\displaystyle A} A and {\displaystyle B} B of the same kind.

In the case of two summands, or any finite number of summands, the direct sum is
the same as the direct product. If the arithmetic operation is written as +, as it
usually is in abelian groups, then we use the direct sum. If the arithmetic
operation is written as � or � or using juxtaposition (as in the expression
{\displaystyle xy} xy) we use direct product.

In the case where infinitely many objects are combined, most authors make a
distinction between direct sum and direct product. As an example, consider the
direct sum and direct product of infinitely many real lines. An element in the
direct product is an infinite sequence, such as (1,2,3,...) but in the direct sum,
there would be a requirement that all but finitely many coordinates be zero, so the
sequence (1,2,3,...) would be an element of the direct product but not of the
direct sum, while (1,2,0,0,0,...) would be an element of both. More generally, if a
+ sign is used, all but finitely many coordinates must be zero, while if some form
of multiplication is used, all but finitely many coordinates must be 1. In more
technical language, if the summands are {\displaystyle (A_{i})_{i\in I}}
(A_i)_{i \in I}, the direct sum {\displaystyle \bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}}
\bigoplus_{i \in I} A_i is defined to be the set of tuples {\displaystyle
(a_{i})_{i\in I}} (a_i)_{i \in I} with {\displaystyle a_{i}\in A_{i}} a_i \in A_i
such that {\displaystyle a_{i}=0} a_i=0 for all but finitely many i. The direct sum
{\displaystyle \bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}} \bigoplus_{i \in I} A_i is contained in
the direct product {\displaystyle \prod _{i\in I}A_{i}} \prod_{i \in I} A_i, but is
usually strictly smaller when the index set {\displaystyle I} I is infinite,
because direct products do not have the restriction that all but finitely many
coordinates must be zero.[1]

Contents
1 Examples
1.1 Internal and external direct sums
2 Types of direct sum
2.1 Direct sum of abelian groups
2.2 Direct sum of modules
2.3 Direct sum of group representations
2.4 Direct sum of rings
2.5 Direct sum in categories
3 Homomorphisms
4 See also
5 Notes
6 References
Examples
The xy-plane, a two-dimensional vector space, can be thought of as the direct sum
of two one-dimensional vector spaces, namely the x and y axes. In this direct sum,
the x and y axes intersect only at the origin (the zero vector). Addition is
defined coordinate-wise, that is {\displaystyle (x_{1},y_{1})+
(x_{2},y_{2})=(x_{1}+x_{2},y_{1}+y_{2})} (x_1,y_1) + (x_2,y_2) = (x_1+x_2, y_1 +
y_2), which is the same as vector addition.

Given two structures {\displaystyle A} A and {\displaystyle B} B, their direct sum

is written as {\displaystyle A\oplus B} A\oplus B. Given an indexed family of
structures {\displaystyle A_{i}} A_{i}, indexed with {\displaystyle i\in I} i\in I,
the direct sum may be written {\displaystyle \textstyle A=\bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}}
\textstyle A=\bigoplus_{i\in I}A_i. Each Ai is called a direct summand of A. If the
index set is finite, the direct sum is the same as the direct product. In the case
of groups, if the group operation is written as {\displaystyle +} + the phrase
"direct sum" is used, while if the group operation is written {\displaystyle *} *
the phrase "direct product" is used. When the index set is infinite, the direct sum
is not the same as the direct product since the direct sum has the extra
requirement that all but finitely many coordinates must be zero.

Internal and external direct sums

A distinction is made between internal and external direct sums, though the two are
isomorphic. If the factors are defined first, and then the direct sum is defined in
terms of the factors, we have an external direct sum. For example, if we define the
real numbers {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} } \mathbf {R} and then define
{\displaystyle \mathbf {R} \oplus \mathbf {R} } \mathbf{R} \oplus \mathbf{R} the
direct sum is said to be external.

If, on the other hand, we first define some algebraic structure {\displaystyle S} S
and then write {\displaystyle S} S as a direct sum of two substructures
{\displaystyle V} V and {\displaystyle W} W, then the direct sum is said to be
internal. In this case, each element of {\displaystyle S} S is expressible uniquely
as an algebraic combination of an element of {\displaystyle V} V and an element of
{\displaystyle W} W. For an example of an internal direct sum, consider
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{6}} {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{6}} (the integers
modulo six), whose elements are {\displaystyle \{0,1,2,3,4,5\}} \{0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5\}. This is expressible as an internal direct sum {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z}
_{6}=\{0,2,4\}\oplus \{0,3\}} {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{6}=\{0,2,4\}\oplus \
{0,3\}}.
Types of direct sum
Direct sum of abelian groups
The direct sum of abelian groups is a prototypical example of a direct sum. Given
two abelian groups {\displaystyle (A,\circ )} {\displaystyle (A,\circ )} and
{\displaystyle (B,\bullet )} {\displaystyle (B,\bullet )}, their direct sum
{\displaystyle A\oplus B} A\oplus B is the same as their direct product, that is
the underlying set is the Cartesian product {\displaystyle A\times B} A\times B and
the group operation {\displaystyle \cdot } \cdot is defined component-wise:

{\displaystyle (a_{1},b_{1})\cdot (a_{2},b_{2})=(a_{1}\circ a_{2},b_{1}\bullet

b_{2})} {\displaystyle (a_{1},b_{1})\cdot (a_{2},b_{2})=(a_{1}\circ
a_{2},b_{1}\bullet b_{2})}.
This definition generalizes to direct sums of finitely many abelian groups.

