Design And Specification of High Voltage Distribution System & Earthing System (1 Edition) Author: Mr Tan Yan Choon B.Eng, P-Eng, C.Eng, MEK, MIES, ACMS. Published by: AMOS TECHNOLOGIES PTE LTD THIS Bock: a ac) Thay KeRIG BX TRON CONSULTANTS BLD{eign and Specification of Fgh Voltage Distribution System & Farthing System (L* Edition) Deign of High Voltage System for major work project entails the specifications and selection of High vollage equipment, switchgear, transformers ard cables, Particularly important are the desgn & installation of eatthing system to minimize the effects of step voltage, touch voltage, meth voltage & wansferred voltage. ‘She contents of this book aim at familiarising the readers on the reasoning behind the délfereat speiiications and methods used throughout the work! to achieve the specific system reqpirements. The contents of this book will certainly benefit those who are involved in design, installation, and maintonanee of high voltage eleoteical distribution systems, consulting engineers, builling sersices engineers, electrical maintenance engineers, facilities engineers, contractors, developers, technical officers from industries, government aad statutory bodies, ete About the Author ‘FAN YAN CHOON B. Brg. P Eng, C-Eng, MIBE, MUES, ACMS Mr Tan is a practising consulting engineer and lectures with extensive experience in the design, operation and maintenance of M & E systems, Specitic experience includes the planning and design of M & E services for various major industriel. commercial & residential projects Mr Tan has more than 27 years of working experience as a Consultant and Professional Engineer. His early experience includes many years in the planing, installation ard ieintenance of extensive electrical distribution system for a power ulilities company. He has also gained wide practical experience with MécH Consulting firms, Ewbank Preece Engineers Pte Ltd, Peter Teo & Associates, Oscar Faber Consultants Pte Lid and Maunsell Consultants (Singapore) Pte Ltd in the design and installation of M&E, Services, Mr Tan is now a Licensed Eleciricai Engineer and an Authorised HT. Switching & Testing Engineer and currently a Technical Director of Maunsell Consultants (Singapore) Pte Led. Mz Tan is also an established trainer and adjunet lecturer at a local tertiary institution. He has delivered many public seminars and in-house courses such as Effective Maintenance Management of M&E Services; Design & Specification of M&E Services; Lightning Protection for Electronics, Computer and Telecommuaication Equipment; High Voltage System Design, Opevation & Maintenance; Electrical Safety, Power System Harmonics; Earthing and Power Supply Quality Problems, Design & Installation of Standby Geneiaiors, Design & Specification of Electrical Power & Distribution for Data Processing & Communication Centres. Publisher Amos Technologies Pte LtdDesign and Specification of High Voltage Distribution System & Karthing System (1 Editi Copyright be copied, All rights to this publication are reserved, No part of this publication m: reproduced, transmitted or stored in any form or by any means (including electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording. or otherwise) without pry written permission of the publisher and the auther Disclaimer DiS ert Whilst sll reasonable care has been taken to ensure that the descriptions, epiniens, programs, stings and diagrams are accurate and workable, Amos Tecinologies Pe Lud and the author da aot accept any legal responsibility or liability fo any person, erganization or ather entity lor any ditect loss, consequential loss or damage, however caused, that may suffered as a result of the use of this publication or the associated workshop and software. In case of any uncertainty, we recommend that you contact the author for clarification or assistance, ISBN 981-05-0106-4 Published by: AMOS TECHNOLOGIES PTE LTDLl 115 v - 27 3. 31 32 CON’ INTRODUCTION TO HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY SYSTEM Electrical Power Network Nebwork Impedance And Earthing System Of Power Supply Company’s Network Prospective Fault Level At High Voltage Incoming Supply Phase To Earth Fault Current On High Voltage System Fault Current Distribution In Transformer Windings Design OF High Voltage Distribution Network Network Configuration 1.7.1 Radial Supply System 17.2 Ring, Interconneetor And Mesh System 1.73 Advantages And Disadvantages Of Various Types Of Networks 1.74 Use Of Double Busbar Switchgears 17.5 Selection O£Busbar With Withdrawable Circuit Breaker Withdrawable Circuit Breaker And Fixed Circuit Breaker Cubicles 181 Metal-Enclosed Switchgear With Withdrawable Circuit Breskers, 1.8.2 Cubicles With Fixed Switching Devices Earthing Facilities Convention [n Termination Of High Voltage Cables ~ Rear, Right, Red Understanding The Construction Of A High Voliage Switchboard Understanding The Operation Of The Circuit Breaker Motor-Spring Operated System And The Blecttical Closing/Tripping Circuits Ring Main Unit (RMU) Examples Of High Voltage Supply System In Buildings Questions — Chapter 1 BEHAVIOUR OF SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT AND CIRCUIT BREAKING Introduction Asymmetry Of Short Circuit Current Short Cireuit Breaking Current And Making Current Breaking Time Of Circuit Breaker Rated Short Time Current For | Second Or 3 Seconds The Basic Of Circuit Breaker Ratings 26.1 Specifications Of Switshgears 262 — Ratings Of Cireuit Breakers TEC 56 Standard ‘Questions ~ Chapter 2 PLANNING OF HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATION AND SWITCHROOM AND AUXILIARY POWER SUPPLIES Planning Of High Voltage Substation And Switchroom Safety Clearance In High Voltage Substation And Switchroom 1 1 16 18 22 a3 25 a 3 avs 32 33 34 35 36 36 37 37 40, al 4 43ponent Design And Specification OF High Voltage Distribution System And Karthing System (1° Radi 1 High Votiage Substation And Contents 3.3 A.C. Supplies 34 D.C. Sup 35 Batiery Capacity ay 36 Characteristics OF Batteries 49 37 Charging Of Batic 49 38 Maintenance OF Batteries 3 39 Specifications OF Battery For 22kV Switchboard 53 3.19 Ventilation For Substation Equipment Si ‘Questions ~ Chapter 3 ST HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS so Intreduetion 59 ‘Transformer Equivaient Circuit 60 . Vector Groups 6 4 Transformer Winding Conaeetions 62 Parallel Operation OF Transformers 4 Power Ratings Of [Distribution Transformer 4 Principal Components OF & 3@ Distribution Transformer 65 “Fypes Of Distribution Transformers a? : Non-Hermetically Sealed Mineral OiL-Filled Transformer 68 lly-Sealed Mineral Oil-Pilled Transformer 69 Cooling OF Trans n : Dry Type Epoxy-Resin Insulated Transformer 73 : DY! Distribution Transformer B Performance Of Distribution Transformers 78 “Three: Winding Transformers 80 On-Load Tap-Changer 83 Transformer Oil 84 Usefill Standards For Specification Of Power Transformers 90 Voltage, Impedance And Power Ruting 90 Specifications OF Distribution Transformers 92 Nameplate Data 94 Maintenance Of Distribution Transformers 95 Effects Of Short Cireuit Current To Transformers 97 Examples Of Electro-Magnetic Force Produced By A Phase To Barth Fanti 302 Transformer Sound Levels 105 425.4 Definition Of Sound Level 0S 4.25.2 Sourees Of Sound In Transformers 105 4.25.3 Addition Of Sound Levels 105 4.25.4 Measurements Of Sound Level 106 4255 Typical Sound Levels 106 4.25.6 Sound Power 106 426 Beonomics Of Transformer Utilisation 107 4.26.1 Introduction 107 426.2 Cost OF Losses 108 4263 Total Ownership Costs 109 4.26.4 Transformer Design Optimisation it 112 Questions ~ Chapter 4 IrDesign And Specification Of High Voltage stem (1 _ Contents IZING ( 16 Tntvoduetion 116 “Trapsformer tmpedance ir Considerations In Sizing OF Distribution Transformers 18 5.3.1 Maximum Demand 18 532 Future Load Grewth 9 5.3.3 Fault Level Consid 120 34 Vokage Dip Consideration RI : 34 sansformer Bfficicney I : Questions Chapter $ 126 : : 6. ‘TRANSFORMER PROTECTION 128 6.1 ttroxiuetion 128 62 Overcurrent Protection 18 63 Standby Barth Fault Protection (SBEF} 130 . 64 Raliced Earth Fault Protection (B! 130 ‘ 65 Restricted Earth Fath Protection (REI Bi 6.6 Mers-Price Protection 132 67 Transformer Protection Against Over-Pressure, Oil Level Low And Ba xe Temperature 6.8 Covering Zone of Protection Sys 135 69 Typical Overcurrent And Batanced Barth Faull Protection 136 6.10 Inverse Definite Mininwm Time Lag (MTL) Relays 140 6.10. Microprocessor Controlled Solid State Relays 182 6.10.2 Definition Of Plug Selting (P.S.), Time Multiplier (Th) And iad Mulliplies OF Plug Setting (PSM) 6.10.3 3/10 Charveteristic And 1.3/10 C! 147 6.104 Combines [DMTL And High Set 147 610.5 Grading Margin 149 6.10.6 Other Types OF inverse Time Relays 149 Questions ~ Chapier & 152 . 7 HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEARS 158 i 7 Introduction 135 - The Circuit Breaker 72 Te:minolegy 156 7.3. High Voltage Switching 158 - Short Circuit Making And Breaking Current 74 Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV) 160 7.5 Methods OF Are Interruption 162 76 Vacuum Cirenit Breakers 16a 7.9 Sulphuw-Hexafluoride (SF) Cireuit Breaker 168 7.7.1 Singic Pressure Puffer System 470 7.2.2 Double Pressure Puffer System wt 7.73 Rotating Ave System ii 7.8 Small Oil Volume Cireuit Breaker 172 7.9 Gas Insulated Switchgears 173 710 Short Time Curvent 173 - WLDesign And Specifiention Of High Vottage System (1" __ Contents WW ulation Level ~ Pewer Brequency And Impulse Voltage va TAZ — Rated Operating Sequence 195, 713 Specifications Of High Voltage Switchgears 176 Questions» Chapter 7 9 . HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES 181 8.1 General Design Criteria Ii 82 Essential Components Of Cables 192 Conducioe Materials {32 83.1 Material 182 83.2 Selection OF Conductor Size And Type 184 B84 Conductor Sereen Or Shield 184 8 Cable Insulation 185 85.1 PVC Insulation 185 : 8.5.2 Impregnated Paper Insulation 135 ; 85.3 Oil Filled Cables 138 : 85.4 XLPE Insulation 189 8.6 Insulation Sereen Or Insulation Shield 192 &7 Protection Of Cables 193 : 8.7.1 Armour 193 ' 8.7.2 Sheath 194 8.7.3 Crossbonding OF Cable Sheaths tod 88 Termination And Joints 198 8.9 Curent Carrying Capacity Of Cables 202 89.1 Curseat Rating Tables 202 89.2 Cables Laid In Air 208 ~ Ambient Air Temperature 8.9.3 Cables Laid Direct In Ground 209 ~ Ground Temperature, Ground Thermal Resistivity And Cabic Laying Depth 894 — Cabies Laid In Ducts 209 8.10 Factors Affecting The Continuous Or Sustained Curtent Rating OfCables 209 S11 Sizing Of High Voltage Cables 214 ‘Questions ~ Chapter 8 27 9. EARTHING FOR HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM 219 9.4 Introduction 219 9.2 Gradient In Earth Potential 220 93 Relevant Standards; Codes Of Practice And Guides For Earthing System 222 94 The Effect Of Eicctcic Current On The Humen Body 223 GS Assessing The Rise Of Earth Potentiel At High Voltage Substation And 225 Switchroom 95.1 Return Of Earth Fault Current By Cable Sheath 228 9.5.2 Acceptance Criteria From U.K. Engineering Recommendation ER 226 SOL Earth Faults In High Voltage Networks 227 Evaluation Of Earthing Resistance And Ground Potential Rise 228 (GPR) WDesign And Specification OF High Voitage Distribution System And Earthing System (1" F 9.541 Equivatent Hemisph ER S34) ition) ical Eh Contents wade (Reference From 228 95 Estimation OF The Zone OF Barth Potuntiat Rise 229 (Reference From ER $34) 9.6 —— Faithing Tor High Voliage Distribution Substations And Switchroonn 232 9.7 Eanthing Tor High Voliage Transformer 238 92.1 Coordination OF HL, and LV. Barthing Per Distribution System 235 9.8 Farthing System Kor Extra High Voltage (EHV) Substation 27 95 Limitation OF Touch And Step Voltages 240 9.10 Phase To Easth Fat Current On 13. And E.M.V. Instaflation 22 9.11 Earth Grid Conductors By 9.12 Determination Of Ground Or Earth Electrode Resistance And Ground 243 Potential Rise 9.13 Determination Of Mesh Vollage And Step Voliage For A Pacticulae Design 245 9.14 Soil Resistivity, p 248 9.15 Design Procedures 9.16 Conclusions Questions — Chapter 9 10, PROTECTION FOR HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES AND F 258 10.1 Intro¢uetion 258 19,2 Umit Protection 289 {0.3 Overcurrent And Barth Fault Protection 262 10.4 Directional Relays 263 10.5 Solkox ‘R’ Protection System, 264 16.5.1. Summation Transformer 264 10.5.2 Basie Principal Of Circulating Current Relays 263 10.8.3 General Description Of Solkor ‘R’ Protection 265 10.5.4 Operation OF Solkor *R* Protection Under Normal C.7. And Pilot 266 Wire Connection 10.5.5. Operation Under Reverse C.T, And Reverse Pilat-Wire 269 Connections 10.5.6 Effects On Solkor ‘R° Relays For Different Combinations OF 272 Reversed C.-T. And Pilot Connection 10.6 Commissioning Of Pilot Wire Protection (Salkor ‘R") 272 16.7 Grading And Co-Ordination Of IDMTL Relays 214 10.7.1 Grading Margin 274 16.7.2. High Set Blement 217 10.7.3. Protection Co-Ordination Procedures 218 10.8 Directional Relays 280 10,9 Example Of Directional Relay Protection In A Ring Network 285 Questions — Chapter 10 287 LL. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS 288 ILE Introduction 288 2 Current Transformers (CTs) 288 113 Basic Theory Of Current Transformers 289 114 — Magnetisation Characteristic 290Ws 6 Wt ng no / 11.19 Hd Wiz 3 W14 TEAS 11.16 Ld? Design And Specification Of High Voltage Distribution Sy stem And Earthing System (f Ed Open Circuit Excitation Curves Protection Current Transformer Cia 11.6.1 SP Or 10P Classification 11.6.2 Class X Classification 11.63 Examples Of Current Transformers For Protcetion Sy Metering CFs High Impedance Protection Design And Selection Of Current Transformers 11.9.1 VA (Volt-Ampere) Output 15.9.2 Magnetisation Characteristic And Knee Poin! Voltage 11.93. Transformation Exsors Of CTs 13.94 Open Circuit Voltage OF The Secondary Winding 11.9.5 Transient Performance 11.9.6 Choice OF CT Ratio CF Requirement For Transformer Protection 1110.1 Balnnced Earth Fault Protection (1.10.2. Restricted Earth Fault Protection CF Requirements For Overcurrent And High Voltage Feeders CT Reguircment For Pilot Wire Unit Protection For Feeder Voltage Tamstormers (VTs) 11.13.L. Specifications For Voltage Transformers 11.13.2 Terms And Definitions OF Vs 4113.3 Accuracy Class 11.134 Butdens Oa Voltage Transformer 11.135 Connections Of VT 1143.6. Residually Connected VT (Zero Sequence Voltage Filter) Electromagnetic VTs. Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVTs) Requirements Of Protection Current Transformers For High Voltage Incoming Supply For Power Supply Company Requireracnts On Metering Of Electricity Consumption For High Voltage Incoming Supply From Power Supply Company 11.17.L General Requirements 11.17.2 Specifications For Metering Cusrent Transformers 11.1.3. Spceificetions For Voltage Transformess 1117.4 Metering Equipment For High Voltage / Extra High Voltage Custoine: ifigations. th Fault Proieetion Scheme Por Questions ~ Chapter 11 12. 1 12.2 12.3 124 12.5 12.6 VI ‘TESTING AND COMMISSIONING OF HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM Intraduetion Pre-Commissioning laspections Off-Load Commissioning Tests Pre-Energisation Inspections On-Load Commissioning And Turn-Oa Of Eleciricity Supply Documentation Contents aa 3 Re 296 296 299 299 an 302 304 305, 306 306 6 307 308 3H 31 312 312 33 3l4 314 316 ig 318. 319 319 319 321 321 322 325 329 329 329 329 330 33t 332Design Aud Specification OF High Voltage Distribution System And Earthing System (1" Edition) 12.7 Recommended Steps For Tuining-(n OF Livettieity Supply To Ht Installation 12.8 Post-Commissioning Inspection aaa 12.9 Relevant IEC And BS Standards On Testing OF High Voliage Equipment 333 12.10 PreCommissioning, Test OF High Voltage Switchgear aM (High Voltage Switchgear Rated For Use At Voltages Above 1002V) 12d Testing On Voltage Transformers (VTs) O: Potential Transformers (PTs) 34] 12.12 Testing On Current Transformers 345 12.13 Testiag And Commissioning Of Power Transformers, 350 12.14 D.C, Pressure Test On Power Cables 358 12.15 Protection Relays 360 1215.1 Secondary Injection Test On IDMTL Qvereuent Relays And 364 Eavth Favit Relay 12.16 — Commissioning Of Solkor “R* Unit Protection For F 30x 12.17 Primary Injection Test For Restricted Earth Feult Protection ~ Sensitivity 370 Test And Stability Test 12.18 Commissioning Of Mer2-Priee ‘Transformer Difterential Protection an Procedures 12.19 Closing And Tripping 372 12.20 Safety Procedures And Precaution For High Vollage Commissioning Tests 372 12.21 Cable Fault Location Test 373 1221.1 Open-Circuited Fault 378 12.212. Single-Phase Short Circuited Fault 3B Questions ~ Chapter 12 376 13. MAINTENANCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEARS 376 13.1 Tiboduetion 376 13.2 Effects Of Environment And Climate Conditions 317 133 Use OF Space Heaters And Delnumidifices 379 133.1 Space Heaters 379 133.2. Dehumidifiers 380 13.4 Maintenance Programme On High Voltage Switchgear 330 13.5 Regular Inspection 330 13.6 Predictive Maintenance Of High Voltage Switebgears 382 13.6.1 Inita-Red Scamming 382 136.2 Partial Discharge Locator 382 1363 Ultrasound Detection 386 13.7 Preventive Maintenance Of High Voltage Switehgears 387 13.7.1 Routine Mamtenance 387 13.7.2. Maintenance Frequency 388 13.7.3 Post Fault Maintenance 388 13.7.4 Safety Precautions For Maintenance Of High Wokage Switchgears 388 13.7.4.1 Permit-To-Work 389 137.42 Work On High Voltage Switchgear 389 13.7.4.3 Safety Lock 389 13.7.4.4 Safety Clearance 389 13743 Earthing Device 389 13.746 Earthing Procedure 390 vil39 33.10 s3. 14, 14d 14.2 14.3 id 14.5 And Specifiention OF Migh ution System And arthing, tion) Maintenance Programme For il Switchgear 13.8.1 General 13.82 Maintenance OF Ost Breakers 13.83 Mainienance OF Oit Switches And Isolators 13.8.4 Mainicnance And Testing Of insulations 13.8.5 Mainienanee Of Protective Apparatus Maintenance Of Insulation Oil Maintenance Of Contacts 13.8.8 Mahuenanee OF Ancillary Equipment Maintenance Programme For Sulphur ~ Hexafluoride (SF) Switchgear 13.9.1 General 13.9.2. Recommended Maintenance Programme For SFo Switehgear Maintenance Programme For Vacuum Switchgear 13.101 General 13.10.2 Recommended Maintenance Programme For YCB Testing On High Voltage Switehgears Questions ~ Chapter 13 MAINTENANCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS Introduction Maintenance Of Transformers Regular Inspections 14.3.1 Frequency Of Inspections 14.3.2 What To Inspect? Predictive Maintenance Of Transformers 14.4.) Dielectric Test On Oil 34.4.2 Partial Discharge Test Preventive Maintenance Of Power Transformers 14.5.1 Periodic Maintenance Of Fransformers 14.5.2 Maintenance OF Oil-Filled Transformers 14.5.3 Duy Type Transformer Questions - Chapter 14 18, 45.1 15.2 15.3 ELECTRICAL SAFETY Electrical Hazards 18.1.1 Introduction 15,12 Flectric Shock 15,13 Fire Of Electrical Origin 15,14 Electric Arcing 15.1.5 Explosion Protection Equipment First Aid 15.3.1 Treatment For Electric Shock 153... Free From Contact 153.12 After Release 153.13. Antificial Respiration: Mouth-To-Moutk Method 153.14 External Heart Compression 15.3.2 Other Injuries 390 300 aut 391 391 393 393 394 304 296 396 397 397 397 399 399 402 403 403 404 405 405 405 406, 406 408, 409 410 410 4 EL 433 414 ald aia ald 416 416 416 417 418 418 418 418 419 420 42h Vii faDesign Aad Specification Of High Voltage Distribution System And Earthiag System (1 aie Working § 154.1 Procedure Contents 154.2 Isolation And Locking OW at 15eh3 Warning Notices Ws Testing and Barihing ad 15.5 Permit-To-Work System 25 15.6 Operating High Voltage Switchgear AQT 157 Case Studies OF High Voltage Accidents 29 Questions ~ Chapter 15 AS? 1%CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO NIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY SYSTEM VL ELECTRICAL POWER NETWORK A typicat electrical power network consisting of generation, transmission and distribution systems are shown in Figure 1.1fa) and 1.1¢b) Stations 18.3KV/ UHV or EV Tinty oc EUW 6ORW Suhstasions op Trausfininerst 1 Substations see kv cy. [consatiers nails Consumers Consumers Conitvers * THY. Ultra High Voliage (400%) be EHV. Extra High Voltage (220K & 60k) Cousimmars Figure 1.1(a) Typical generation, uansmission and disuibution system Generation Electrical power network begins at the power slations; where electrical power is generated by converting the mechanical energy or potential energy available in certain materials into efecttical energy. This is done by conversion of kinetic energy, ¢.g. hydro turbines, or boiling steam to drive the steam turbines. e.g, fel oil, natural gas, coal are used to generate heat for the plant's boiler which then give cut steam to run the turbine engines to generate electricity. In Singapore and Malaysia, electricity is produced by Combined Cycle Power Plants (CCPs). These CCPs are fired by fel oil or natural gas to run the engine turbines, CCPs are more efficient because of their heat recycling capability.stem _ 1 Ta High Voltage Biecirieity Suppl At the same time, waste heal from the spinning turbines is alse chamelled ta lire up the plant’s boiter which generate steam (hull is eveniually sed to nin the hubines as well. The electrical power generated at 12.2kV ix step-up onto a A00kY or 256kY bus for ermnsmission purposes nt iarge seale vin (3. 2kWG.HLV. ov 13,2KW/ELLY. yenerator stape up transformers. Transmission Jn the (ransmission network, the electrical energy is transmitted vie Lllra igh Volt (ULHLV.) ov Exira High Voltage (P.H.V.) transmission cables over Jouy distances to Hi Voltage (HV) substations. Electical imvamission is usually dene via Ulta High Voltages at 400kY or Exira High Volinge at 280kV and 66kY for greater transmission efficiency. Pager soho step ap ems oa Beet can ‘eit Coins TF Tranatission OOK Iercoanection ‘Pavone rate sen Taterconmection. Power ~ Wit Outer SF Berane BHY Neswerk Presary “Teamarston, ORY, a BOMGY Trenatormers [eon ditercannestion tar ton secandary reanarnsion eau’ “hy OREN Tomnntriers Fema ar st 2SKvA. pteseennnetion| nvereonsection Dia Rework ith Omer swrh Omer G.6RY Betsork SAY Netware Petonry iteiesen omy, AIMS Couns ‘ec fetworn [ont 65K Conon ae BEOOy aly caxviacoy ava ia. secentory Bisurtacton neOwe30¥ LY. Consumers 1:¥. Consumers Figeve 1.1(b)_ An overview of power system in Singapore- jon Yo Nigh Voltag s Transmission of electrical energy by Ultra High Voltage (UAT.V. or Extree Voltage (E.H.V.) network is also necessary in order to interconnect the power generating slations. The interconneetion increases the reliability of the eleeticity supply system and provide the necessary pooling of generator plants io enhanee the stanlby cap power generation so as to achieve the optimum productiou cost at various power tations, Distribution ‘The transmission voltuge will de transformed at the High Voltage (E.H.Y,) unt High Voltage (H.V.) substations to a tower voltage range for distribution of electrical encrgy. The lower distribution voltages of 220V, 6.6V and A09V/230V are used to connect to consumers because the cables and equipment require lower insulation properties and are thus more economical and viable 16 use, Hleetricity distributies system is therefore done oa voltage level at 22kV (or 33k in Malaysia), 6.6kV (or HKkY in Malaysia) anc 400V/230¥ (or 415V/240V in Malaysia), An electricity distribution system will therefore include the following: # HV, substation and H.V. switchgears = TLV. and LV. power cables m 22kV/6.6kV or 33KV/LLKY distribution. transformers of Star/Sta/Delta winding connections (with a Delta tertiary winding), ic. Aa“, # 22KVILV., KWL. of 6.6K V/L.Y. ibution transformers of Delta/Star winding, connection, ie, DYLI (or AZ H1) 1.2 | NETWORK IMPEDANCE AND EARTHING SYSTEM OF POWER SUPPLY COMPANY'S NETWORK To be able lo design the high voltage distribution system for the commercial buildings or industrial plants, 11 is necessary to have a thorough understanding of the configurations and parameters of the bigh voliage electricity networks and earthing system in the PowerGtid ar the power supply company as shown in Figuse 1.2(a). eR $130 Figure 1.2(a) Simplified network configarations of power supply company’s electricity supply networkity Supply System Pie nelwork transformer impedance anc Neutral Ground Resistor (NGR) af the power supply company are tabulated in Table 1.20). “$00KV7 PHVA, or ZHOKV I “Transformer T power rating | 3004m¥S00, J} 9arI20150 1 SrariSianbeha | SiadSewitviia | SavsiaiDetee 1S ettwistw (eriiany Crertiaey cTentiary CHestisry Winding winding in | winding in | winding in Ds Delia | Beta _| ee WIT ae 1% Va Iinpedance | Ga MYA | dascMVa | (Base MVA | ive NVA | Thnse MVA in %) is ISTMVA) | is SS0MVA)_| is TSMVA) Newirul—~")“pireeiy ona Pain OFThe | solidly NGR NGR solidly solicly cantare | coltticeus | <1. | eaSthins | comeceate | conccied v0 Winding earth cant oun Table |.2(b) Typical value of network transformer impedances and Neutral Ground Resistor (NGR) 1.3 PROSPECTIVE FAULT LEVEL AT GIGH VOLTAGE INCOMING SUPPLY The magnitude of fault cusvent that a switchgear, transformer or cable have to withstand is not determined by the load copnected t@ il, but by the impedances of the upstream network and source transformers. Blectsical faults usually caused by the breakdown of insulating media between ‘live’ conductors or between a ‘live’ conductor and earth and faults are classified into {a) Symmetrical (Balanced) {b) Asymmetrical (Unbalanced) Symmietrice! fault involves all three phases and i( is considered as the most severe fault cucront, 3-phase fault current produce very severe mechanical and thermal stress on electrical equipment and cables. ‘Unbalanced faults include phase to phase, phase to carth fauk, etc. They are nol as severe as 3-phase fault as not all 3 phases are involved Single phase to earth fault is often imited by the transformer’s Neutral Ground Resistor (NGR) installed at the secondary winding of the transformer to limit the earth fault current to about 1.8 to 2 times of the full load rating of the transformer, this is to Jimit the electrical and mechanical stress on the system when an earth fault occurs. To enable the calculation of prospective 3-phase fault current at the main intake 22kV stations, which receive electricity supply fons 2 nos, of 66kV/22kV transforme:s which 4lentriet Introduction To High Yultage supply System may be connected in parallel connection as shower in Figure |3(4}, the bus-coupler at the 22KV switchhoard is assumed to he closed: AZ 17% ianeoner ine Vi Figure 1.3(a) Main 22kV substation receiving clectricily supply from 2 nos, of F7MVA 66K V/22kV Lansformers Assuming infinite busbar, wilh upstream source and cable impedances neglected; the fault level contributed by one 66kV/22kV transformer is; oMVA Z in per writ Faalt MVA A 2 44laMVA with 2 nos. of 66kV/22k¥ Crunsformers connected in parallel Fauli MVA = 2.x 441.2MVA 8824 VA +. Prospective 3-phase shor’ cirevit current at 22kV switchboard, 2 8824 x 10°VA NB 22x10 = 23,157 Amperes Isc. Therefore, electrical installations taldng electricity supply directly from PowerGrid's 22kV network must have short time withstand current rafting at 25kA for 3 seconds. Similarly, according 10 the handbook of PowerGrid Ltd, Singapore, the customer's main supply incoming, switchgear receiving supply at other voltages must comply with the following short time withstand current ratings:- For supply at 230kV ~ 63a (1 second) 66KV —A0KA (3 seconds) 22kV_ — 25kcA (3 seconds) G.GKW ~ 20k (3 seconds)Introduction To High Voltage Electricity The simplified diagram showing various types of faull in 3-phase high voltage sy shown in Figure 13(b): High Voltage Serickboat R 0) y B a Mata Forth NGR- Nenwal Ground Resistor Q) - S-phase to ground Fane @) S-phase eet 8) -2phase Fault (4) ~ single ghkase to ground Fault Figure 1.3¢b) Types of faults in three-phase system 1.4 PHASE TO EARTH FAULT CURRENT ON HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM When the ‘Jive’ conductor of the high voltage (H1.V.) system is shorted to carth, the carth fault current mast retum to the system neutral points for stor points) at the secondary of the source transformer via conducting paths including the general mass of earth and cable sheatis, as shown in Figure 14 (a) and (>), ‘These conducting paths can be expressed as an impedance from the carth electrodes parallel with the cable sheatls. EY. Switeierd ink, fe Puse te vy Fst ae +8 MET ae Te DET ‘This cunent can Bar ee ireuthang system Je Figure 1.4(a) Earthing for H.V. and E.ELV. system ~ without cable sheatl connection 6ion To HL Introd System h Voltage Hectricity Supply § ul current path include ‘As the (otal impedance of the carth fa Z_ impedance of wansformer winding, Zp —_Impeddence of phase conductor Impedance of earth cable Ra Earth clectrode resisianee at the HY. switchboard Ry Barth electrode resistance at the star point of transformer NGR_ Neuwal ground resistor al the star point of tansformer ‘Therefore, the phase to earth faull current is, 2aky ANF _ Rat Ry th NGR Jen NGR 4) aS 7. ad Ra, Rey aire spiall 10 PASI eoause NCR 6.5 ohm 65 ohm = 2000A ‘As the phase to earth fault current. flow to carth vin the electrode resistance Ry, it causes a voliage tise or ground potential rise (GPR), GPR = Ina x Ra 2000A x I-ohm , if Ry #1 ohm 2000V 11 is important ta minimize this voltage rise so as to limit the potential hazards ia the substation and to protect personnel who may be endangered by touch or step voltage SRE ie Cable Sheath & ‘Anaoucing oF Eavth Cable Figure 1.4(b) — Earthing for HV, and E.H.V. system with cable sheath of 3-core cables connected to eartha __..._Jntrodaction To High Voltage Fleeteh ‘The mstaliation of Neutsal Ground Resistor (NGRY at the star poi, of the tsnsformer minimize the phase 10 earth fruit current and thus iinitmize the ground potential rise (GPR). 'y Supply System ‘The connection of cable sheath and cable armoncing to earth at bath ends of the multiple coie high voltage (TLV.) cable or the connection of an earth eable betwoon the main carth feminal (MET) of the receiving station and the main cart leranival of the source slat would provide an effective path of return of phase (o earth fault current and seduce the low of phase to carth fault current via the electrode system and mother earth and thus substantially reduce the ground potential rise (GPR). SFORMER WINDINGS 15 FAULT CURRENT DISTRIBUTION IN TRAD When a fault occurs in the electricity distribution system, fault currents are distributed in different ways according to the winding connections, Linderstanding of the various types of fault cwyent distribution is essential for the design of protection systems and the settings and coordination of protection relays. Faull current distribution on a delta-star distribution transformer, fer the phase to phase fault and phase to earth fault are shown in Figure t.5(a). Figure 1.5(a) Fault curvent distrioution of Delta-Star transformer ~ Fer simplification of explanation, assumed tern ratio of transformer at 1:1 it is noted that a phase to earth fault on the secondary L.V. side is reflected on the primary ELV. side as overcurrent and therefore the Earth Fault Relay (EFR) on the secondary side should be coordinated with the overcurrent relay (O/C) on the primary side and not the earth fiult relay (EFR) on the primary side, The Earth Faull Relay (EFR) on the primary (H.V.) side should be set to operatic’ instantaneously to protect against earth fault on HV, cable and HV. side of the transformer. Fault current disiribution on a Star-Star transformer with unloaded tertiary transformer: for phase to phase fault and phase to earth fault are shown in Figure 1.5(b). gIntroduction To High Voltage Electr’ Supply Systew Figure (.5(b) Fault current distribution on a Star-Star transformer with unlonded tortiary ~ For simplification of explanation, assumed (urn ritio of primary arid secondary winding is 1:1 1 is noted that a single phase to earth fault on the secondary side of the Slar/Star/elta transformer will cause a zoro-sequence current to circulate in the tertiary winding, aud this would not be possible if the delta tertiary winding is absent. In the absence of the delta teriacy winding, the transformer presents a high reactance to the zero-seqmence current, of the ordor of the magnetising reactance, A phase fo earth fault on the secondary side of the transformer is reflected on the primary side as overcurrent. 1.6 DESIGN OF HIGH VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK in the design of high voltage (H.V.) distribution network, elecwicity supply ean be provided to different areas of the system in a variety of ways, depending an the Joad lereands and voltage level, The following criteria and considerations should be taken into account: fa) Security of Supply Substation and switehioom equipment should be duplicated such that following a fault or during maintenance, a connection providing continuous electrtcily supply remains available (b) Extendibitity The design should ailow for future extension, addition of switchgears or transformers 10 a substation is normally possible if sufficient space has been allowed fiom the beginning.(@) Maintainability She design should consider the necessity and requirement of regular maintenance ahd the reliability of the equipment in the high voltage substation and switchroom. The layout of awitehroom must allow for space clearance and easy access for shifting and snevement of equipment and personnel for maintenance (@) Operational Flexibility The capacity of the high voltage equipment should be designed in such a way to allow parl of the fieility 10 be taken out of service without the loss oF supply to the buildings and plants, (2) Short Circuit Consideration ‘To keep faut levels down, parallel connections of power sources or transformer feeding the substation or switchroom shawld be avoided, If such parallel connection would be unavoidable, appropriate rated short time current and rated! breaking and mating capacity of switchgeass and electrical equipment have to be considered. (fy Cost It ig desirable to specify the design based on a particular technical tequirement and to commpate the most econemical means of achieving these technical requirements 1.7 NETWORK CONFIGURATION AT Radial Supply System ncn 1 Sea x LoL ov a ow (>) rant srmencer\ Mt? Figure 1.7.1 10S ( : 17.2 apply Syston 1 Voltage Electricity 5 ____Intraductig In a typical high rise building, where the load centres art often lacilised within the building, high voltage cluevicily supply receiving switehroom with transformer rooms located near the load centres ave designed! as shown in Figure 1.7.1, The busbar is divided into 2 seetions with a bus-coupler of the centre to plovide flexibility for network operation in the event of any failure of ane incoming supgly. Ring, Intercomector And Mesh System In a premises where the foad centres are wide spread and scattered in broad areas such as the water Qealment planis, the MRP ste ete, high vollage (HY. distribution neowork involving the following three basic network circuits es shown in Figure 1.7.2 may be consiclered:~ (a) Ring circuit (b) imereannector cireuit (c) 3-cable mesh eivcuit The circuit may be oporated in radial circuit with a circuit breaker “open” in the ring circuit of the interconneetor or in parallel connection with maximum namber of 2 source transformers in parallel:~ Boker = Yonikengs Ty ey pate anyAda: following table: Network, Radial i Broken Ring 1.7.4 Use of Double Busbar Switchgears Easy 10 estimate the fait level in the network, Easy to grade the backup protective relay’ Relatively sasy Co find the milar 0 radial neowork from Similar to radial network One ahernate supply is always available. Flexible in lond trans (er. ‘Very flexible in network configuration changes, Always more than one alternate supply available. Prompt isolation of faulty portion wilt not cause interruption of power es and disadvantages of various networks are summarised in the Disadvantages TT No alternate sapply after she fanly section, Not flexible ip wransfer. The amoun! efpower snterruption depends on the loeation of fanlt in the ridhal network. iar to radial network but exception of being able to give one alternative supply. Relatively more difiicalt in hackup relay grading than radial network, Relatively more difficult estimate the fault devel. Require reliable unit protection to isolate the faulty portion of network. Yery difficult in backsp protection relay grading. Very diffienlt 10 estimate fault level Require more frequent maintenance cheeks far satisfactory operation. To enhance the reliability of electricity supply from the busbar which receives electricity supply from multiple sources (2 or mare), double busbar or dupHeate busbar system may be used as shown in Figure 1.7.4. The following flexibitity in operation can be achieved:- (8) Each circuit may be connecied to either busbar using the busbar selecior 3solators. On-load busbar selection may be made using the bus-coupler circuit breaker.: i : 1.7.5 Selection Of Busbar Introduction To Uigh Voltage Electricity Supply System mray be used to reduce the tine: to (2) Motorized busbar sclectar isohtars reconfigure the cieuit arrangements, (3) Busbar and busbar isolator maintenance may be casried cut without loss of supply to more than one eitenit igh wanes? igh volage Noe ming M2 te fe a Ruecnupley A ‘oncent“o ra eb apes T ‘oo “T Tel puto Kew Fon vst eo onl Migh volisge wi Pandey to teierea omar sone othr zemote ‘pile Voaas Zar siatian stations. Figure 1.7.4 Duplicate busbar and isolator system Isolator Isolating (or disconnecting} switches, often referred 10 as “isolators” oF “discoanectors”, are slow-operating devices (that may be band-operated or motor- driven) whieh have no carrent-making or eurrent-breaking capabilities Isolators must never be used therefore to establish a current or to interrupt a current ix a circuit, and for this reason they ae generally interlocked, either electrically of by means of keys, with a circuit breaker or load-break switch in the same circuit. The interlocking prechndes any opening ot closing manoeuvre of the isolator unless the circuit breaker is open. Furthermore, it should not be possible to close the circuit breaker during the opening or closing movement of the isofator blades; circuit brenkes closure should be possible only ifthe isolator is fully opened, or fully closed. Withdrawable Circuit Breaker Selection of busbar in a duplicate busbar system can also be achieved by the use of withdrawable circuit breaker as shown in Figure 1.7.5, 3Introduction To High Vollage Blectricity Supply Systen With the circuit breaker racked into appropriate position, the connection ot the circuit ¢@ bushar “A* er busbar “B can be selected. Cogmwelin 1 athe End Cit x thane IN Seay Sine ‘towe ver ‘To Calle Tormlvals (2)Dowbte Bashar Arranggnent with ver teal withdeawable cirauil bresker + Chrenit hreaker connecting ushar A amd cable end! sect eg i to 2 Teanals ' i Beuiatly Withdrwaste High Vonage 0) Dowdle Bausvar Svrorigment sith vertical withdrawabie efyeuit breaker - Civenit dr cakes comnecting Busbar B and able ond Figare £.7.5 Duplicate busbar and withdrawable circuit breaker 1.8 WITHDRAWABLE CIRCUIT BREAKER AND FIXED CIRCUIT BREAKER CUBICLES Switchgear cubicles may be designed in she following manners:- 18.1 Metal-Enclosed Switehgear With Withdrawable Cirenit Breakers Circuit breakers are disconnected from the switchboard by withdrawal of the circuit breaker. This arrangement achieves a number of desirable objectives as follows:- 1. tis a cheaper method of disconnection and isolation from the busbars and the circuit, if/ ; System Introductio He omakes the circuit breaker avy maintenance, from ils electrical envissmment for 3. He makes the access to the cirewt corneetions and the busbars easier for earthing and testing. marr = Contact. rod shutter Discenasetars / eskey Busthiz ‘Yotiage sonar . wf Spout wilhdrawabie: Insulator breaker Figure J.8.1(a) A cubicle witha Figure 1.8.1(b)Typical mounting of spout horizontally withdraweble insulator circuit breaker The connection is achieved by a ‘spout insulator’, which is a hollow, cylindrical ingulator with a plug contact connected threugh the insulation into the busbar or circuit chamber. The cirouit breaker has « contact at the end of exch bushing, which engages with the spout plug when the circuit breaker is fully plugged in When the circuit breaker is racked out and disengaged, it is necessary to Fit metal doors, known as ‘shutters’, which automatically close off the entrance to the spous {0 prevent contact with the ‘live’ conductor in the spout, the shutters can be provided with facilities for locking to ensure electrical safety. Hs Vertical Isolaiion This describes the manner in which a cireuit breaker Guck is racked from the service position to the Isolated position. Some designs of the switchgear circuit breaker are withdrawn horizontally and other designs ave withdrawn vertically. 1.8.2 Cubicles With Fixed Switching Devices When the switchgear is provided with the isolation device such as the isolator or switch-disconnector, then it is unusual to provide withdrawable circuit breaker as a mean of isolation and disconnection from the busbars or circuit, fixed switching device or fixed circuit breaker is therefore introduced as shown. in Figure 1.8.2 Since the invoduetion of eiscuit breakers which are claimed to need mininsum mnaintenance daring normal working life span, designs with fixed circuit breaker have become popular. Some of the designs of the high voitage switchgears have three-position disconnectors, ~ a 5Hosts ond OTF sashor oc 7 Ht oN ek i sbleeiar Create weaker “1 BL tot DBiseonnestor coven rensfoamer(sd Cable cermalnatinn. gure (8.2. Fixed circuit breaker cubicles, 1.9 FARTHING FACILITIES Integral Earthing ‘The earthing of high voltage cable is metal-elad citeuit breaker is usually an integral are of the circuit breaker itself and is termed “integral earthing’ as shown in Figure 1.9fa). ‘ent Earthing Swviteh for —.] Cable TTT Figure 1.9(a) Integral earthing switch In its simplest form, integral carthing consists of clesing an earth switch which is within the circuit breaker housing. This can usually only be accomplished wien cectain interlocks have been satisfied, such as the ciscuit breaker being open and properly isolated as shown in Figure .9(3). 16 —_ -Introduction To High Voltage Electricity Supply System, rihing switch #6 normally insiatled at the cable end of the ¢ransformer panel to allow for earthing of te high vallage transtonmer, Pawer Supply Company normally forbid the installation of carthing switch on the high voltage sepply incoming panels. roan ak . iy. omection ta Cable Bad 4 stp a ie renter \ Vesey J} Wirkereabte Tig asa Che taste ip Service Pasition Comvetton Ca Cede Lod Serioaiy Wiheaesie {High Voting ieeit Hreicer Gi Barthing the Busha Frese of ny Connection ta Cable End 4 Stehigear eeu mace [\ Viaealy aniontahle High Vorare Crewe Brisker uty warunng tne Cable Figure 1.%b) Transfer earthing A form of earthing termed “wansfer earthing" by means of physically repositioning or transferring the circuit breaker, within the metal clad housing, 10 an earth position for earthing of cable or busbar and closing the circuit breaker to effect the earth as shown in Figure 1.9(b). V7110. CONVENTION IN TERMINATION OF TIGIL AGE CA = REAR, RIGHT, RED ICis a conventional practice with distribution voltage switchgear to terminate incoming feedtors or cables in the same way. When stonding at the rear of the circuit breakes, and facing the circuil breaker, the right-hand phase is always red, the middle phase is yellow and the left hand phase is blue: This arrangement is remembered as a conveation as REAR, RIGHT, RED as shown in Figure 1.10, cate ‘Bovh ‘Sew Cabie Farthed To Siwttehgear avth Bar Cable Bas Viewing From The Back OF “The Migh Vonage Switcligess Figure 1.10 Cable box and termination of high voltage cable at the back of high voltage switeligeac ‘TION OF 4 HIGH VOLTAGE 1.41 UNDERSTANDING THE CONSTRU SWITCHBOARD (a) The Arrangement Of H.V. Swit: ard The H.V. switchboard consists of a auriver of HV. switchgears, each unil switchgear is a complete unit controlling a feeder, or a transformer, or acts as bus-coupler between the busbars of the Jeft and right sections. ‘The busbars of each switchgear panel on the right section are joined up continuously to form a continuous busber. Similarly for the left section The bus-coupler provides the flexibility te join the left section busbar and right section busbar t0 form a coatinuous commen busbar by the closing of the circuit 18 »gh Voltage Etcetrieity Supply System breaker, or to break the tive sections into two separate busbars by the epeniag of Hie circuit breaker, F - Feeder Panet N - Network ‘Transformer: Panet BIC! = Ras-coupler Figure Lt l(a) ALY, Switchboard (>) The Construction Of A ELV. Switchgear Each H.V. switehgcar would consist of the following compartments wal chambers: (i) Busbar Compartment (ii) Cireuit Breaker Compartment Gili) Cable Tertnination Chamber {iv) Low Voltage Compartment (Instrumentation and Protection) @) Busbar Compartmeat GD) Circuit Breaker Compartment (Hp Cable Ternmation Chamber GY} Low Voltage ‘Compartment Figure 1.11(b) Cross-sectional view of a HV. switchgear (@ Busbar Compartment Busbars (R, Y and B phases} are made of copper bars or copper rods and they are supported by insulators and enclosed within the partitions, Connecting conductors are installed to connect the main busbars to the busbar fixed contacts. 