For an infinite family of abelian groups Ai for i ? I, the direct sum

{\displaystyle \bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}} {\displaystyle \bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}}

is a proper subgroup of the direct product. It consists of the elements
{\displaystyle \textstyle (a_{i})\in \prod _{j\in I}A_{j}} {\displaystyle
\textstyle (a_{i})\in \prod _{j\in I}A_{j}} such that ai is the identity element of
Ai for all but finitely many i.[2]

Direct sum of modules

Main article: Direct sum of modules
The direct sum of modules is a construction which combines several modules into a
new module.

The most familiar examples of this construction occur when considering vector
spaces, which are modules over a field. The construction may also be extended to
Banach spaces and Hilbert spaces.

Direct sum of group representations

See also: Representation theory of finite groups � Direct sum of representations
The direct sum of group representations generalizes the direct sum of the
underlying modules, adding a group action to it. Specifically, given a group G and
two representations V and W of G (or, more generally, two G-modules), the direct
sum of the representations is V ? W with the action of g ? G given component-wise,
i.e.

g�(v, w) = (g�v, g�w).

Direct sum of rings
Main article: Product of rings
Some authors will speak of the direct sum {\displaystyle R\oplus S} R \oplus S of
two rings when they mean the direct product {\displaystyle R\times S} R \times S,
but this should be avoided[3] since {\displaystyle R\times S} R \times S does not
receive natural ring homomorphisms from R and S: in particular, the map
{\displaystyle R\to R\times S} R \to R \times S sending r to (r,0) is not a ring
homomorphism since it fails to send 1 to (1,1) (assuming that 0?1 in S). Thus
{\displaystyle R\times S} R \times S is not a coproduct in the category of rings,
and should not be written as a direct sum. (The coproduct in the category of
commutative rings is the tensor product of rings.[4] In the category of rings, the
coproduct is given by a construction similar to the free product of groups.)

Use of direct sum terminology and notation is especially problematic when dealing
with infinite families of rings: If {\displaystyle (R_{i})_{i\in I}} (R_i)_{i \in
I} is an infinite collection of nontrivial rings, then the direct sum of the
underlying additive groups can be equipped with termwise multiplication, but this
produces a rng, i.e., a ring without a multiplicative identity.
Direct sum in categories
An additive category is an abstraction of the properties of the category of
modules.[5][6] In such a category finite products and coproducts agree and the
direct sum is either of them, cf. biproduct.

General case:[7] In category theory the direct sum is often, but not always, the
coproduct in the category of the mathematical objects in question. For example, in
the category of abelian groups, direct sum is a coproduct. This is also true in the
category of modules.

Homomorphisms
[clarification needed]

The direct sum {\displaystyle \bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}} \bigoplus_{i \in I} A_i
comes equipped with a projection homomorphism {\displaystyle \pi _{j}\colon
\,\bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}\to A_{j}} {\displaystyle \pi _{j}\colon \,\bigoplus
_{i\in I}A_{i}\to A_{j}} for each j in I and a coprojection {\displaystyle \alpha
_{j}\colon \,A_{j}\to \bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}} {\displaystyle \alpha
_{j}\colon \,A_{j}\to \bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}} for each j in I.[8] Given another
algebraic structure {\displaystyle B} B (with the same additional structure) and
homomorphisms {\displaystyle g_{j}\colon A_{j}\to B} g_j \colon A_j \to B for every
j in I, there is a unique homomorphism {\displaystyle g\colon \,\bigoplus _{i\in
I}A_{i}\to B} {\displaystyle g\colon \,\bigoplus _{i\in I}A_{i}\to B}, called the
sum of the gj, such that {\displaystyle g\alpha _{j}=g_{j}} g \alpha_j =g_j for all
j. Thus the direct sum is the coproduct in the appropriate category.

See also
Direct sum of groups
Direct sum of permutations
Direct sum of topological groups
Restricted product
Whitney sum
Notes
Thomas W. Hungerford, Algebra, p.60, Springer, 1974, ISBN 0387905189
Joseph J. Rotman, The Theory of Groups: an Introduction, p. 177, Allyn and Bacon,
1965
Math StackExchange on direct sum of rings vs. direct product of rings.
Lang 2002, section I.11
"p.45"
""appendix"" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-09-17. Retrieved
2014-01-14.
[1]
Heunen, Chris (2009). Categorical Quantum Models and Logics. Pallas
Proefschriften. Amsterdam University Press. p. 26. ISBN 9085550246.
References
Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 211 (Revised third
ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556, Zbl 0984.00001
Categories: Abstract algebra
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