19: di) [Bashar eurpatiment Presse ied covers Busha Tec of comecton weaker csempartgt Ashestos cement battiet-——--—} Pressure edich covers ‘Siding ster ft covering Plug and socket for auixy the ined oiting contacts cies shar Ted contacts foolaingcontaas Ineulaing trou for ied Tudcinourted drat breaker tolling corteds ant avenging cork toolaing coniaas Figure 1.11(bX{i) When the circuit breaker is out of the service position, the busbar fixed contacts are covered by a sliding shutter for safely precautions. When the cirexit breaker is pushed into service position, the sliding shutter would move up 10 allow the isolating contact of the circuit breaker to make contact with the busbar fixed contact. Circuit Breaker Compartment ‘The circuit breaker is mounted on a truck with wheels; it can be moved in anc outwith case for operation and maintenance, ‘The essential parts on the circuit breaker ruck comprise the following: * Electrical closing and tripping cirenits ~ Closing coil and tipping coil are incorporated (o effect electrically closing or tripping of the circuit breaker = Operating mechanism ~The operating speed of the circuit breaker should be fast. Closing and ripping mechanism are therefore incorporsted to enable the closing or tripping of circuit breaker at high speed by spring action, = Cirenit breakers ~ SF vacuum or oil cizeuit breaker is used as the current interrupting device. = Isolating contacts = The upper isolating contact arms are used to make contact with the busbar fixed contacts whereas the lower isolating contact arms are used to make contact with the cable end fixed contact.Introduction To High Voltage Etcetricity Supply (ii) Cable Termination Chamber Tire cable termination chamber housed the following items: = Cabte end fixed contacts + Each exble end fixed contact for tbe red, yellow & hlue phases is housed in an insulating shroud, When the circuit breaker is out of the service position, « sliding shutter would cover up the cable end fixed contacts 10 ensure safety. When the circuit breaker is pushed into serviee position, the sliding shutter would move up (o allow the isolating contacts of the cirenit breaker to make contact with the cable end fixed contact, reine et corer ; Wow Nolo compartment Wabi tnunetign chard, {eetrumerdaion & ote) Siding tute er cosy fe Protea tlays the xe isang cmt oor mo ted ders Cable end fixed enence YOM set Irsing sno fore se ming isolring coats Carrer wrerormer ‘etage naneomer: arting sich Cable end bes Figure LU(b)Cii) * Current transformers + To reduce the current at the primacy cirenit by a ratio or propertion to a smaller current for the ammeter and the protective relays: * Voltage transformers = To step down the primary voltage (22KV or 6.6KV) to 110 Volts for voltage indication by the volt-meter. * Cable end boxes - For termination of tie 3 cores of the incoming or outgoing H.V. cable, *» Earthing switeh ~ A “quick acting” earthing switch is normally ineorporated for earthing the cable circuit (i) Low Voltage Compartment The [ow voliage compartment housed the instrumentation meters (ammeter, voltmeter), the protective relays and all associated A.C. and DC. wirings ond terminal blocks associated with the meters and protective relays. 2Introduction To High Voltage Eleetrieit SANDING THE OPERATION OF TH oe y Supply System 12 UNDERS AIRCULT BREAKER {a) ‘Truck Operation ‘As the circuit breaker is mounted on a truck with wheefs, il can be shifled in and out for maintenance and operation, ‘There are 3 normal positions in relation to the panel cubicle in which the circuit breaker ean be in: Gi) Testing Position (iif) Operating Position Figure 1.12(a) The three (3) positions of the high voltage circuit breaker (Isolated Position This is the position at which the circuit breaker is totally disconnected and withdrawn out from the cubicle. There is ne contact between the breaker and the fixed contacts on the panel cubicle or the contre] circuits of the cubicle, ‘The control switehgears at both ends of a cable cireult have to be placed at an isolated position if the circuit is feulty or under repair or maintenance. 22} Introduction To Tigh Voltage Supply System lectrtcity At this position, there is no primury contact beowees the isolating contacts of” the cirenit breaker and the fixed contacts of the busbar and cable pd However, the removable contyol circuit plug on the cireuit breaker is connected to the fixed contral circuit socket in the cubicle. ch a5 the operation test of the circuit breaker aud thee ied owt. At the test position, tests sequence test of he contra} circuit, ele. ean be ca (ii) Operating Position (or Service Position) “The operating position refers to a cireuil breaker position at which botl the main onit and compo! circuit belween the breakers and the cubicle ia with each other physically My passing, ‘live™ To switch on the cirenit breaker in this position means act voltage and current in and out of the switchgear. (b) Interlock at Each Position The follewing interlocks are incorporated to ensure safe operation of the circuit breakers: (i) When the breaker is closed at the operating position, it cannot be racked out to the test/isolated position. (ii) When the breaker is closed at the test or isolated position, 11 cannot be moved from test ar isolated position to the operating position Gil) When the earthing switch is ‘on’, the breaker cannot be inserted into the service position. (iv) When the breaker is in » service position but the plug of the secondary control circnit is not plugged in, the breaker cannot be closed mechanically or electrically. () When the circuit breaker is positioned in between the service position and the test position, the breaker cannot be closed mecbanicelly or electrically. 143 MOTOR-SPRING OPERATED SYSTEM AND THE BLECTRICAL CLOSING/TRIPPING CIRCUITS (a) Closing Sequence (2) When power is supplied, motor @ begins to operate, charging the closing spring. When the spring is fully charged, limit switch LS) is set open end LS2 is set closed, and @ stops. The breaker is now ready for closing 23Introduction To High Voltage Electr ipply System. 230 Volts “+ #0 Vals (DC) AG iON itch Tripping swite Closings 1 Motor for charging, opernfing spring : Voltage closing coil : Voltage-trip coil lay silfary switeh, it switch (open when spring is completely charged) LS; : Limit switch (clesed when spring is compleicly charged) LS, + Interlock switeh (provided on drawout types; CONNECTED and TEST positions) Figure 1.13(a) (2) In this condition, the closing switch CS; is closed, voltage closing coit GAP is energised, the breaker closing Jaich is released, and the breaker is olosed using the energy stored in the closing spring. (3) Once the breaker is closed, switch 52b opens, the GH is de-energised, relay RA is energised and contacis RA. open. At the same time 52a closos, LS, and LS, are reset and completing the closing action. {b) Tripping Sequence ’ (1) Closing CS: energises the GP and releases the brenker latch, so that the oreaker is opened. (2) At the same time switch 52b closes and the closing of 52h starts © charging the closing spring and readying the breaker for another closing operation, (©) Trip-Free Protection Trip-fiee protection, designed to prevent repeated closing and wripping in the event that close and trip signals are received simultaneously, is provided as Follows: (1) The closing of CS, closes the breaker, as set forth in Closing Sequence 2 above, and 2 is continously energized (Closing Sequence 3).a {ion To High Voltage Electricity Supply System Q) Since the instant 52a closes, C52 also closes, the SUT is energised and the bresker is opened. @ therefore operates, charging the elgsing spring, but because relay is continuously energised the closing circuit is broken at contact RA, preventing the closing operation from taking place, (3) Closing operation may be effected by releasing CS, and resetting relay HD, 1.14 RING MAIN UNIT (RMU) ‘This is a combination of switch-disconneclors and switch-fases into a single ussembly as shown in Figure 1.[4(a) & (b). This arrangement is very commotily used at 1) KY anid 6.68. OW-Ssviteh Switeh-Fuse Ol-Switeh ‘To Traysferrwer Figure £.14(a) Single line diagram of a composite RMU A typical arrangement is as follows: {a) Switch-disconnectors to controi the cable distribution system. (b) Switch-fuse to provide a tee-off to a distribution transformer. Depending on the design, it can be suitable for both indoor or outdoor use. A RMU can, be either of the oi] insulated or SFg gas insulated type. It has integral facilities to access the cables for test purposes. The oil RMU is very ensily extensible whereas the new S¥s type requires a special design for extension, 25tb te Reeder Trawtirmes Feeder (0 Conpasire Ring Main Unit consisting of cone sultel fase aud fo aff avitchos 4} Composite Ring Main Unit conststiog of two switel-fuses and two oil-switehios Figure 1.14(6) Composite RMU ‘The protection for the tee-off transformers is * Oil RMU MV fuses designed to withstand the transformer switehing intust, + SF RMU J, MV fhses 2. AC scties tripping device and secondary fuses 3. Self-powered protection. ‘The use of RMUs provides an effective means of operating distribution systems in the following manner: + Radial feed * Open ring Figure [.14(¢) shows a 6.6kV extensible sing main switchboard with oil-switches controlling the tvo incoming 6.6kV feeders and three outgoing cables to high voltage motor. 1 is fo be noted that the switch-disconnector of the RMU may be provided with earthing switch for cable end or busbar. Operator of the RMU are cautioned to be careful and to take necessary precautions to ensure that the busbar is completely de-energised and isolated before applying the earthing switch on busbar 26Supply System 658) 668 Imneaneings u,b Incoming No.2 ¢ % ‘| & # § 2:30-ZLPESHABVC i 1 i : . ene Switched Blower No.) - Puree Figure 1.14(c) 6.6kV switchboard formed by extensible ring main unit Precautions must also be taken to ensure thal the f1.V. cable is do-energised and isolated at both ends (loca! and remote ends) before applying the earthing switch on the cable ene. 1.15 EXAMPLES OF HIGH VOLTAGE SUPPLY SYSTEM IN BUILDINGS A typical 22kV high voltage supply system with ovo incoming 22kV supply aad 4 nos of 22kV/400V transformers (LS MVA) is shown in Figure 1.15(0). Readers are requested to note the following: (a) The switehgear rated normal current and rated short time current (b) The current transformer ratio and accuracy class (c) The overcurrent relay’ settings (6) The earth relay settings, {e} The tipping of circuit breaker by temperature, pressure and oil level sensors at the transformers ” 27= zi Figure 1.15 (a)A wypical PaKV6.6kV high volta incoming supply and a 6.6kV switchboard for conte! of & 6.6RY motor is showa in Pigure £156). a ae Figure 1.15(b) A Typical 22kV/6.6kV High Voltage System A ‘ypical 6.6kV high voltage supply system with a double busbar 6.6kV incoming switchboard and a 6.6kV extensible RMU switchboard supplying electricity to high voltage motors is shown in Figure 1.15(c). 28Introduction To GuRY ‘ Incoming No.1. Tneanving No.2 pom ee fe ewes mf a ae HG Se Poul ‘308 ak Vesusbor [ Saitehinara aphne MOR Iba aE | L nm 240mai3C NLPESWABVC joa Extnsble LLY, Switchboard Blower Bloner Storer Nad No.2 Future Figure 1.15(c) A 6.6kY distribution system with a double busbar switchboard and a 6.6k¥ RMU switchboard 301 Introduction To High Voltage icity Supply System, 1. Explain briefly the reason why the generation af elvetricity supply is done normalty at about [1 KV to 16 KV 2. Explain brielly why the transmission of electricity supply is more economically done at Extra High Voltage (ELV.) 3. Given that the percentage transformer impedance of the 150MVA 230KW56KY stars star transformer (with « Delta tertiary winding) is 24% and the Neutral Ground Resistor (NGR) connected 16 its siar point at the secondary of the S/S/D transformer is 19.5 ohms. Determine, {a) The fault level and prospective 3-phase fault current on the 6G6k¥ switchboard. (b) The prospective phase to earth Fault current on the 66 kV side. f 4. Given that the percentage transformer impedance of the JOMVA 22kV/6.6kYV Star- . Star transformer (with a Delta tertiary winding) is 9% and the star point at the secondary of the S/S/D transtormer is salidly connected to earth, Determine the fault level and prospective 3-phase lault current on the 6.6K switchboard. 5. Explain briefly the system carthing arrangement of the primary and secondary side of the 230kV/66kV and 66k V/22kV transformers in the electricity supply networks and the :ationale behind this arrangement. 6. With an appropriate diagram, explain how the earthing ofa 22kW/400V, 11kV/400V or 6.6K V¥/400¥ transformer is carried oul and briefly explain the path of the flow of phase to earth fault current on the }1.V. and LV. side. 7, Explain briefly the advantages and disadvaatages of the high voltage (33KV, 22kV, LIkV or 6.6KV) ring circuit, imercouneetor circuit and mesh cable system and how would you provide the protection system to enhance the fault discrimination to - aninimize the areas affected by cable fault & Explain briefly the advantages and disadvantages of the following types of high voltage switchgear, (2} Metal-enclesed switchgear with withdrawable circuit breakers. (b) Metal cubicles with fixed switching devices. 9, Describe briefly the three (3) positions in the operation of the high voltage eixeuit breaker and explain the steps you will take to ensure electrical safety in high voltage ‘operation, 10. Describe the precautions to be taken in application of earthing switch at the (a) High Voltage Switchgears (b) High Voltage Ring Main Unit atCHAPTER 2 BEHAVIOUR OF SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT AND CIRCUIT BREAKING 21 INTRODUCTION ‘ait Breakers Circuit breaker is a mechanical switching devise in the electricity supply network, capable of making, sarrying currenis under nor and also making, carrying for as) weaking curzents under such as those af shorl circuit. Switehii Assuming the circuit breaker is installed in a typical power circuit with a upstream source impedance R, + jwL, and the downstream impedance from the circuit breaker 10 the fault point Ry, + jwLy as shown in Figure 2.1(a) Ss Instant of parting of accing camtacts Figure 2.1(6) Tnstantaneous value of short cireuit current 32SRE four OF Short Cireuit Current Ax When a shost circuit occurs and the protection relay deteets the fault and initiate a civcuit freaker to trip, the instantaneaus value of the short eurvent is shown in Figure 2.1009. Because of the iluctive nate of high vollage electricity supply newark, the Gxst feve cycles of the short cireui! current off-set from the centre, oscillating, around fist decaying axis above the zero line ‘Therefore, the short circuit current is charreterized by a degree of asymmetry tos ing rom an A.C, component (ecniained in envelope AA‘/BB') and a decaying D.C. component (Line CC’) as shown in Figure 2.1(h), The exact response depends upon the instant switching of the A.C. waveform takes place and the relative R, Land € circuit parameters involved, 22 ASYMMETRY OF SHORT CIRCUTF CURRENT value of the system voltage when fault conditions, ‘The asymmetry arises as a finetion af the instantaneot the fanit occurs, and the power factor of the sysiem voltage under the from the usual operating value in excess of 0.8 to a much lower greats much more severe conditions for are interruption ns the al atime wien the supply is, closer, kas shown in The power factor redues valuc of 0.1 to 0.3. This ougrent zere now oscu Figure 2.2(a). Enstareof ‘0g Exner ' ' 4 1 ' System Vales Zavo Volts acmally crass syieeh contacts lien swith elesed Figure 2.2(a) Instantaneous value of system voltage and short circuit current 33. : : i © OF Short Cheenit Ci Cirenit Breaking ce cyele will depend on network cenditions, bul may be up to 2.55 ned” fault current, ic. the fault current that will continue 4 flow: Behayi ‘The magnitude af the Br times the value of the “su until itis interrupted. ‘The rate of decay of the D.C. Transient will depend on the ratio L/R, 1 the ratio of system induelance {o resisiance as scen at the point of the fault. 2.3 SHORT CIRCUIT BREAKING CURRENT AND MAKING CURRENT ort Circuit Breaking, ont At the instant of the separation of circuit breaker contacts, the A.C. component of Cie short eirenit current is ab and the D.C, component of the short circuit current is be, as shown int Figure 2.3¢a). neta ofpacieg of srcingcamtacts Figure 2.3{a) Short circuit current versus time Now symmetrical breaking current = RMS. value of A.C. component of short circuit curvent wave at the instant of separation of contacts ~ ab 2 Asymmetrical brecking curent = RMS. value of combined sums of A.C, and D.C. components Short Circuit Making Cu There is always a possibility that the cireuit breaker is closed ento a fault or onto a short circuit point. The peak making current that a cirovit breaker would experience when closed on a short circuit is the peak value of the maximum cuvent wave (inchding D.C component) in the fust eyele of the short civcuit custent after the circuit is closed by the circuit breaker, According to TEC 56, the maximum value of asymmeirical peak current = 2.53 x symmetrical breaking current. 34Teh This peak short circuit making current produces an enosnious electro-magnetic forces whigh are proportional to the square of the peak value of the making current and canses the byealer and switchboard to raplur jour OF Short Circuit Cursent And Cireait Breaking Rupturing Force Tyeas? x Length of conductor 24 BREAKING TIME OF CIRCUIT BREAKER ‘A civcuit breaker is designed to open an electrical power circuit upon receiving she trip signal from the protection relays, when the conditions of avereurrent or short circuit hs occurred, ‘The cirouit breaker open the are extinction contact through the mechanical spring action, - svhen a signal of a fault is roveived fram the proveotion relays, the UC. operated shuol tip coil tigger the spring mechanism and the spring pressure is released to cause the comiaets to boogy be separated. : When the are extinction contacts ere separated, there is a short period of time tat the electric : aroing oceuis between the contacts which allow the current to continue to flow, the cortent ; will stop in the next current zero point when the arc-extinction process has completed, ‘Therefore, the total time of circuit breaker breaking is CB Breaking Time = CB Opening Time + CB Arcing Time and the total fault clearanee: time is Fault Clearance ime = Relay Time + CB Opening Time + CB Arcing Time t as shown in Figure 2.4(a). Jnsiaut of Fault nersvatin on stat of eran opening of ip etreult grsing contacts _fustant of are extnetion Relay tripping | | | | | | de Breaker interruptus time | ‘Comrace paveing sina | fe Cen teen Figure 2.4(a)Varieus components of operating time of circuit breaker 35Behaviour Of Short Circuit Current And eaking —_ _. Wath some of the modern high speed cizeuit breakers using vacuum or sulphur hexe(uratide (SF4), the total cireuit breaker breaking me can be quite short and ia the region of 0.06 16 DAG second (i.e. 6Oms to 160ms oF 3 to & cycles). Therefore, a figure of 35% D.C component current during circuit breaking is not uncommon under these cireumstances, 5 RATED SHORT TIME CURRENT FOR 1 SECOND OR 3 SECONDS: ‘The vated short (ime ewrrent of the civeuit breaker or switehbourd is the highest R.M.S. value of short cireuit curcent that the breaker or swilehboard can withstand, with the cireuit breaker in its normal condition, for t second. HLV. cirwuit breaker which is designed principally for use with separate protective relays ancl therefore has a rated short time current, usually equal (0 the breaking current rating. ‘The short circuit current that the carcuit breaker and the switchhoard can withstand is not for infinite time, but for a short duration of 1 second ar 3 seconds, Why 3 seconds? Jn the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore, 3 seconds duration is usually used for bigh vollage switchgears for the reason that the main protection relays should operate within this lime, clearing the faull, Even if the main protection fail, sufficient time should be given for the back-up protection to operate and the circuit breaker to trip, avoiding severe damage to the switchgear, busbars and switchboard Example: ‘The ratcd short time rating for 22 kV system in Singapore is therefore specified as 25 KA {RM.S) for 3 seconds, This means that the switchgear and switchboard will be able to withstand a 3-plase short circuit current of 25 A for a continuous period of 3 seconds without damage to the H.V. switchgear or switchboard. 2.6 THE BASIC OF CIRCUIT BREAKER RATINGS 2.6.1 Specifications Of Switchgears The capabilities of a switchgear to cope with the various system stresses are represented by its designated “retings”. Apart from the more commonly known “Rated Voltage” and “Rated Normal Current”, some of the other imaporteat ratings and their significance to the general design and construction of the switchgear are explained in the following sections. The major problem in the development of switchgear is clearly to provide the ebility to operate under (he prescribed full short circuit conditions. The effects of the curreat and voltage tansients, though lasting hardly for a few oycles, have been a subject of study by researchers over the past few decades. Basically, the duty is onerous because of the tremendous amount of thermal, electrical and mechanical stresses which the switchgear mast overcome when making and breaking a short circuit. 361 s r D q : | re a es ity nt wus se5 2.6.3 27 2 — Behaviour Of Short Circuit Current And Cireait Breaking Ratings of Circuit Breakers ‘The ratings of a cireuit breaker are given aecording to the duties that are pertinsned by it, For complete specifications, standard ratings and various tests af switches ant circuit breakers can be obtained Grom TEC $6. Apart from the normal working of circuit breakers, the circiit breaker is requited to perfonn the following 3 major duties ander short-circuit conditions. {a) [must be cupadle of breaking the cireuil and isolating the faulty section {b) It must be capable of making circuil in the greatest asyramettical peak in current wave. 4) [¢ anust be capable of carrying fault cucrents safely for a shor circuit breaker (in series) is clearing the fault, me while another According to the dutics mentioned above, circuit breaker fiis the following, ratings (2) Breaking capacity (©) Making capacity (©) Short time capacity for duration of ( seeoud. In addition to the above ratings, a circuit breaker should be specilied ia terms of: (a) No. of potes (b) Service voltage or rated voltage (©) Rated normal current (d) Frequency Rated Normal Current The rated normal current of a cirexit breaker is the rm.s. value of the current which the circuit breaker shall be able fo carry continuously as its rated deequeney under specified conditions. ‘The important coadtion for normal working of an O.C.B. is, that the ‘emperalure of oil should nol be more than 40°C and that of contacts should not exceed 35°C. IEC 56 STANDARD The standard rated short cicuit breaking current and standard rated normal current of circuit breakers and switchgears as recommended by IEC 56 are shown in Table 2.7(a) and Tadle 2b). The ‘rated short circuit breaking current’ is che highest short circuit current, which the circuit breaker is capable of breaking and is specified in terms of the A.C. and D.C. components, In addition to the breaking short circuit current capability, the circuit breaker is also called upon to ‘make’ short circuit current, £2. 19 closé onto a short circuit. In these circumstances the citouit breaker must be cble to Intch successfully whilst subject to the magnetic forces associated with the peak value of the first half cycle of fault current. xuBehaviour OF Short Circuit Current And Cirewi ‘The short eieuit curents smpose large electromechanical forces on the swiehgcar Ousbers and contacts. ‘The cireuit breaker mechanism has to be designed to be able to close ante the peak value of shore circuit current with full esymmnctry and carry the finlt current for one or ihree seconds without the contacts overheating, parting or damage occurring. Rated | Rated | Raicd | Rated | Rated | Rated | Rated | Rated | Rated | Rated voltage | short | normal | normal | normal | normal | normal | normal | normal | normal UkV) | cirenit | cwrent | current | current | current | emzent | current | cuent | current breaking | 1,(A) jh | & Wiad | (ay | WAY | TAD cearrent | Ise (KAY i 16nd Vano | 1600 160 | 5 1604 1606 1600 | 2060 1600 | 2060 Fabie 2.7(a) Co-ordination table of rated values for circuit breaker, 3.6 to 72.5kV (TEC 56) 38alee! | Rated short Ratied Rated | Rated circuit | sonmul | nommal | normal | normal | nosmat | normal breaking | current {current | current | curent j cument | caveat cueent TOAD | Wiad WOLF ddA |e Ise (KA) 2006 2000 2e00 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 "3000 ‘Table 2.7(b) Co-ordination table of rated values for circuit breaker, (23 to 765kV (IEC 56} 39~ Chapter 2 Behaviour Ol Short Cirenit Carrerst d Cirenit i Foxyain what do you understand by (a) rated syrametvical breaking current (b) making capacity (©) short time rating, A cireuit breaker is rated at 25004, 33kV, and ISOOMVA for 3 seconds, Determine the sated normal current, breaking current, moking current and shart time roting current of the eiveuit breaker. A civeuit breaker is rted st 1250A, 22kV 1N0MVA fir 3 seconds. Determine the rated normal current, breaking cuzrent, making current aud short time rating of the ciecuit breaker. A cirenit breaker is rated at 500A, I1kV and 50GMVA far 3 seconds. Determine the rated normal current, Breaking cuzrent, making current and short time rating of the circuit breaker, A circuit breaker is rated at 630A, 6.6k¥ I0OMVA for 3 seconds, Dotermine the rated normal current, bieaking cu:rent, making cwrent and short time rating of the circuit breaker. (a) Explain briefly the various time intervals of a circuil breaker from the time the relay is onergised till the are is extinguished. {b) Explain briefly the reason of specifying the rited shart time oument of 22k¥ switehboard al 25KA for 3 seconds in Singapore. is it determined? What is meant by the interrupting capacity of circuit breaker? How Explain briefly what are the effects of short cincuit current? 40 2 zCHAPTER 3 PLANNING OF HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATION AND SWITCHROOM AND AUXILIARY POWER SUPPLIES 3d PLANNING OF HIGEE VOLTAGE SUBSTATION AND SWITCHROOM Substations and high. voltage switchroam are the points in the electricity distribution system where the disteibution cable feeders are connected through circuit breakers via bushiys and qransformers. This allows for the control of power flows in the distribution system and switching operation for maintenance and operation purposes. (a) Location near as possible to the witehgears should be It is desirable to site substation and high voltage switehroon toad centres. However, the danger of a fine due to explosion of taken into consideration Nuisance from noise is another factor to be considered when siting the Gansformers, especially for residential premises. {b) Access Substations and HV, switchrooms should have road access for the case of transportation of heavy switchgears and transformers. It is therefore recommended that substation be {ocated at the ground floor, In some situations, due to certain constraints, substations are located at tae basement. (©) Layout Arrangement The H.V. switehroom, transformer room and the L.V. switchroom should, as far as possible, be locaicd adjacent to cach other. Such azrangement minimises cable run and makes maintenance operations easier. Where the load centres with high load demands are located away from the high voltage switchroom, remote transformer room may be located near the load centres such as the sir conditioning plants, purap rooms, ete @) Detail Requirement Inthe detail design of a substation, the folowing points should be considered 1. Clearance space and height 2. Emergency escape door 3. Ventilation 4. Emergency lighting ‘Typical layout of 22kVIL.V. substation and switchrooms are shown in Figure 3.1(2) to (k). ” 4Plawning OF High Voltage Substation TOON Pat por Ba He nee Le {avy sunsTAON NAN som Seater egeatenrecto secon Figure 3.1(a) Layout of 22kW/L.¥. substation Baers PtH rN Fa peouenagein, — rapa mpieramenexserrcicets Sieben asain COEROUED) &aagnceranccam ovrrenm socerr oie 6 eee ero WAP TEED TO an See NCD ame setnpscer ar ro seems amiss cea Jiggenoy en teu vo aria Foner co NEMO yo sencostcesra ee Tee wemecrutaLeat8, Pir hows or masenorz ane rereareooice Exelon an err sess Sem07 I> PORMPROTAL SPOOR svi prawpig ves us .omERa CAME OY Tho soecrroNcortceoNsss 450 a iguana wrnicur mionsonee 71h FIED eapessircames 3 ranonsmane— seer AMIR LOUVRE BOO Figure 3.1(b) Detailed plan of svitchroomn including electrical layout a2 aePlanning OF High Voltage Stebstation And Switehroom And Auxiliary Power Supplies ‘Seri nov atvagmar aS CHO Rd ty ‘DOOR Ain wena GABA ‘nbc a Ne oe eneaete Te ero) SNM Ae ‘Groentek ron etenea awe Shidbwe tt nes. For iemem amon Buamen paveorsunn, Figure 3.1(c) Detailed cable chamber plan including electrical layout MOAN TARE TT OR OVO oLass GOES NOTE POR RNS AEE apa Satan ro EBT PED NYE ING Figure 3.1(@) Front Elevation Figure 3.1(e) Section P-P Scale 1:50 43Planning Of High Voltage Substation And Switchroom And Ausitiary Power Supplies . oe Tom TCER GH TROT Wa amor REN RENE A) Tite warns a Ss He E ssmteMnooM gepseton, EOS Ree ut Wan ma far pers anon dotvennow Tear covoam ita * Bugera 3 Seg mee abe nants : ceonurs | iene Panay Sanchar Figure 3.1(f) Section AA 10a FHICK RC. FLAT ROOF WERUTR ATIRPROOF MEMDRAGE TOTAAL. 7 HOLLOW GLASS BLOCKS + FEHR 3468 WIDE «250mm HIGH APY ‘DUTY ALUMINIUM LOUVRED DOOR, HKED STAINLESS STEELIHOT DOPED % 4009 3 608 FLOOR OPEING serreamooss 4 GALVANISED ROW RAILING 1890 WIDE x 1600 HIGH HEAVY -DUTF ALIMINTM DOOR ATED ‘WOH PANIC HARDWARE. (000mm WIDE DRIVEWAY Figure 3.1(g) Section B- 8 AaPlanning Of Nigh Voltage Subs And Switchroom Aad Auxiliary Power § 160mm WIDE REMO WATE GALVANISED WS. GRATINGS 100mm TK, OVIK CARLERAMD: CONCRETE FLOOR 100 rem TAK. aan Jot u NE RAR, L—-200nun THK, SAND BINDING OVER [00 THK, HARDCORE 2 ROWS G NOS. ACH 18qim DEA HD UPVC PIPES ENCASED IN CONCRETE NOTE: > ALLOWABLE SUNJECTTO ANGLE OR EQUAL TO 30 DECREES a SHOW LEVELS Figure 3.1(h) Detail of cable pump and entry pipes Section X ~ X 32 SAFETY CLEARANCE IN HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATION AND SWITCHROOM ‘The safety clearance in high voltage substation and switchroom means the minimam distance to bs maintained in ait between the live part of the equipment or conductor and the earth ar another piece of equipment or conductor on which it is necessary to carry out work. To this, it must be added a distance for movements necessary fo maintain and operaic the equipment so that a safety zone can be determined. British Standard BS 7354 gives these clearance. cs 3.3 A.C. SUPPLIES AT HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATION AND SWITCHROOM. Auailigry A.C. supplies for high voltage substation and switchroom may be taken from low voltage switchboard forming part of the switchroom’s outgoing distribution system. The supplies are required for: (a) Battery rectifier / charger unit (b) Lighting in the switchraom / transformer tom, ete, (c) 13A SSO for testing and commissioning equipment The important factors to be considered are the level of security of supply requized and allowances for future extensions. A typical DB supplying A.C. electricity by electricity to battery rectifier / charget, lighting and small power circuits in the H.V, switchroom and substation is shown in Figure 3.3(a). 45Planning Of High Voltage And $ nt And Auxiliary P ies lives In Major High Votinge Substation And S: chroom The substation auxiliary LYAC switchboard will typically be fed by nuxitiary transformers ity the range 1000kVA to 2000kVA. Transformers in this range normally have impedance values of the order of 4-5% and will therefore act as the main fault limiting element in the: system, Air circuit breakers are often employed as incomers and tus-section switches on the LVAC switchboard. They can be specified to cater for high fauit levels and load currents: over n wide temperuture range in wilhdrawable format and as an integral part of 2 larger switchboard. MVA ransformer impedance in per wnit = is = 20MVA Fautr Le Nos. «6W FLOR. 7. omwncamoaay. _ Ros 2 eve UGK. TG Sms PVE (CPE ES COMET. 2 NOS, AMETSLCLAD S510 @omvaeanoan = Seratnose OS 1A MELALCLAD SISO Gre BWITCIROOND 2N0§ A MEEALCT AD 9810 stemermoon 2e2Esenm ICPEE 2 team PVC BY CONDUT @oemneHRON Wo. eaaoprsonuzoR Gee HE SYye- mene wonaren ler. smanpsscuavon Gin. sss emounos x TFA Gene. tba, inbtic cu muse aR BECH MASA) oub ue ie DB-SWITCHROOM a FETECEROON) J 3 sqm AE PPC + aaa PC EN TRONKING LY ROTeER supe, Figure 3.3(a) A.C. auxiliary supply to high voltage substation and switchroom Therefore, offen 2 ISOVAF/I400AT 4-pole ACB (36kA) is selected as shown in Figure 3.30). 46Plomning Of High Voltage Sin _And Switehroom And Auvitiary Power ssmanxva saov SUpsTAION —————sBSTATION SHALLPOWE, —CONSMER ——_EICHTRC Ppp Figure 3.3(b) Substation JLow Voltage A.C. supply 34 D.C. SUPPLIES DC. auxiliary supplies are required in high voltage station and switchroom for typical loads as follows: {@) Trip coils (b) Contiols / relays {6} Closing coils Standard voltages such as 30V, A8V and 110V battery D.C. supply are normally provided where 48V D.C, supply are more often used for control and communications equipment in the substation or switehroom. Battery Sizing The capacity of batiery is often calculated by determining the load which the battery will be expected to supply and the duration for whicit the supply is required and the acceptable voltage. ‘The load requirement on the battery is calculated frown the consumption characteristics of the loads as follows: (@) Continuous loads such as indicating lamps () Time limited ioads such as motors, emergency lightings {c) Momeatary ioads for closing and tripping of cirenit breakers 35 BATTERY CAPACITY The capacity of the battery is determined by the capacity of the individual series connected cells. Parallel connection of cells can be made 10 increase capacity, but this practice is a?2 OF High Voltoge Substation Switchroom And Auxiliary Power Supplies ce generally diseam ruse a weak or defective cell és one. nf the hatte batery on discharge does not carry its shape of the total long, Also, on eharge the battery with a defective cell tends (© accept a greater share of the avilable charging curecist te the: deiriment of healthy cells in paralicl with it And Sw means thal his Capacity is expressed in ampete-hours (Ah) and is a measure of the clecticity that he pattery is able (o deliver. The following factors affeet its capacity: fa) ‘The rate of discharge, Ia tead acid battery has a capacity of 100 Ah al a 10 hour discharge rate i cain deliver 10 A for (0 hours while maintaining the load voltage (b) Above a certain value. Rapid discharge over a one hour period sill rectuce its capacity to typically 50 Ah ~ ie. a constant current of 50. for | hous, This effect 18 not se severe with NiCad batteries (e) The output vollage teduces as the battery is discharged. [lis therefore necessary (0 specify required current delivery over a given period within voltage Hmits. In particular the required ‘end voltage’ at the end of the discharge period must ‘be detailed when specifying battery capacity, aN Gl) Battery capacity varies with temperature, The maximum and minimum temperature range al which the battery will be expected to supply the required capacity must be specified. A battery with 100 Ah capacity at 15°C might have a capacity of 95 Ah at 10°C, Typically the variation in capacity with temperature is as follows: NiCad batteries 0.6% increase per °C from 0 to +30°C. 1.5% decrease per °C from 0 to -20°C Lead acid batteries 1% increase per °C. from 0 to 460°C 1.3% docrease per °C from 0 to -10°C (e) Measurement of Batiory Capacity [Figure 3.5(a)]. The following procedure is Inid for measurement of the 10-hour capacity of a battery WHOUR DISCHARGE STOPATS25 VOLTS FORS-VOLY BATTERY Yr 4 ¢ ¢ w TOMER HOURS Figure 3.5(a) Measurement of battery capacity a8Planning OF High Voltage Substation _ Amd Switchroom And Auxiliary Power Supplics ‘Allow the battery to stand on open circuit for not fess than 12 hours aud net more: th hours alley the completion of full charge, Then discharge it through 4 satable re: with a current equal fo one-tenth of iis J D-hour eapacity. The discharge is continued HL the closed circuit voltage across the battery terminals comes dowa to 1.75 x rt volts where ris the number of cells in the baltery or the vollage across any ecHl fills ts 1,70 Volts, whichever is earlier ‘The tempesature of the electrolyte should be recoreled carefially during discharge and correction for temperature variation applied. “The voltmeter to be used during messurements should have a resistance of not hess dn 300 ohms per volt. (I) Voltage of @ Cell. The nominal voltage of a celi of lead-acid battery is 2 Volts. A Lilly charged cell has an open cireait voltage of 2.07 10 2.1 Voits, Lower veliage will indicate apattially charged cell onty: Open Circuit Voltige State OF Charge 2.07 and above Fully charged 2.05 % charge 2.03 % charge 2.00 % charge The average voltage of a cell during the period from full charge to full discharge is 1.95 Volts. A cell is considered fo be fully discharged, if éuting discharge, its voltage falls to 1.75 Volis. 34 CHARACTERISTICS OF BATTERIES Essentially NiCad battery banks maintain their capacity better at lower temporatures. NiCad life expectancy is good (typically 15 years), better than the standard pasted or tubule lead acid battery cell (typically i2 years) but not quite as long. as the rugged! lead acid Plante coll (ypically 20 years). NiCad batteries lose their capacity aver time under float charge conditions more so than lead acid types, NiCad battery chargers can therefore be programmed automatically to boost charge the NiCad battery bank at regular intervals. 37 CHARGING OF BATTERIES A new or a discharged battery can be charged by connecting it to a source of D.C. and passing current through it till it is fully charged. The +ve and the ~ve terminals of the battery ate connected to the respective +ve and —ve terminals of the D.C. supply source. ~ 49Planning Of High Voliage Substation And Switchraom And Ausiliary Power Supplies ithe ve terminal of the charger is not koown, it can be located by the following test Put a lamp in series with onc of the charger leads and cautiously dip the ends ef Uhe (wo foals in & weak solution of sulphuric acid. With current flowing, the lead at which the fewest gas bubblos are given off, is the positive lend A battery is considered fully charged when all the cells are gassing freely, and the specific ginvity and the terminal vollage of all the coils remain constant for three consecutive reackings taken at hounfy intervals Storage batteries are charged by: {a) Constant Current Charging Tn this method, current in amperes equal to the number of positive plated in a ecll, is passed through the battery till iL is fully charged, The method fails to take into account the state of charge of a battery, as a high charging rate is required for & fully discharged battery in the beginning, and a low sate of charge is desirable as the Ukttery approaches its state of full charge. It also Fails to take into consideration the condition of the battery. The former draw-back is overcome to some extent by charging al « reduced rate, known as the ‘Finishing Charge Rate’, as the charge nears completion. Charging with the belp of third-brush generators fitted on light automotive vehicles falls in this category, as the onipnt af such generators is practically constant, over wide range of spoed. (b) Constant Potential Charging in this method, the charging vollage is held constant throughout the charging process. The charging cuzrent is high in the beginning when a battery is in discharged condition, and it gradually drops off as the battery picks up charge resulting in increased back ein... This is the common method of charging used in battery shops and on automotive egutipment. The method is, however, not very suitable for old badly sulphated batteries which need prolonged charging at a slow rate. During charging, the voltage of a lead-acid cell is as high as 2,7 Voits which diops to 2.3 Volts as soon as the charging ceases. It finally settles dowa to a value of 2,07 2.1 Volis, fora fully charged cell, Tae average voltage during charging is 2.33 Volts. The electrolyte should be added into a battery only after the electrolyte has cooled to room temperate. ‘The temperature of batteries should be watched carefully during charging and not allowed to cxeged 43°C ~ 45°C, The charging current should be reduced, if the teruperature exceeds this limit. High temperature is harmfal for separators and results in excessive gassing which has deleterions effect on the active materials of the plates. 50 o Need @ &Planning Of High Voltage Substation And Switchroom And Ausitiaty Power Supplies ” During charging, the hydrometer readings of cach cell should be. recorded hourly, aid as the battery reaches the state of full charge, the charging rate should be reduced. ‘A sound battery can be charged in 12-16 hours, though a badly selphated battery will take much longer {c) Precautions During Charging (i) The gases, hydzogen and oxygen issuing from a battery under charge cam explole if a spark ot flame is brought too near. No metal tools should be used on batteries without switching off the battery charger. (ii) The batteries should be charged in 2 well-ventilated place, so that the gases and the acid fumes are blown away. (ii) De not disturb any connections with charger on, as there is risk of sparking, (iv) [acid or electrolyte gets spaitercd inte the eyes, wash them immediately with large quantity of cleaa and cold water. {) Ammonia sofution should be kept on hand to neutralize acid that may fall on clothes. (a) Trickle Charging IC is charging at a low rate to keep the batteries alresdy fully charged in a state of full charge to compensate for self-discharge of batteries and also to take care of small Intermittent discharges. However, over-charging must he avoided as over-charging even at slow rate js harmful for batteries (e) Emergency Heavy Charge 2 A battery can be charged ata high rate for a short time without any damage, so long as its temperature does not exceed 50°C. An old ballery will fail to pick up charge satisfactorily wath a high rate of charge. ) Equalizing Charge 3 ‘An extended charge given to a battery for ensuring the complete restoration of the active materials, on the plates. It is, especially, essential for those batteries which have to operate under conditions of partial charge for long periods. > Badly sufphated batteries can be given extra useful [ize by charging them with a current of oue or two amperes for 50-100 hours. t (g) Floating Charge 3 Iis the term used for connecting a battery to a source of constant voltage to maintain it ina fully-charged condition 51; Planning Of High Voltage Substation And Switchreo: i (h) Effects OF Overckarging is for the Fellowing reasons: Overcharging is extremely harmful for the life of batt (i) Tresutts in Joss of water. (ii). Ie results in shedding of active materials as a result of excessive gassing, (iii) It causes Tigh internal heat which has adverse effect en the life of various components like posilive plates and separators. {iv} The plates can buckle, (8) Apart from the above, overcharging will push up the cell covers af the positive ends and in extveme cases the battery container will hecome distorted and cracked, @ Effects OF Underchar 4 \ A battery, whieb is allowed to operate with insufficient charge for tong periods, will develop hard sulphates over plate surfaces which cannot be reconverted to active materials, This condition is known as “Sulphation”. A badly sulphated battery will fail to deliver full power end will also be unable to retain its charge due to high rate of self discharge. Equalizing charge given periodically to a battery will prevent this condition to a large extent () Level Of Electrolyte Electrolyte should always cover the plates to a depth of 5-!2mm and distilled water should be added regularly to maintain its level. Excessive water addition indicates overcharging, A battery running with ow level of electrolyte will result in permanent damage to the exposed portion of plates and separators, Addition of electrolyte will be necessary only if same of the electratyte leaks or spills out. A battery which semains continuously wet has a leaking container ‘The electrolyte should be added with the help of a battery filler. The 3am hole in the side of the tube will ensure correct electrolyte level. First, the electrolyte or water is adéed into the cell with the help of the filler. The Jiller is then placed inside the cell resting gently on the plates and the excess electrolyte ig sucked out tll its fevet touches side hole. i) Self-Discharge Of Batteries ‘All batteries tend to discharge continuously, both externally and internally. Exemal discharge takes place through dirt and moisture on the battery and hence, it is important, to keep the battery surface always clean, A 12-Voit battery is more prone to self discharge than a 6-Voli battery through this cause 52 au n sePlanning Of High Voltage Sabstuiion And Switchroam And Ausil Supplies ‘The internal discharge is due to the presence or impurities on the plates which sel up ‘oeal electro-chemical reaction in the batteries. The anlimony particles from positive plates get deposited on the -ve plates curing charging and are responsible for local action. the self-discharge can also be duc to the punctured separators, buckled plates, and large aceumnulation of active materials at the bottom of cells, which result in shortecireutts between Hve and -ve plates, thus causing rapid self-discharge of batteries. ‘These conditions are brought about by continuous overcharging at high temperature ‘The rate of discharge is affected by temperature also, It is six times as much al 40°C: and four times as much at 30°C as at 10°C. It is, therefore, necessary fo store batteries in cool place A batiory which loses its charge al an average of tues or more points per day and needs frequent re-charging is obviousty in worn-out condition. 38 | MAINTENANCE OF BATTERIES {Install the battery firmly, 2, Tighten ail connections periodically. 3. Keep the battery dry and clean. Dirt, in presence of moisture, offers conducting path to electricity and the battery will discharge through it 4. Keep the battery surface free of any electrolyte, IF necessary, the battery may be washed er with a dilute solution of ammonia or of baking soda ("4 kg, of soda to five Jitres of water} es and ringed with clean water, ensuring that the solution does not get into the battery. nt Corrosion of metal guards will indicate the presence of electrolyte on the battery. Is 5. When washing high voltage batteries, connections may be opened at several points io avoid shock through water-jet. oe 6. Apply petroleum jefly to terminals to prevent co:rosion. ie le 7, Maintain level of the electrolyte — Add only distitled water. 8. Add electrolyte, only if some of the electrolyte spitls out nal 3.9 SPECIFICATIONS OF BATTERY FOR 22KV SWITCHBOARD ant aie ‘The semple of specifications for a 30V D.C. battery charger and a battery unit for a 22kV switchboard is shown in Schedule ‘A> 53station Planning Of High Voltage 5 ; Power Supplies nd chr ot i Al ‘Schedule ‘A" ja) General Tho 29kV switchboard shell be provided with a suitable battery charger nnd a buttery’ unit ‘whioh shail have ampere-Iour capacity adequate for the operation of the switebboard, The battery unit shall heve enapere-hour eapacity adequate fer the operation of switchboard af up to 12 panels for a duration of 10 hears, ‘The batlery unit shall have Ue capabitity a trip foar switchgear panels simultmeously and continuously for at Teast twenty: times (is mast he verified by caleukalion), When sizing the AH capacity of the baltery, the effet of ageing shall be taken into consideration. (bh) AH Capacity The AH capacity of the battery supplied shall be greater Gian the eateulaled AH requirermeat tout shall not be less thon 2511, Even if the cafculated (10 be submitted after award of tender) AM requirement is less than the specificd values, the battery used must still be rated in accordance to specifications, The AH cating of the hatlery must be te CS rating and mecliun rale or high rate of discharge with cell designation KPM or KPH in accordance to [EC 623. (i) The charger shal] have sufficient capacity to provide the load requirement for the operation ofa switehboard and for quick-charginge ofthe battery atthe sane tine. (ii) The charger shall have sufficient capacity to restore a depleted bBillery to 80% fuk capacity in less thar § fours. (iii), Battery boa : Only the tripping voil and the closing coil shall be connected to the battery unit. Other Joad such as lamps for cizeuit breaker on/off indication shall he taken trom a separate rectifier or from an AC squree through 2 step-down (sansformer. Indicators using LED. may be connected directly to battery units provided the caleulated toad consumed (complete switelhoad) by the indicators is wegligible. “The capacity of the bauery and charger shall be dectared in the Schedule of Gusrantees. () Charger / Battery Cabinet The charger and batiory unit shall be suitably accommadated in a steel cabinet, The cabinet shall be suitable fer floor mounting. The eharger and battery compartments shall be accessible from the front of the cabinet by means of hinged doors, Key locking of highed doors shall not be requited. The compactment housing the electrical end electronic components shall be the top compartment and shall be fully segtegeted from the bottom compartment which shall contain the cells, Rows of battery oells shall not be sitting at the same level in the battery compartment, ‘but staggered in steps in the battery compartment. This arrangement shail net in any way affect the visibility of the battery clectolyte level and also ease of topping up the electrolyte due to space consttaints, Both compartments shell be well ventilat {d) Nickel Cadmium Cells Fach battery unit shall consist of 25 nickelcadmium cells. Ths ickel-cadmium cell shell comply with requirements specified in JEC 623. The nominal capacity in ampere-hour shail b¢ the capacity for five-hour dischayge (C;). The cell shall be of a type suitable for medium rate discharge (Le. rate of discharge = 0.50; 10 3.5Cs). low rate discharge is not acceptable.Planning Of High Voltage Substation room And Auxiliary Power Supplies a And Swit Schedule “A” (Continue) (o) Float Charging / Quick Charging The charger shall be designed to provide a well regulated DC supply to the load while float- charging or quick-charging the battery. The charger shall be the constant potential current limiting fully automatic type. The charger shall automatically switch to float-charge after the battery restored to 80% of its nominal capacity under quick-charge. Quick-charge shall be “on” automatically after an emergency discharge and the duration of quick-charge shall be less than S hours. The float charge voltage shall be adjusted to give minimum electrolyte/water consumption and Jong maintenance interval, The float charge voltage shall not vary by more than + 2% of the set value irrespective of AC input voltage variation of + 10% and of load variations from 0% to, 100%. The rms ripple voltage across the battery shall not exceed 1% of the nominal output voltage Protection ‘The charger shall be protected against low battery voltage and short circuit at the output by employing current limiting feature. It shall also be protected against reverse battery voltage High speed fuses shall be used for protection on DC output, transformer secondary, rectifier or thyristor stack. Charger ‘The charger shall be designed to operate continuously in service at the switehroom ambient temperature, The following instruments and control shall be provided on the charger: (Mains on/off input circuit breaker with “Mains On” neon or LED indicator. i) Boost selector switch. (iil) On/off push button for quick checking of the condition/capacity (good/bad indication) of the battery. When the push button is depressed, the battery shall he allowed to discharge through @ resistor for a duration of three seconds. If the voltage drop is negligible for that duration, the battery shall be considered as in good condition, Voltmeter to measure charger/battery output. Ammeter to measure charger output, Earth fault alarm indication Under voltage alarm indication. (viii) Battery overvoltage alarm indication (ix) Electrolyte level low alarm indication. (x) Terminals for outgoing DC bus wires to the switchboard and for incoming AC supply. All visual alarm indication shall be of the LED type with its function clearly indicated. The use of embossing tape for labelling is not acceptable. 3.10 VENTILATION FOR SUBSTATION EQUIPME! When substations contain large transformers or rectifier equipment adequate ventilation is vital. The cooling design of the equipment itself will ensure that its temperature rise over the 55 aambicnt air temperature will not be excessive, Bun if the substation iisel! gets ino hot, wonble can he expected. ‘The basie data required én planaing ventilation are figures for the losses of the equipment at varinis loads and details of the maxinnm load cycle. The worst case expressed in watts can, then be determined. Uf forced ventilation is neces sary it is usually assumed that all the heat will onty he carried aovay in the ventilating air, This is slightly pessimistic as some heat will be dissipated Uuough the walls and roof of the substation, From the figares for losses, permissible femperature rise of air and thermal capacity of the air, the required flow of air can be calculated using Ue formuula: 1.8.x Watis loss se fe Flow in (or CFM) in ‘The rise (°C) in this formula refers to the temperature increase of the outgoing air over the incoming air. The temperature of the cooling air arcund the equipment is lower than this, soa safe value for the formula is 10°C rise. This is a simple treatment to the problem assuming normal atmospheric canditions. For high altitudes the 1.8 factor will need some adjustment. 56 Soe?ns — Chapter 3 Planning Of High Voltage Substation _ . And Switchroom And Auxiliary Power Supplies Explain briefly what are the considerations in planning of high volage substation and swilehroom. A distribution substation having 17 nos. of 224 oil circuit breakers is to be provided with a new batery/battery charger configuration comprising 100% 110V NiCad battery and 109% charger unit for 3 hours independent operation (normal A.C. supply fails) with the Following dulies: (a) Momentary loads Switchgear closing: 22kY breakers, each closing coil required | SEW. Switehyear tripping: 17 nos. of 22k breakers, cach tripping eal required | SOW. (b) Time fimited/continuous loads required for 3 hours operation Control and switchgear oe Building emergency lighting, 15 nos. of 40W fitings a Indicator lamps, 37 nos. of 15W units : Trip cirouit healthy, 4 nos. of [SW units Control pane! transducers, 230W zh Relay panel components, 270W Assuming that closing of 22kV switchgears is carried out one at a time consecutively and tripping of 17 nos. of 2kV switchgears may be simultaneously. Determine the (a) capacity of the battery in Ab for continuous load (b) maximum momentary load required fom the battery 3. A distribution substatiou having 7 nes. of 22kV vacuum circuit breakers is to be provided swith a battery/battery charger comprising 100% 30V battery and 100% charger unit for independent operation (normal A.C. supply fails) with the following duties: (2) Momentary loads Switchgear closing: 22kV breakers, each closing coil required 10kW {Assuming closing of switchgear is camied out one at a time consecutively) Switehgeer tipping: 7 nos. of 22KV breakers, each Lipping coil required 1506 (Assuming tipping of T nos. of switchgear may be carried out simultaneously) ({b) Time fimized/continuous loads for 3 hours Switchgear ON/OFF status indication: 7 nos. of [SW each D.C, supply to relay and control panel: 300W 37Questions — Chapter 3 Planning Of High Voltage Substation _ And Switelroom, plies, Determine the (a) capacity of the battery in Ah for continuous load (b) maximum momentry toad required from the bationy 4. Explain briefly the fotlowing terms related to charging of ballery: (a) Constant curcent charging (b) Constant voltage charging (c) Trickle charging (d) Float charging (c) Boost charging 58. fadCHAPTER 4 HIGH VOL/PAGE TRANSFORMERS 4. INTRODUCTION ‘A wansforiner converis alternating voltage and current in one winding into alternating, vollage and curtent ut different values in another winding by electromagnetic: induction [Figure 4.1(a3}. Current will flow through load when the switeh ithe secondary clrewil is closed. The frequency remains unaltered during transformation, ‘The essential components in a kansformer are a mugeetic core of laminated iron and ave windings, the ptimary and the secondary placed around iL. The winding that is connected to the source of pawer is known as the primary winding and the one Ihat is connected to the load is knows as the secondary winding Smidteh ' t---«y--- Main Flux, Figure 4.1(a) “The alternating flux produced by the primary winding links with the secondary winding and induces an alternating em.f. in the latter, the magnitude of which depends upon the ratio of the turns in the two windings. The induced e.m£. in each winding can be represented hy the formula: E-4 Kp @yNE where Ky = form factor of e.m.f. wave (1.11 for sine wave) frequency ©, = total magnetic flux through the core (max. value) in webers N lumber of turns in the winding considered for sinc-wave voltage application, this can simplified as E=444£O,N 39 onlrelationships _Inpui Voltage, E) _ Turns on priman ‘Output Voltage, Ez Turns on secondary winding 4.2 TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT The hansformer equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 4.2(a) is for transformer calculations involving voltage drop or regulation under various load conditions. Figure 4.2(a) Transformer equivelent citeuit The magnetising circuit is taken as a shunt-connecied impedance ta represent the setting up of the magnetic field and resistence heat losses in the care. The two resistances, Ry and Rg, represent the ohmic resistances of the primary and secondary windings. The two inductances, X; and X2, which are not dependent, represent the leakage reactance in @ realistic transformer, In practice, not all the magnetic field of the primary is linked with the secondary coil Leakage resvits in @ stighily Jower secondary voltage than the simple tum ratio theory predicts and the greater the load current the greater the deviation from the ideal. Magnetising Inrush Current ‘When a transformer is fizst energised, a transient magnetising current flows, which may reach instantangous peaks of'8 to 30 times those of full load. This very high wansient current may last for 5 to $0 cycles depending on the transformer rating. Explanation Under normal steady state conditions the flux in the core changes fiom maximum negative value to maximum positive value during one half of the voltage cycle. Since flux cannot instantly be created or destroyed this relationship must always be tue. Thus, if the 60 \ PB aad way ont ve tot he con cane ene High Voltage Transformers transformer fs ene)gised ata yoitupe Zero when the Aus normally be al its maximum negative Value, the ux would rise t0 twice its normal value over the first hall eyele of voltage. This initial rise coufd be further increased if there was any cesidual {lux in the core at tbe meme, the transformer was energised. Since Wansformers are normally designed and wn at values of Mux approacbing: the saturation value, an inerease of fx (0 dauble this vilue corresponds to extreme saturation which requires an extremely high value of magnetising current. ‘As the transformer is cnergised ata voltage zero then the fix demand during the first hall voltage cycle can be as high as twice the normal maximum flux. This caases aa excessive uni-directional current to flow, referred to as the magnetising inrush current as shown i Figure 4.2(0) Figure 4.2(b) Magaetising in-vush current Analysis of a typical magnelising Inrush current wave shows (Iundamental ~ 100%). Component 2S | 3H Percentage 55% 63% 26.8% This effect can be detected by transformer protection relays in a manner whereby the presence of the seeond batmonic component is used to restrain the operation of the relay. 43° VECTOR GROUPS The internal connections of windings can be made in & number of ways, Accordingly, the different types of connections have been standardized depending upon the phase displacement. There are four veetor groups and each group includes three methods of connection of high voltage and low voltage windings whick give the some phase displacement between the windings. These groups are shown in Table 4.3(a} 61 lt| (Secondary voltage legging) +30" (Secondary voltage leading) Table 4.3(a) Vector symbols of transformers Phase displacement is expressed as the clock hour number and is designated by symbols 0, 6, Land fH, As an example, a transformer with vector group symbol Yy@ will mean a transformer havi doth the windings as star connected and belonging to group oue with zero degree phase displacement. This information is very relevant when transformeis have (© operate in parallel, For a ‘transformer working in isolation, the amangement of its intemal connections is of lithe consequence. 44° TRANSFORMER WINDING CONNECTIONS ‘The primary ead secondary windings can be connected in stax, delta, zig-zag and vee, ele. to form various operational vector groups. The possible three-phase transformer connections ere grouped as follows: (a) Group i: Zero phase displacement between the primary end socondary windings, eg. Yy0, Dd0, Dz connections. {b) Group 2: 180° phase displacement between the primary and secondary windings, e.2. ‘Yy6, Ddé, Dz6 connections. (0) Group 3: 30° lagging phase displacement between primary and secondary windings, e-g. Dyl, YdI, Yz1 connections. (d) Group 4: 30° leading phase displacement between primary and secondary windings, e.g. DyI1, YdE1, ¥z11 connections. However, the commonly used connections are as follows: 62riers ERUPT IMIASE BDLACEMIONT © 1507 Grour- 1 PHASE DISPLAC EXPOS) Thy are ie, HOO, soon} et, SAPO hy Soa on 1 RG OE ir | esi Ht, Fea ae ee am : : Figure 4.4(a) 3 GROUP Ut PHASE DISPLACEMENT =-20" GROUP TV PHASE DISPLACEMENT. ATR, HPT BORE, ibe Te Figure 4.4(a)High Voltage Transformers _ oe . eee cen (2) The star’star comnection in the Yy0 or Vy6 graup is the inpst economical conmestion for ginall, high vollage transformers as the namber of tars per phase and the amount of insulation is @ minimum, The possibility of wiilising both star points for a fourth wire may be usefull, Third-harmonic voltages are absent from the line voltage. No third harmonic curtent is allowed fo flow unless a Fowth wire is provided for that winding, connestion is most satisfactory with the Ihree-phase cere type transformer and those ovided with a tertiary stabilising winding, (b) Delta/ster connection in Dy!, Yd!, Dy] and Yd11 groups is very commonly used in power supply transformers. It has the advantage of star-point for mixed loading and a della winding to cary third harmonic currents, Ifthe H.V. side is star connected, there is saving ia cost of insulation, A delta connected HV. winding is almost universal for conductor size saving, 45 PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS Transformers are said to be connected in parallel when their primaries and secondaries are connected to the same circuits. Transformers will operate in paralfel satisfactorily, i they have, (a) the same primary and secondary valtages (b) the same tap-ratio (c) the same percentage impedance, aud, (d) belong to the same vector groups. Two transformers may have their windings connected star’star and yet iC will not be possible fo operate them in parallel if one belongs to Group | and the other #0 Group 2, 4.6 POWER RATINGS OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER All transformers covered by this chapter should comply with the requirements of BS)7I, which is equivalent to IEC 76 for liquid-immersed types and IEC 726 for dry types. Liguid-Filied Transtormers Liquid-filted transformer is tansfermer in which the core and windings are enclosed in a liquid-filied tank which provides cooling and insulation and the other where the core and windings are cooled directly by air. Liquid-filled transformers can again be sub-divided into units usiug Gammable substance (mineral oil) and those using various types of fire-resistant liquid (Silicone liquid or synthetic hydrocarbon), Dry Type Transformers Dry-type transformers are also available in (wo distinct types: those with the insulated tums of the winding directly in contact with the cooling air and those with the complet windings encapsulated within # moisture-resistant cladding of epoxy resin. 4 bei dHbigh Voltage Transfornicrs, Typical Power Rating Preferred values of tated power for threc-phase 22k digiribution wanstormers ave as follows: ULM. LEEW, and 6.6k¥ 1. EVA S00 1000 1600 2000 4.7 PRINCIPAL, COMPONENTS OF A 3@ DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER The principal components ofa gansformer ace briefly described as follows: {a) Tank or Casing, It is used for housing the core and the windings as well as for mounting the varions accessories such as the ail level indicator, temperature and pressure gauge, ett. {b) Core The heart of the transformer is a3 limbs core constructed of sheet steel laminations. The Jaminations ave insulated to keep the iron losses fow and they are held logether by clamps or insulated bells to form the required shape and size, igh Village Seinaing Low Yalta ging Insulating eytinders ‘OM Duet br Abt Duct Figure 4.7(a) The core and windings Figure 4.7{(b) The limb section of the core & windings (¢) Windings ‘There are 3 primary windings and 3 secondary windings in a 32 transformer. Each limb of the core catties two concentrically wound windings, the secondary winding is placed next to the core and the primary winding is placed on the outside of the winding [Figure 4.7(b)]. Space or duct is left between the two windings for circulation of cooling medium. (a) Tap-Changer The tap-changer of a transformer is the device which provides the means for changing the voltage ratio of the windings, thereby compensating for the variation of primary supply voltage and maintaining the secondary voltage within the statutory liznits 65Jligh Voltage Transformers Theve are basically two types of Tap-changing switches, namely 4 (i) Offload tap-changer dD Offload tap-changers are commonly used for smaller distribution transformers. It ean (a be operated only after switching aff the transformer, ‘The operation of the offload tap-changer is as follows: (1) Typical off-load tap-changer conneetion is shown in Figure 4.7(¢). The lap points, of the primary windings are brongiht out to the terminals of the tap-changer. mw ROM Figure 4.7%c) (2) When the tap link is adjusted 10 connect points C & D, the transformer windings are at ils rated voltage ratio, and this position is known as principal tapping position (3) When the tap link is switched to AB & BC, a few tums of the primary windings are inserted in the voltage ratio and is increased by +5% and +2.5% respectively. AB & BC are known as the plus faping positions. o (4) When the tap link is switched to DE & EF, a few turns of the primary winding are shorted out, and the voltage ratio is varied by — 2.5% and -5% respectively, DE & EF are known as the minus tapping positions, (5) Therefore the changing of the tap position and the voltage ratio will regulate the secondary voltage: Ve aly, = voltage ratio Gi) On-load tap-changer On-load tap-changers are the tap-changers in which the tap position of the winding can be adjusted without the interruption of power supply. On-load tap-changers are used mostly in the larger unit of transformers where daily and short period of voltage adjustments are necessary. 66High Voltage Transformers 4§ TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION TRANS ppistiibution tansformers in common use foray caw be classified inta the following types: (a) Liquid-Filted Transformers Transformers in which the cores and windings are enclosed in a liq filled tank which provides cooling and insulation. [can he sub-divided inte te following types: (i) Mineral Oil-Filled Transformers Mineral oil-filled transformers have their cores and windings immersed in minetal oil contained in a sicel tank, An mincial oil is a very good cooling and insulating siedium, this type of wansformer is extensively uscd in the electrical distrifution systerh. However, the disadvantage is its risk to eatch and propagate fire bocause minerat of] is flammable; therefore, mineral oil-filled transformers are normally positioned outside the building within a suitable fence enclosure or in separate brick-built building away Gom the personnel Gi) Silicone Oi)-Filled ‘Transformers As mineral oi] is Nammable and pose as a fire risk, silicone aif, which are non- flammable, are offered as an alternative fluid for cooling and insulating purpose for the liquid-filled wansformer However, these one types of fluid have the following set-backs: * Silicone oil is very much more costly than mineral oil, also it has higher viscosity than mineral oil and thus results in poorer cooling properties. (b) Cast-Resin Transformers te Cast-resin transformers ate the dry type transformers in which the primary and secondary 4 windings ace moulded aad encapsulated in gpoxy-resin. Epoxy-resin has a high dielectric strengtit and hence is used to separate the primary and secondary windings by moulding them separately. AS gpoxy-zesin is flame-retarding andl pose less as a fire risk than mineral oil, cast-resin ‘teansformers are widely used in the electrical installations of large office blocks and public buildings where the transformers have to be located close to the load centre, ‘The primary components include: oe @ The Windings Cast-epoxy resin is used te separate the primary aud secondary windings by moulding ther separately. Air ducts are left between the windings for natural circulation of air. nllMigh Voltage Transformers ii). The core and off-load tap-changers ave as de ibed in Ihe previous section (ai) coling Fans Cooling fans may also be provided for the forced air cooling, 4.9 NON-HERMETICALLY SEALED MINERAL OIL-FILLED TRANSFORMER ‘The prineipal components as shown in Figure 4.9(a) include (2) The tank, the core, the windings and the off-load tap-changer are as described in the previous section, Fan FeenareBlet Ver Trin To (hss rig etre Hee. tea Tp ng fie epee aka = atin ‘ante aon, Figure 4.9(2} An oil-filled transformer (with conservator tank) (b) Conservator Tank I is a small cylindrical tank mounted on top of the transformer and connected to the main tank by a smell pipe. It provides the space for expansion and contraction of oil, which expands when hot and contracts when cold. (c} Dehydrating Breather It is the device through which all the movernents of ait fiom and into the transformer take place. Air is expelled when oil expands due to heat and drawn in when oil cools. The breather is fitted at one end of the conservator tank and it is provided with a dehydrator containing silica gel which absorbs moisture when air is passing through it (a) Buchholz Protection (gas and oil relay) Buchholz zelay is normally found oa the nor-hermetically sealed oil-filled wausformer of capacity above 2MVA, to detect the presence of the gas generated by a fault within the 68a bs Voltage ‘Transformers “Gansformer. It consists of wo pivated Moats carcying es contained in a chamber. This chamber is housed in the pipe besween the (ransformer tank and the conservator tank. Tocamenoeee comers Figure 4.9(b) Buchholz relay Under noemal condition, the relay is {ull of oil and the Goats are fully raised and the mercury switches are open. Usually, the internal fault of the tausformer winding produces gas bubbles in the oil. As gas is collected in the Buchholz relay, the oil level in the relay will drop fo such a level that the upper float will turn on its pivot and closes the merctry switch, and it therefore activates the alarm. Serious electrical faults in the windings generated gas rapidly and produce a large surge of oil, and this cause the lower float to be forced aver, causing the lower mercury switch to close, and this is then arranged to trip the switch gears controlling the transformer. 410 HERMETICALLY-SEALED MINERAL OIL-FILLED TRANSFORMER p~PRESSURERELEE un OFFLOAD LY TERMINAL, TAP CHANGER OlL FILLING HOLE NITROGEN.GAS FIELINGINLET ond OW, LEVEL GAUGE. ‘0%, DRAIN VALVE SDE VIEW Figure 4.19(a) A hermetically sealed mineral cil-filted transformer of (a) The tank of the Aermeticalty-sealed transformer is completely sealed and designed to he tolerate the pressure developed by the expanding cil, oO echtigh Voltage ‘Nitrogen air is Filled in the top space of the lank lo climinate air and moisture within the tank, {b} The principal components include the tank, the core, the windings and the ofl-load taj changer as described in the previous section. (c) Transformer Protection (i) Pressuse Relief Device ‘This is normatiy found in the ofl-immersed transfarmers. When a fiallt occurs within the oil-filled Gansformer, different mixtures of gas will be produced due to the decomposition of insulating oil, pressure within the be built up. The pisssurg relief device is provided on the transformer in the form of a sealed bursting plate. When the gas pressure reaches a pre-determined value, the bursting plate snaps open aod the large orifice allows gas ty be discharged and (hus relieve the tank pressure. (ii) Low Oil Level Trip Low oil level is checked by a oil level detector placed in the transformer tank to send a tipping signal to trip the HV. switchgear controlling the transformer, in the event of the leak of iansformer insulating oil which cause the oil level of oil-filled transformer to be excessively Jow. (a) Pressure Gauge Pressure gauge is fixed on the tank of the oil-filled transformer 19 monitor its internal pressure. The pressure gaoge is also fixed with auniliaty contaeis which can be wired to the tripping circuit to trip the switchgear when abnormal pressure is developed within the tank, (@) Over-temperature Protestios 0 Excessive heat produced sy the windings due to overloading or internal fault of the transformer can cause damage to the windings and insulations. Winding temperanure indicator or sensor ate Dited with the cil-immersed of cast-resin transformets to moniter the winding femperavere, ‘The indicator and the sensor are also fitted with electrical contacts to enable: (i). the operation of cooling fan (for forced air cooling transformer); (ii) the operation of the alarm; Gii) the tripping of associated switchgear controlling the sransformex 3 « aERE Me sn _Agh Voltage Transformers The thermonieter is Filed with switches to initiate alarm or Irip signals. Typical settings of the over-temperature aku and tripping for oil-icomersed (cansformer with insulating Class ‘A’ are as follows: [Device Coot a a aE cal Oil Temperature 90°C: start LOS°C. LSE Sop __ a ‘Winding Temperature Loe Table 4.10(a) For winding temperature the thermometer has a1 input from a CT 40 energise on internal heating element, This wili create a healing effect due to the load current, 4.11 COOLING OF TRANSFORMERS, Tronsformers are also identified according to the coaling method employed. The symbol used (0 indicate the cooling medium used and the method for the circulation of heat on the surface of the cooling medium are as shown: ‘Kind of Cooling Medinm Symbol Mineral Non-flommabie synthetic fiquid Air ‘Kind of Circulation Symbol ‘Natural circulation Forced Air Forced Oil Table 4.11(a) (a) AN (Air-Natural) Castesin dry type transformer is normally cooled by natural air flow over the heated surface of the insulation of the windings. The cooling method is described as Air Natusgt or AN (b) AN/AF (Afr-Natural / Air-Forced) However, as air natural cooling is not efficient, a dry type transformer may be cooled by ditegt forced air and can be described as AF (Air-forced) transformer. Therefore, a cast-resin dry type transformer which has natural air cooling (AN) and also has the facility for the automatic fan operation (AN) should the temperature of windings increase beyond the normal limits, has two power ratings specified by AN/AF, e.g. a LOOO/1250KVA. AN/AF dry type transformer. 7 elmApplying an AN/AF transformer in a siniation where the AP rating is required most of the time is undesirable because the reliance is placed on the fan operation, the effective maximwm capacity of the transformer for long duration of application should be take at AN tating, AF rating should be applicable only for short duration of peak loading, Essentially, user should not place too much emphasis on the rekable operation of the fans (Q ONAN ‘The term ‘ONAN’ is used to describe the cooling method of a mineral_oil lislribustion transformer in which the windings and core are cooled naturally by oil, and the cooling medium (oil) is subsequently natezally cooled by ONAN transformers are widely used in the power distribution system. (a) ONAF A transformer supplied with fans fitted to the radiators ‘will have a rating, with fans in operation, of probably between 15% and 33% greater than with the fans not in operation The transformer therefore has an effective dual rating under ONAN and ONAF conditions, The tansformer might be specified as 20/25MVA ONAN/ONAF. The increased cutput mder ONAF conditions is reliably and cheaply obtained. Applying an ONAN/ONAF transformer in a situation where the ONAF rating is required most of the time ig undesirable since reliance is placed on fan operation. Where a “firm” supply is derived irom two transformers operating in parallel on a load sharing basis the normal lead is well inside the ONAN rating and the fans would only run in the rare event of one Gansformer being out of service, Such an application would exploit the cost saving of the ONAF cesign without placing too much emphasis on the reliable operation of the fans. (0) OFAF Forcing the oil circulstion and blowing air over the radiators will normally achieve a smaller, cheaper transformer than either ONAF or ONAN, Generally speaking the larger the tating required the greater the benefits, However, the maintenance burden is increasing owing to the oil pumps, motors and radiator fans required. Application in attended sites, with good maintenance procedures, is generally satisfactory. Generator transformers and power station interbus transformers will often use OFAF cooling. () ODAF/ODWF These are specialized cooling categories where the oil is ‘directed’ by pumps into the closest proximity possible to the winding conductors. The extemal cooling riedium cen be air or wetet. Because of the design, operation of the oil pumps, cooling fans, or water pumps is crucial to the rating obtainable aud such transformers may have sather poor naturally cooled (ONAN) ratings. Such directed and forced cooling results in a compact and economical design suitable Zor use in well-maintained environments, 2 poe ay Tt re: ce en u Ww u“st fer is in cor he an 208 act . a _High Voltage Transtormers SIN INSULATED TRANSFORMER 42 DRY TYPE EPOXY-RI ‘py windings are completely cneapsplated within a moisture-resistant chiding of epoxy resin as shown in Figure 4, | 2(a). WY ; Terminale (-2b Widing cotta] FX segil rLe¥ Winding Zep: ‘Thwee-Lanh Case |] fg Figure 4, 12(a) The constructional features of cast-resin transformer Asair natural cooling is not efficient for dry type transformer, a dry type transformer may be, cooled by direct forced air by « Jan and this can be described as AN/AF transformer, For example a 1000/1250kVA cry type AN/AF transformer will be able to be loaded to 1250KVA for short duration when the fan is operating, However, user should not place 100 mnuch emphasis on ihe reliable operation of the fans tc achieve the maxinyam capacity of the ttansformer. The dry type transformer inehides winding temperature sensor as the protection for tripping of the H.¥. switchgear in the event of excessive teraperature on the transformer winding, 413 DY1L DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER Medium voltage distribution systems (400 Volts phase to phase, aod 230 Volts phase to neutral) are supplied by the secondary of the distsibution transformers. As single phase voltage (230 Volts phase to neutral) has to be made available to consumers and the neutral (S) has to be maintaiaed at or near to earth potential (0 Volt), the secondary windings of the distribution transformers have to be star connected. For the satisfactory elimination of the 3° harmonic frequency in the distribution system, the primary windings of the distribution transformers have to be delta connected. The most common winding connections are therefore either DY, DYS, DY? or DY11 with DY Li being used widely throughout the world. 3 bnHigh Vol ormers _ ingepore and Malaysia, the distribution trmsformers used by the Power Supply Companies and the private sector are in the DY 1 connection ‘The connection of DY11 as defined in BS 171 is as shown below: Figure 4.13(2) ‘The phasor diagrams of the primary and secondary voltage are as shown: DYTI indicates shat the voltage of the secondary star windings lead the primary phase voltage by 30° and it corresponds to 11 o'clock. * iw Secondary Voltage Primary & Secondary “Voltage DY11) Figure 4.13(b) Parallel Operation Of Transformers Transformers in parallel operation must have the same secondary voltage (in terms of magnitude and phase angle) for ¢ common primary input Therefore, when two transformers are to be put into parallel operation, it is important to ensure that hoth transformers have the same. voltage ratio. the same phase displacement hetween the primary and secondary windings and the same impedance 7% ft b & a «of to ont _ a ___ High Velnge Transformers OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFOR ME! 4.14 PERFORMANC Factors which also govern choice of a particular transformer should include prime cost, lou taetor, cost of losses and efficiency, maintenance costs, fire-resistant qualities and associated building costs, space limitations and ambient temperature. (a) Prime Cost ‘The mineral oi anit is the cheapest and the cast-resin design the most expensive al some 30% more. Locating the mineral-oil-filled unit close o toad centres inevitably involves the instatlation of pits and drains and automatic fire protection. Special floor, raof ani door construction are necessary. (b) Losses Novtoad and load losses in a transformer result in loss of efficiently. ‘They ave the reason for the major running cost ofa taasformer. ‘When examining transformer losses, the importance of the iron loss is more obvious at low load factors. For example at 50% load factor Lower iron loss of tie silicone-liquid- filled designs compared to the cast-resin makes them much more attractive than at higher oad factors. The average industrial load fretor on a transformer is probably heiween 50 andl 60% but where security of supply is of supreme importance the use of wo transformers reduces this value to below $0%. {) Temperatare rise Heat Produced fn Transformers Heat in transformer is mainly produced by the passage of load eurvent through the resistance of the winding conductors (load loss), and duc to Heat production in the magnetic core (no-load 1035). Additional but less significant sources of heat include eddy current heating in conductors and suppott steel structures, and dielectric heating of insulating materials Transformer thermal design is aimed at removing the generated heat effectively and economically so as to avoid deterioration of any of the components of the transformer duc to excessive temperature. Winding Average Temperatur Por oif-iramersed transformer, the insulation usually consists of paper tape wound around the conductor. This gives the required insulation of the conductor from its neighbouring tums, The paper tape is saturated with oil since the whole winding is immersed in the bulk of oil inside the transformer tank. This gives insulation from other windings, and from the earthed parts of the transformer structure. 75 le: : 76 Heat generated in the conductor must firstly be conducted through the paper tape insulation and then into the bulk of oil. From there the heal is conducted and convected away fiom the winding eventually to be dissipated into the air surrounding the Wanstormer. In order to avoid damage to the insulation, the maximum service lemporative must be limited, The basic for ‘normal fife expecianey’ of oil-immersed itansformers with oil-impregnated Class A paper insulation is that “the temperature of the insulated on average shall not exceed 98°C Winding Hot Spot Temperature In practice, net all parts of a winding operate at (he same temperature since some parts are cooled more effectively than others. The part of ihe svinding which reaches the hottest temperature is known as the ‘hot spot” Conventional temperature probes are not suitable for direct allachment to conductors which shay be al a high voltage above carth. Thercfore the ‘average temperature’ of a complete winding is normally determined by measuring its change in resistance above a reference iemperalure. Research and development tests have established that the hot spot temperature is about 13°C above the average winding temperatare in typical naturally cooled transformers, Measurement of average winding temperature therefore allows the hot spot tc be dedkced, at least in an empizical way. Maximum Allowable Winding Temperature Ri AC no load condition, the temperature of winding conductor in the transformer is the same as the ambient temperature of the air surrounding the transformer. This temperature rises and eventually stabilizes at a higher value when the load current rises to a constant value. The hot spot temperature of the winding is therefore given as: Winding Hot Spot Temperature = Aunbient Temperature + Average Winding Temperature Rise + Hot Spot Differential ‘The desis of the IEC specification for thermat design, with the transformer et full lozd, is fo assuine an ennual average temperature of 20°C. On average. over a year therefore, the limit of 98°C is achieved if: 98°C 2 20°C + average winding temperature rise + 13°C ‘Therefore the average winding temperature rise should be ¢ 65°C for Class ‘A’ insulation of oil immersed transformer and this forms the basis of the IEC specification Zor 65°C average winding temperature rise. There ate also [EC requirements for the temperature rise of the insulating oil when the transformer is at full load. The specified rise of 60°C ensures that the oif does not degrade in service and is compatible with allowing the average winding temperature to rise by 65°C.oe pia ‘igh Voltage Transtornuers Permissible Winding Temperature Rige “The temperature rise limits for dey type transformer and oil type transformers aze shown in Table 4.14(a) and Table 4.14(b). ‘These tables are reproduced from BS 17| and indicate the permissible limits of temperature rise for the two types of transformer, iry-type transformers ftom BSI7 Part 2 3 4 ‘Temperature class | Maximum temperature of insulation ™ Fable 4.14(a) Temperature tise limits for di 7 Cooling method ‘Ait, natural or forced ‘Windings (Temperature sise measured by the resistance method) 125 1scee fa) Same valves as for windings {b) The temperature shall, in no case, reach a value that will damage the cove itself, other pavts or adjacent materials, Cares and other par (a) adjacent to windings (b) not adjacent to windings Tsulating materials trey be used separately or in conpbination provided that in any application each material will not be subjected to a teruperatuce in excess of that for which iC fs suitable, if operated under rated conditions * tw accordance with IEC Publication 88, Recommendations for the Classification of Materials for the Insulation of Electrical Machinery and Apparatus in Relation to their Thermal Stability m Service, +9 For cectain insulating matesiols, tomperstore rises in excess of (50°C may be adopted by agreentent ‘becween the mannfaeluser and (he purchaser, Not Table 4.14¢b) Temperature rise limits for oil-immersed type transformers from BS 171 Part 2 7 T 7 Part Maximum temperatare rise (°C) 65, when the ail circulation is catural or forced non- directed 70, when the oil cireulation is foreed and directed Windings: teragerature class of insulation A (lemperature rise measured by the resistance method) Top oll (lemperainre rise measured by thermometer) 60, when the transforaner is equipped with a conservator or sealed 55, when the transformer is neither equipped with a conservator nor sealed Cores, metallic parts and adjacent | The teraperature shall, a) no case, reach a value that will materiols damage the coro itself other parts or adjacent materials, Note The temperature rise Tanate of the windinss (measured by the resistance method) ate chosen to give the same hot-spot temperature rise with different types of oil circulation. The hot-spot temperature ise eannot normally be measuced dicectly. Transformers sith forced-directed of flow have a difference between the kot spot and the average temperature rise in the windings which is smaller than that in Uaesformers sith natural ot forced bat not directed oil flow. For this reason, the ‘windings of transformers with forced-directed off Row can have temperature rise fimits (measured by the resistance nccthod) which ste 3°C higher than in other transfouners, 7 a‘AS the basis of BS 171 and IEC 76 specification for thermal design of transformer is based ott anmial average temperature of 20°C, the high ambient (emperalure in Singapor: and Malaysia (25°C to 35°C) where the transformer is sited aay weil limit the rating (KVA) of standard transformer to something below the nameplate value, Lonmersture Classification of Jnsulating Materials Kusulating materials used in electrical machines are classified on the basis of maximum permitted temperature, The (emperature classification of insulating material is as shown: ‘Table 4.14 (c) Materials of Temperature Class, Materials Paper impregnaied with natural resins, cellulose, insulating oil, etc, also laminaled wood, vanished paper, cellulose acetate film, eve Synthetic resin camels, colton and paper faininates “with formaldehyde bonding, etc. Mica, glass, fibre, ashestas, ele wiih suitable bonding substances, built-up mica, glass file and ashestos laminates. The mateids of class B with more termally resistant bonding, materials. Glass Fibre “and asbest nd built up mica, with appropriate silicon resins ~ | Mica, ceranties, glass, quartz, and asbestos without binders or \with silicon resins of superior thormal stability. Ambient Temperature Since ambient temperature has an important influence on transformer performance, such details must be included in the transformer enquiry specifications. The IBC reference ambient temperature is given in four components as follows: Maximum 40°C Maximum averaged over a 24 hour period 30°C Annual average 20°C Minimum “28°C If any of the IEC reference ambient temperatures are exceeded! by the site conditions the permitted internal temperature rises are adjusted to restore the basic thermal equation for normal [ife expectancy. For exemple, if the annual average temperature was 25°C instead of 20°C, the permitted average winding rise for oil immersed transformer with class “A” insulation is reduced te GO°C to restore the limit of 98°C total hot spot temperatere,High Voltage Transformers The cevrect annual average temperature to use when specifying Wansformers ty a “weighted? value given as follows: Ga! Bye O logia 1/N [S10 204 where Oa! = weighted anaual ambiem temperature Ga = monthly average temperature N= number of months {d) Fire resistance Dry-type and liquid-fitled units (except mineral oi}, are designated fire-resistant designs: put that does not mean that the materiels used will not burn, Rather i( refers to their high fire point (che temperaiure at which the material continues to bun when subject ter a flame on the surface). ft must be well above the maximum teniperatre reached hy & transformer operating at its muxinuim overload condition in a high ambient, Table 4.14(d) Fire-point temperature of some fire-resistanec transformers ‘Material Fire point CC) Minerct oil 170 Silicone oit 360 Epoxy-resin 430. One mast also consider the nature and (oxicity of the smoke given off by materials when they are burning, Most fire officers agree that smoke is the most serious hazard to fife in any fire for it blinds, confuses and suffocates and can cause deaths well away from the centre of the fire. Epoxy resins, like most solid polymers, produce thick black smoke when buring, while silicone liquid generates a white vapour less dangerous in content and much easier to see through (c) Tappings and connections Part 4 of BS 171 deals with tappings and connections of power transformers. ‘The standard off-circuit tapping range is 10% with owe taps of 244% above aormal and bo taps of 24% below normal. Off-circuit taps on distribution (ransformers are normally selected by a switch on liquid immersed transformers and links on dry-type transformers. Three-ead-five-position, tapping switches are the mast common. Most distribution systems are supplied through system or network transformers where the LV. winding is star connected. The system is therefore earthed via the neutral of the network or system transformer. For the satisfactory elimination of triple frequency harmonics it follows that the winding of distribution transformers should be delta connected. It is necessary on L.¥, domestic distribution systems that phase-to-neutral voltages ate available and that the neutral operates at or near to earth potential, The most common winding connections are therefore either DYI1, DYt, DYS or DY? with DY/I1 or its equivalent being widely used throughout the world. These connections ae defined in BS 171 and are shown in Figure ery oeage () lmpulse withstand I1is recognised thal for a variety of reasons tansient voltages do occur in cabled systems. ‘Transformers can aiso be connectad very close to aa overhead sysiem and an agreed system of impulse voltage testing and impulse voltage levels do give indication that a level of insulation strength has been achieved in the basic design. Table {1 of IEC 76, Part 3 gives the impulse voltage withstand levels agreed by most countrigs of the world. The 11kV system is considered by the supply authorities to require the 75KV level, while pole-mounted transformers connected ta averhead lines are usually (ested (0 a higher level of 9SkV. ‘The increasing use of vacuum cireuit breakers and their current-chopping characteristics produce exceptionally high voltages in the low-capacitance, high-swrge impedance windings of the dry-type transformer. Impulse levels therefore become necessary for the dry-type transformer. 4.15 THREE-WINDING TRANSFORMERS In three-winding transformers, the third winding is normally called as tertiary winding and it is provided to incet one or more of the following requirements: - (1) For an additional load, which for some reason must be kept isolated from that of secondary (2) To supply phase-compensating devices, such as condensers, operated at some voltage not equal (o primary or secondary or with some different connection. (3) Ia star’star connected transformers, (i) To reduce 3“-harmonic voltage component. (i) To permit the transformation of unbalanced 3-phase loads. (4) Asa voltage coil in tertiary transformer. (5) To load large split winding generstors ©) To inter-connect three supply systems opersting at different voltages. Figure 4.15 (a) 80 fel: t High Yoltage Transformers to earth tank at the secondary ie the Tertiagy Windings are mostly delta-conneeted. Under phas site of the transformer, a very large tertiary circulating current is preiuced to compen unbalance phase voltage. The reactance of the winding must be sufficiently large to limit the circulating current (0 thal can be castied by the tertiary winding conductor, so as no undue overheating shal! occur. As its name implies, a tertiary winding is simply a third of a transformer unit or group and the general, though not essential, form is the closed delia for three-phase working.’ star/star conection by itself has been regarded hitherto with some disfavour on account of its third-harmonic phenomena aac its behaviour when transforming unbalanced lo ire for the elimination of these defeats is the principal reason for incorporating tertiary ta windings, The other advantages are of the kind that become virtues by necessity, ts removal of the Wo objections cited above secures, without any further effort, the remaining advantages, ‘The uses of the tertiary delta windings, for star/star connected (ranslormers and groups ire thus as follows: (1) To reduce third-harmonic voltage components. (2) To permit the transformation of unbalanced three-phase loads. G) Te supply an auxiliary (oad in adelition to the main load. If one of the main windings is delta connected, third-harmonic voltages are substantially climinated by the circulation of third-harmonic currents in the closed delta, and as such currents do net circulate in the tines, any closed delte windings, whether a part of one of the main windings or separate therefrom, will provide the means for counteracting third- harmonic voltages. ‘To meet these requirements the tertiary delta winding in conjunction with the star‘star connections came into use, particularly for those cases where it was thought desirable to have star points on both sides for earthing purposes without the disadvantages atiendaat upon the use of straight star star connections, In such cases the tertiary windings ase isolated from all outside sources, and they simply provide the necessary magnerising ampere-turns to eliminate the third-harmonic voltages, which would otherwise be inherent ia the vansformer design. ‘The chief disadvantage of the straight stax/star connection employing a three-wire primary is that unbalanced loads on the secondary four-wire side may produce voltage unbalancing, particularly with three-phase shell-type transformers and three-phase groups of single-phase transformers. This is due to the fact that on the primary side two af the phases camry retum toad currents from the third loaded phase, and as they have no coresponding secondary load ampere-tums they act as choke coils and produce severe distortion of the phase vollages. {tis well known that a delta/star-connected transformer or group eliminates this phenomenon snd permits the supply of greatly wabalanced loads without producing abnormal voltage drops. 1f, however, the star/star with tertiary defia connection be used, the load currents in the primary phases corresponding to the unloaded secondaries are balanced by the flow of the Jond currents in the tertiary delta, as shown typically in Figure 4.15(a). In this case, the teciary delia must be designed to be sufficienily large to provide the necessary *riple fiequency magnetising ampere-turns, and at the same time to handle the maximum load current that may flow in it due to the most onerous conditions of load unbalancing aL eeFault Carrent Disiritution of a 3-winding Transformer For a phase-to-phase short cirouit and 3-phase short circuit, current is not expected to flow in the tertiary winding. For « phase to carth shart circuit, current is circulated in tertiary winding 10 baling the magnetic field of primary and secondary windings as shown in Figure 4.15 (b), itis noted that the phase to earth fault current on the secondary side is reflected as overeurtent an the primary side, ; PRERAULT Assuming transformer ratio is iE Figure 4.15 (b) Fault current distribution on a star-star transformer with unloaded tertiary fora phase to earth fault on the secondary side ‘The fault current distribution on a star-star transformer with unloaded tertiary for a phase to phase fault on the secondary side of the transformer is shown in Figure 4.15(c). ‘PHPHFAULT ERAT Figure 4.15(e) Fault current distribution oa « star-star transformer with unloaded tertiary fora phase to phase fault on the secondary side 82 i10 ary High Voltage Transformers 416 0} OAD TAP-CHANGER Or-toad tap-changers ave the tap-changers in which the tap position of the winding ean be adjusted without the intercuptica af power supply On-load tap-changers are used mostly ia the layger unit transformers where daily and short period of voltage aljustments are necessary ad Ty Operation of On For the purpose of description, it is necessary to consider the high speed resistor tap-changer operated on a stored energy accumulator. The conventional flog-cycle double resistor lap- changer is most commonly used. For illustration, « tap-changer fitted to the antral end of a iransformer high. voliage winding will he considered in. which the tappings are brought ent in apotentiometer method as in the linear tappings arrangement, [Higure 4.16(0)] Figute 4,16(a) Schematic Diagram for Lineat-type Double Resistor Tap-Changer ‘The tappings axe brought ont to two parallel rows of fixed tap selector contacts, the odd humber og one side and the even on the other. The two sliding contacts Si and $2 are indexed by Geaeva wheels and are driven by multi-start lead screws, Current is tansferred ‘via collector busbars through bushings to the side of the diverter switch. Tae moving tap selector contacts $1 and $2 are shown on taps 1 and 2 respectively. ‘The diverter switch 1s shown indexed in the running position for tap 1. The store-energy mechanism operates and the moving contact system of the divester switch commences its travel as follows: - 3 aecL LTT Voltage Teansformers _ . co - G@) The main switching contact MI opens and the load curvent fiom the winding, Tow through the moving contuet $1, the resistor RI and the vansition contact ‘Tt to the neural, (b) The moving diverter contact then makes on the apposite Wansition contact T2, Both resistors RY and R2 are now connected in series across the tap section with the mid-paint Forming the neutral. The load current is split between the two resistors, and. the circulating current, fimited by the ohmic value of the resistance, passes round de loo. Ia ue resistor the phasors of half the Joad cucrent amd of the cirealatine current will be subtractive and ia ihe other half additive, (6) As the Gavel of the moving contacts continues, il brests with the transition contact TH. The load curent then passes through the tap selector contact S2, resistor R2 and ansition contact 12 (dé) Finally, the moving contact closes on the main arcing contacts M2 and the resistor R2 is 7 shoried ou. This is the nenning positive for tap 2 The whole sequence from (ap 1 to tap 2 involves no movement of the tap selectors. IF we Caity out a further tap change in the same direction from (ap 2 ta tap 3, this involves a tap selecior movement as follows: - {@) The tap selector $1 moves from position 1 to 3. As soon as pasition 3 has been selected, the diverter switch operates to comect if to the neutral. (8) Continming in sequence the tap selector $2 moves up fiom position 2 to 4 and the diverter switch operates to index tap 4 10 the neuval Whenever a tap change is made in the same direction, the tap selector moves first, followed by a change-over of the diverter switch, On reversat of direction, all that is necessary is for the diverter swstch to traisfer tothe other side, eg. ftom tap 4 to 3, Daring this reversal tap change, the tap selector drive mechanism is held stationary. This is achieved by @ 180° mechanical “loss notion” device incerporated in the drive to the tap selectors. The sequence Of ap selection Zollowed by diverter switch transfer wili then be picked up. The mechanical ost trotion device only operates on a reversal of direction, A ‘ep changer of this type completes a change in 3 to 8 seconds, The transfer of the high Speed diverter switch takes place in 45 to 70 ms dependent on type. 4.17 TRANSFORMER OIL. Detailed guidance on transformer oif maintenance and testing can be obtained from British Standard Code of Practice CP 1009 entitled “Maimenance of Insulating Oil, and also Eom British Standard Specification 148 for insulating cil Deterioration Of OF Oil forms part of the main insulation of oil-filled ‘ansformers. It tends to deteriorate in service because of the following: 84 Tl & 0, Su Tes Ai the the 2 san Toe the econ teste. Han Oi is Ki she be ste Durin be use Fitling Alternis ve ap ter tish a vd High Voltage Transformers {a) Oxidation when in contact with air. This causes acidic byproducts whiel attacks the insulating paper, resulting in loumation of slucige. Oxidation alsa produces water, (b) Water originating from the atmosphere or produced by oxidation of of) and the deterioration of the insulating materials. The water is readify absorbed by the oil and insolation and affvets their insulating properties. Small quantities of sludge con seriously affect transformer performance in the following mannet: {a) Reduce the dielectric strength of oil (b) Deposition of sludge upon the insulation and in the cooling ducts and fins of the tronsforrner significantly affects the cooling system. The result is an increase in the operating temperature which further promotes the formation of shuilge. Filtration of oil removes solid by means ofa filter and air and moisture under vactium, Rate Of Deterioration The ratz of deterioration is dependent upon the extent of the two main causes: {a) Prolonged operation of the transformer at an exeessive temperature, and/or (b) Inefficient ventilation of the substation in which the unit is installed. Such conditions, therefore, should be avoided, as overheating causes oxidation of the oil resulting in acidity and the consequent risk of sludge precipitation. A futher condition causing deterioration of the oil as an insurant is ingress of moisture into the tank, a serious consideration where transformers are insfalled in damp situations or where the surrounding atmosphere is humid. Sampling And Testing ‘To ensure that the transformer continues to operate at maximum efficiency and also t0 avoid the possibility of the oil deteriorating to a state at which it is no longer practicable or economical for it to be reconditioned, the oil in each transformer should be sampled and tested periodically and records kept of its condition. Handling Of Oi Oil is normally delivered in drums which must be covered during transportation and storage. Jtshould be placed upside down to minimise the entry of afr through the seal. It showid not be stored sideways as this maximises the oil surface. During filling, only PVC or flexible steet hoses should be used. Rubber hoses should never be used as the sulphur will be absorbed by the oil and causes corrosion. Filing of a transformer should be carried out of the bottom to minimise absorption of air. Allematively the end of the delivery pipe must be held below the surface of the oil, 83High Vo ransfor co : ‘Two new oils are normally miscible i.e. can be mixed for use. In case of micertainty the wo samples are mixed logether ina glass container. The new mixture should be clear. Tr is however not worthwhile to mix @ now oil with a contaminated oil to (ry to improve its quality, Oi Sampling Where nedessary, suilably positioned Aanged pipe extensions carrying valves are pravided for oi] filtering and draining purposes, When fitted, independent off sampling devices are as illustrated. Gasket f OL Outlet Figure 4.17(a) Oil sampling device Before oil samples are taken, sampling devices must be thoroughly cleaned with dry fibre- free material (tissue paper) and a small quantity of oil drawa off to clean foreign matier. For this purpose, stoppered glass bottles of approximately one quart (one litre) capacity should be used. These must be absolutely clean and dry. Each bottle should be half-filled with ofl fiom the transformer, and rinsed and emptied before receiving the final sample, when it should be filled completely, stopperod securely, and labelled clearly. The samples should then be examined and the relevant details duly noted. Pirsly, the general appearance of the oil should be observed and notice taken of its colour, whether there are any visible signs of suspended matter, and its odour, A greenish appearance indicates the presence of copper soaps in which circumstance rapid deterioration 38 likely. The appearance of suspended matter may be due to the presence of moisture or iron. oxide. If an unusual odour is detected this usvally is either of an acrid acid nature or similar to the smell of petrol or acetylene. The former condition may be a symptom of volatife acids in the oil, whilst the latter may signify a low flash point which could result from a fault in the transformer. Testing Of Oil A sample of oil to be tested must be collected from the bottom of the transformer tank to effectively check for the presence of moisture. A mote representative sample is obtained if the transformer is on toad when the oif is circulated. The oi] must first be allowed to run to flush off any dirt at the collection point. The container must be rinsed several times using the oil before a sample is collected. The test must be carried out immediately after collection. Sealed transformers are not designed for routine testing of vil. 86 ba ©eva se a __High Voltage Pransformers While a number of tests can be carried out on oi! samples it is useftt to inspect a sample for ibe following: © Odour it should not have any pungent or unustal smxll «© Appearance It should be ciear without visible contamination «Colour Ii should be of bright yellow ‘The presence of moisture in oil can easily he detected by heating a sample in a test tube. The sudden expansion of water produces a eraekling sound. This is known as the crackle test, ‘Tosting Of The Oil Sampics The samples of the oil can be tested to ascertain its electric strength, whether itis free from noisti, ils neutralisation value of the acid content, the percentage of suspended studge that it contains, and its closed flash point {a) Electric strength The electric strength of the oif is considerably reduced by occluded moisture or fibres and particularly by a combination of both. When the oil is tested with an oil-testing equipment it should withstand 30kV for one minute at 15°C — 25°C. Af frequent transient sparking occurs, this suggests the presence of forcign matter, ¢.g. moisture, Rbrous meterial, carbon particles, ofc., and the oil should be filtered. The electric strength test should be repeated after filtration. ‘The presence of moisture can be readily detected by the Crackle test. (0) Crackle test for moisture Small samples are put into perfectly dry test tube and gently lneated over a flame until the oil boils, when the presence of moisture will cause quite an audible crackling, Another method is to stir a % pint sample with a metal rod of about 14 in. diameter which bas been heated to a dull red heat. Agnin, audible crackling will indicate moisture. If an cil fails to pass the fizst test, two additional samples should be tested, both of which must pass the crackle test for the oil 10 be considered satisfactory. Oil that does not pass the required tesis should be suitably treated. (©) Acidity The large majority of wansfoumers are reasonably fiee from avidity but occasionally a unit will develop this trouble which tends to increase rapidly once it has started, It is frequently accompanied by a pungent odow; consequently, if such ao odour or appreciable corzosion under the cover is noted during routine inspection, immediately action should be taken to have the oil tested thoroughly. Eguipmeat and solutions necessary to perform acidity tests are obtained from suppliers of laboratory apparatas and chemicals. Altematively, the advice of oil suppliers may be sought, Suggested acidity limits are as follows: @: h Voltage Tr " oe ese (i) When the acidity is below O.Sing KOH/g no action need to be laken if the olf is satisfactary in other respects, (ii), When the acidity is between 0.5 and LQmg KOL/g the oil should be kept under observation and filtered ifnecessary. (iii) When! the acidity exceeds 10mg KOH/g the oil should be reconditioned or discarded, Consultation with the oi! suppliers may he desirable, If the avidity is allowed (0 exceed 10mg KOH/y there is considerable risk of siudge precipitation andor corrosion of metal surfaces above oil level by condensed acidic vapours, However, although it may be possible to retain oil in service with acidity above 1.Omg KOH/g provided that frequent internal examination of Ihe apparatas is made, this practice is nol generally ceonomic. Further, the oil may reach a state at which it is not possible economically for it to be reconditioned. Regular filbation checks the development of acidity but is not effective in removing acid onee it has formed. To remove acid, the oi may returned to the oif suppliers for reconditioning, or new oil may be provided, hut in either case the lower the acidity at the time of changing the oil the less the new filling will be aifected by acid absozption from the core and windings When the oif is removed, the core, coils, and tapk interior should be thoroughly washed down, pteferably when hot, ic, immediately afier switching the transformer out of service, using a pressure jet of warm clean new oif to remove as much as possible of the old acid oi]. It is always desirable to lift the core and windings before cleaning the tank and tubes, (a) Sludge in oil samples Any particles of solid matter detected in oif samples may indicate the presence of oxidation sludge or other foreign material, such as rast, scale or dust. Such particles are of sitnilar appearence and they should be examined to establish their composition. Tt is possible for sludge to be identified in an oil sample having a telatively low acidity content. This can occur in the case where a transformer has remained in service with ot which has reached the point of sludge deposition and the equipment has not been sufficiently cleaned before the new oi] has been introduced. It should be noted that oil samples may appear clear in the early stages of sludge formation before deposition has commenced, but iis presence can be ascertained by diluting the oi! with aromatic-free petroleum spirit. If this process reveals the presence of sludge it is recommended that the oil in the transformer be sampled more frequently and the possibility of the formation of any sludge deposit investigated as soon as possible. IC is recommended that suspended sludge in oil be not allowed to exceed 0.05 per cent, but regular investigation is necessary unless it is known that the oil is approaching the specified limit of acidity (mg KOH/g) and it is required to postpone oit change. However, if the presence of precipitated sludge is established it may be necessary, even though the acidity may be within the prescribed limit, to consider applying treatment or 88e ¥ f d ee High Voltage Ph changing the oi], since if auhcres to the core and windings and tends to choke the oid civcalating duets, This results in higher core ane winding temperatures wil consequent formation of still more sludge, the action being cumulative, ‘The incidence of sludge formation nowadays however is rarely experieneed but nevertheless the sludge is fir nuore cid than the oil ancl, if present, should be removed by washing all parts with @ prossure jet of warm, clean, new oi! ax indieuted under the heading “Acidity”. 1 should be noted that shidge generatly hardens when exposed to almosphere and it is commended thal cleaning be effected immediately upon removal of the core and coils fron the oil, (e} Flash point (closed) Whilst with inezeasing age a fall i the flash point of the oil is normal, a decrease in excess of 16,5°C or a flash point below 130°C! may be an indication that a fault hos arisen such as excessive infernal fempecature, electrical discharge, core faults, oF foreign matter becoming lodged between eny conductor ane! earthed portion of the unit. Hf the oil has been subjected to high temperature due to a fault of if it gives off an unesual odour, a flash point test should be made without delay. () Frequency of testing Whilst the filling of transformers with ofl at the works is carried out under the most suitable conditions and under expert supervision, it is generally recommended that tests to determine the condition of the oil be carried out on new transformers on detivery and also three months after installation, The same procedure should also be adopted when refilling bas caken place. There-alter an annual inspection should be the rule when, if practicable, the oil should be tested for electric strength and subjected to crackle test, The oil should be tested for acidity at wo-yearly intervals. These recommendations, of course, ate applicable to transformers of aver approximatcly SOKVA, capacity. Units below this size may be tested at less frequent intervals according to prevailing conditions, and it is recognised that oil testing of small pole mounting units is not economic. (g) Recording of results ‘The keeping of records is an essential feature of transformer maintenance. Records peciaining to each transformer shouid be maintained of all oit tests, electric strength, acidity, and flash point, and at the same time velevant operating details such as maximum loads and maximum oil temperatures should be included, The results determined from oil tests for acidity should be recorded or plotted on a graph using time as the base, fn this way, the propensity of the oil will be evident and it will be possible to gauge the approximate rate of deterioration whica will give an indication when it will be advisable to carry out acidity tests at shorter intervals. (h) Mixing oil Generally, there is no objection to the admixture of new ojl with old provided that the new oil complies with the same specification as of that in use, and that the condition of 89oth is not such as fo ead te sludge precipitation, Apart from topping up, however, it is uneconomie to mix new gil with oid, (@ Oil filtration ‘As a genera! routine, the oll should be filtered every two years but, acearding to the condition of the ail as revealed by samples under test, oF sP the tansformer is heavily loaded for long periods, it should be filtered every year, The oposation should be commenced by filtering the oil in the conservator using the drain valve and fing hole provided, afler which the oi] in the main uansformer tank end on: Joad switeh tank or other chambers cau be filtered in turn, Circulation of the oil dough the filter should be continued until the condition of the oit at both inlet and outlet are equal tc the recommended values specified. Check that aff necessary valves are opened after servicing. @ Removing oil When oil is removed from « transformer, an explosive mixtuce may be present and great care must be taken to avoid tisk of fire. Avoid naked lights or any form of ignition. Thoroughly ventitate by removing handhole covers. Ventilation by blower is essential before entering any tank or compartment. 4.18 USEFUL STANDARDS FOR SPECIFICATION OF POWER TRANSFORMERS ‘The useful TEC standard for specifications of power transformers and associated equipment axe shown in Table 4.18(a) 4.19 VOLTAGE, IMPEDANCE AND POWER RATING The correct specification of transformer voltages, impedance(s} and kVA rating(s) are described in this section, Voltage Drop ‘There is an internal voltage drop in a transformer under secondary load conditions, The volt drop is due to the leakage reactance and the winding resistance. Rather than express the impedance in ohms per phase the normal convention with transformners is to express the impedance as a percentage value refered to the kVA (or MVA) rating of the transformer, Impedance (a) The transformer with high reactance has the disadvantage of a large voltage drop, it requires « large voltage tapping range to compensate and maintain secondary voltage, 90 L ore ie in h 4 8High Votlage Transformers. and it also requires a large amount af 1 itself clive power consumed within the transformer (hy For larger transformer ratings a high reactance may, however, he considered desirable because it limits the short circuit current and therefore maintains the raling of associated system switehgear. Some compromise must be arrived at between these conlicting requirements and sainimum values are specified in IEC 76, Power Transformers. Part | General Pari 2~ Temperature Ris | Part 3 ~ Insulation Levels and Dieloetric Te: Pari 4 —Tappings and Connpetions Bart 5 ~ Ability to Withstand Short Circuit sces | Classificatin é ins ating: Voltages abov C156 | Method for Determination of the Electric / _| On-Load Fap : Partial Discharge Mu 6289 _| Reactors _ _ iC Specification for Unu | Insulating, Oils for Tew “TEC 354 [Loading Guide fo: ised Power Transformers, Tec 542 ati adi Tap Changers IEC $5] | Measurement of Transformer and Reactor Sound Levels — TEC 599 | Interpretation of the Analysis of Gases in Transformers and other Oil-Filled Electrical Equipment in Service, - TEC 468 I Application Guide for Power Transformers _ RS TEC 616 | Terminal and Tapsing Markings for Power Transformers _ TEC722_| Guide fo the Lightning Impulse and Switching Impulse Testing of Power Transformers and Reactors , IEC 726 _| Dry Type Power Transformers IEC.905” [Loading Guide to Dry Type Roney Transformers Table 4.18(a) Useful standards for power transformers } M jixeuit Tappings e In domestic and industrial distribution systems, tansformers stepping down from 11xV to 33K¥ or O.415KV will normally be satisfactory without on-load tap changers. Such tansformers will usually have impedances of around 4% to 6% giving a full toad volt drop at it G85 pi of 3% or 4%. e i z Basie Insulation Levels (BIL) The amount of insulation applied to the winding conductors is usually influenced by the impulse voltage rating of the winding rather than by the power feequency voltage rating. t Impulse voltages due to lightning or switching activity appearing at the terminals of the u ‘vansformer stress the winding insulation and this effect may be reduced by the application of * surge arresiers, ~ a eeRated Power Translarmers are assigned a rated power for each winding, which refers to @ continuous, Joading. This is reference value for guarantees and tests concerting the load lasses and temperature sises. A two winding Uansformer has only one value of rated power (identical for both windings). For multiswinding tramsfavimers the rated power af each winding should be stated. In the case ‘ala three winding transformer, the rated power and voltage of each winding must be known in order (o determine steady state operation, “Phe rated power for the three-phase case given by LEC definition is: Rated Power = V9 x Rated Secondary Voltage x Rated Secondary Current Rated Voltage The rated secondary voltage is given as the no-Joad voltage on the secondary side of the transformer with rated voltage applied (o the primary winding. This differs from the full load secondary voltage by the amount of voltage drop through the short cirenst impedance of the tuausformier, 4.20 SPECIFICATIONS OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS: Tho sample of specifications of the oil immersed type transformer are shown in schedule * Schedule A Rates power No, of transformer required Phase ‘Voltage ratio at no load j Frequency “Type of Coating Winding Comaection:- High Voltage Winding Delta Delta Low Voltage Winding Stat Star DYN 22000/433 220000433 50 50 ONAN ONAN, Vector-Group Symbol DYH Rated Tnsulation Level:- Highest Voltages:- High Voltage Winding Law Voltage Winding 24 ll One minute power frequency withstand voltages: High Voltage Winding Low Veltage Wading Impulse Withstand Voltages 92Tints of Temperature Rise: pe tniep ot | in wining Impedance voltage at rated | voltage, rated frequency, rated power and on prinefpal tapping “Tapping Range of Primary | winding ane rated step-voltages:~ [Fram pereen plus to preont nines 1 Rased step voltage | soxinnum pormissihie noise level of tcansformer Class of winding insulation to BS 171 ‘Whether neutral feiminals are to be brought out Law voltage Winding System Earthing Logation Maximum Ambient Temporaliure _High Voltage Transformers percent peccent | percent i aR | 3 A to) toa iss" ) temperature rise = measured by vemperatare tise measured by resistance resistance Neutral Neunal Solidly Solidly Earthed farthed Indoor tndear | Yes Yes 35 38 ‘The sample of specification of the dry type wansformer are shown in schedule “B” Schedule B TRated power No, of transformer required Phase i Voltage ratie at no load i Frequency Type of Cooting Winding Connection:- High Voltage Winding Low Voltage Wiading Vector-Group Symbol Rated inaitlation Leveli- Highest Volrages:- High Voltage Winding Low Voltage Winding (One minute poser fiequency withstand voltages: High Voltage Winding Low Voltage Winding Impulse Withstand Voltages 22000433 30. ANIA Delta StarMigh Voltage Transformers Schedule B (Continue. Limits of Temperature Rise Impedance voltage at rated voltage, rated frequency, rated power and 07 principal tapping, ‘Tapping Runge of Primary winding and rated slep-voltnge:- From percent plus io percent mires Raied siep voltage Maximum permissible noise level of anstarmer Type of winding insuation Class of winding insulation to BS 17] Whether neutral terminats are to be browght out Low Voltage Winding System Earthing Location ‘Maximum Ambient Temperature 42! NAMEPLATE DATA percent peseent percent ae ast-resis! cast-resin 1 Neutral Solidly Enythed The data and specifications of power transformers, which appears on the nameplate are shown in Figure 4.2! (a) and 4.21 (b). eo “type of Coote (“ERAN aed ne mae aed car. = Tey. ee #00 7] trent a) a @ set me. Cd) ‘TRANSFORMER ng Vtg CET you, Lis Secu ong Eben oe Ge ha. al eR HE GE Figure 4.21 (a) Delta/star DY 11, 11kV/433V distribution transformer 94are __ High Voltage Transformers oN LOAD TAP-CHANGING TRANSFORMER HGH VOLT nnreorcooune [PRANTORAT] [BSI 7 C76) erg. [IE] puvst [2] RATED PoweR[iso00 7 30000 KA] conmmwous VOLTAGE RATING Hy BROOWetaseese, Tanesa] toy STOO ay BIPEDANCE ‘AT 78% 43000 V TAP Postrion puaty [EORY.W PERV] rewr rise OF on, weminesf37SS] TaGH_VOLTAGE SIDE Tow vouiace “AF [REECrON|cHaNce ovr | vouraoH] CURRENT | [FOLTAGH CURRERT™T PO [su onn [SELECTOR Co conanonan] |) ram —[zmsar |l aio0e | says 167s Zezmanes | fxn arenes, | nor FOR .v Neu. 16vA ‘Susu sagesiFOR toosach SH FOR Eaenia| croni.v Ne class fomnat]_ xan sa-sn | se {LOW VoITAGE se fat roranwr{—Rglowranmnva we [a] lon. qrv. [—Rlsmmmrivc wr. Pe] A seu vo —]oare_——] 33/11KV S0MVA ONAN/ON, au aE TRANSFORMER Figure 4.21 (b) Delta/star DY 11, 33KV/I LIV distribution transformer ‘These include the following: (a) Transformer vector group (a) Transformer tappings (c) Transformer impedance voltage User must also request from the manufacturer and supplier a factory test report which shows ihe following: (a) Iron and copper losses (b) Regulation (Difference between no-load and full-load voltage) 4.22. MAINTENANCE OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS Periodic Maintenance (a) External maintenance All painted surfaces should be checked annually and refurbished as necessary. External elements, such as rain, sun, pollutants will cause harm to the transformer’s external surfaces over time. 95 jo Aen ne/ High Voltage sfx mers (0) Auxiliary Equipment Transformers equipped with auxitiary equipment such as fans, contol devices and ganaes should be inspected periodically t@ ensure accurate and costimieus operation, Paihire of one of these devices could cause unnecessary damage to the banstormer, (c) Transformer Insulation Insulation is one of the most important pats of a transformer. Insulation failure of the ‘ransformer is disastrous, Transformer maintenance should involve the inspection of the insulating median and its auniliary deviees. 4d} Visual Inspection r A visual inspection is a very elemental procedure that is so often overlooked, Often it i thay reveal either present or potevial probfems that may be picked up by testing Examples may inelnude deteriorating gaskets, low ofl lovel or ehipned bushing skis Maintenance Of Oi/-Filled Transformers Im general, transformers require Tess care and attention than most other kinds of electrical a Power apparatus. This, however, is no zeason for neglecting them. [Ptmnsormer is quipped ‘with an on-load tap changer, the tap changer will requize the nos! attention, Annual Inspeetion (© Oi Test Olt test is normally conducted annually doring the inspection period, ‘The insulating & liguid must be reconditioned or replaced when a test of its dielecttic strenpth reaches the minimum value or when chemical analysis or acidity tests indicate such action. Minimum dielectric strength for cil is ai 30kV per 2.5mm or more, () Acidity Test New oil has a neutralization number of 6.03mg maxim. If at any cme the acidity rae reaches 0.2mg of KOH to neutralize one gram of oil, te oil must be observed closely. If Pro. itreaches 0,35ing, the oil should be replaced. fa) (6) Internal Inspection Jf oil test results are satisfactory, the tansformer should riot be opened for intemal inspection except symptoms such as abnormal noises, iow oil levels, rupture pressure rebef devices o: increased temperatures at normal operating loads ave detected, This operation is recommended io be performed in a workshop, preferably by the manufacturee, (d) Other Tesis Or Inspections Ratio, Polarity, Insulation resistance measurement or Gas analysis may be conducted. 96it % ing the um sity ata sal sformers spect internal tronbie or Uke Ratio and Polarity are checked if there is reason to s transformer have been relocated fo another substation. On lozd tap changer inspection need only be carried out on an annual basis, Convol wiring should be inspected and check for tightness, Extesnal inspection to be conducted oa all accessories for its functionality, Paint work should be refurnished if necessary. Dry Type Transformer (a) Frequeney of Inspection Frequency of inspection depend upon the electrical operating and environmental conditions. An annual inspection is sufficient for wansformers operated within thyir electrical ratings and in clean, dry locitions. An appropriate inspection inferval ean be usually determined after the first Zw inspections, if electrical and enviroumental conditions do not change. (b) Dirt Aecumalation Dirt is the largest single Ector causing maintenance problemas. Dirt accumulates in te case ventilating openings, thus restricting the flow of cooling air. Dirt may also collect in the windings, further restricting air flow, and also settles on the insulating surfaces, thereby reducing insulation levels. (c) Insulation Resistance Measurement ‘Testing is confined to insulation resistance measurement, 4.23 EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT TO TRANSFORMERS During system faults, transformers have to carry overcurrents many time greater than their raled current as shown in Figure 4.23(a) and Figure 4.230), This short circuit current produces the following effects: (a) Thermal effect (b) Mechanical eftect Lye Lars WO Figure 4.23(a) Symmetrical short cirouit current when voliage at the time of short cizeuit is at its maximum oF: i Iya 389 Lad w= 285 ar Fignre 4.21(b) Pally asymmetrical current when voltage at the time of short circuil s near to zero Thermal Effects Of Short Circuits It is a relatively casier mater to deal with the Giermal effects of short-circuit. This is decmed to persist for a mown period of time, usually 3 seconds allowing for clearance of the fault by the protection. During this short time, iL is safe lo assume thal all the heat generated semains in the copper. Therefore knowing the mass of the copper, its initial temperature, and the heat input, the temperature which it can reach can be easily calculated. It simply renvains to exsuse-that this is below a permitted maximum which for oibimmersed windings is taken to be 250°C, in accordance witlh BS17E: Part 5 For an oil immersed transformer, the maximum permitted conductor temperature after 2 fault is 280°C for copper and 200°C for aluminium, The corresponding maximum current densities of the windings for a fmult curation of t = one second shall be 94A/mmy* for copper, 53A/mm? for aluminium, For two-winding power transformers of normal impedance, the current densities are never likely io be that high, so thermat effects of short circuits are not @ problem. However, for transformers of very low impedance and the tertiary windings of the 3-winding transformer, the current densities during a short circuit determine the minimum conductor sizes used'in windings end connections. The peak value of the short circuit current is Kp 2x RMS. value where K, = orest constant which is dependent of X/R ratio of system and for high voltage transformer typical value of Kpis 18 For a transformer connected to a system where system impedance is negligible in semparison to the transformer impedance, this cwzent can be calculated by: Ke VEX MVA x 10 I PvE x Vix Zp 98 Re be onrr here Vi. > Line voltage in k¥ Z> pau, impedance of transformer at cated! base MVA : Iyoas * Peak value of short cireuil current (Ammps) : Mechanical Effects Of The Short Circuit Current : Short circuit current experience by transformer windings cause mechanical forces and L stresses which are function of tee peak value of the shor! circuit current | ‘The interaction of currents with the leakage flux causes a force which is normat to the L directions of both current and flux as shown in Figure 4.23(e). / 2 oS xBxl s ~- ‘ idl ® a s B 8 — aF t . A A . : i Figure 4.23(c) Three dimensional representation of vectors idl, B, di? 4 Radial Fores Mechanical short-circuit forces sre more complex. First, thece is a radial foree which isa r mutual repulsion between LV and HV windings. This tends « crush the LV winding inwards and burst the HW winding outwards as shown in Figure 4.23(d) & 4.232) 5 r Asiab Flu ane Rail Force a =n ror emma’ {Uf MOLT! 0 Figure 4.23(d) Figure 4.23¢¢) Resisting the crushing of the LY winding is relatively easy since the core lies immediately beneath and it is aly necessary to ensure that there is ample support, in the form of the number and width of axial strips, to transmit the force to the core. 9 — —————————————————————————eoing force on the HV winding is resisted by the tension in the copper. coupled with the friction Joree produced by the large number of HV turns which tesists thei slackening off. Since the tensile strength of the copper is quite adequate in these cirenmnstances, the oulwerd bursting force on the HY winding does not nosmally represent problem either, ‘An exception is any outer winding having a number of tums, particularly if these are wound in a siruple helix, This can be the case with an ouler tapping winding or sometimes the HV winding of a unit uansformer which, having a voltage very Litle higher aban that of the LY, might well be a helical winding. In these situations, il is important to ensure that adequate sures are taken to resist the outward bursting forces under short-circuit, These might involve fitting a tube of insulation material over the winding or simply securing the ends by mears of taping, not forgetting the ends of tapping sections, if included. Caleulation of Radial Forces: ‘The leakage flux is nearly parallel to the winding axix fer most of its loneth and in this region the forces on the conductors are mainly radial, ‘The direction of the forces is such as to cause tensile (“hoop”) stresses in the outer windings, ‘or compression or buckting stresses in the inner windings, These are the two possible radial faihire modes, A simple formula for the average radial fore can be derived by evehiating the axial componcut of the leakage Mux density. An assumption is made that all the leakage flux is axial only and passes between top and bottom yokes in straight fines. The flux density atthe mean radial depth ofthe winding is given by B=%,x . The average sadlial force is = Bx Lx length of conductor =H x 1x (nD) x N 2 =e AE x apn = 14 (40x 107) ONT) x Da 2 = 1974x107 on x DAN where Di, - Mean diameter of winding Ni - Ampere turn between windings considered L Effective tength of winding 100 wautittannannnene fay bevy the; mai“is s ial fal nd High Voltage ‘Tra Asial Force ‘There is usually a very substantial axial farce under shori-cireuit; this has byo compenenls, ‘The First results from the fact that two conductors running in parallel and carrying current in the same direction atc drawn together, producing a compressive Jorce. Near the winding ends, the leakage flux fringes inward towards the core, and outward sowards the tank, resulting in a radial component of tlux which interacts with the currents 10. cause axial forces, These forces are mainly compressive, Alternatively, as will be seen by reference to Figure 4.23(f), it may be seen as an effect of Ihe radial component of the leakage flux which will be in one divection at the top of the tex and the other direction at the bottom. Since the current is in the same direction ai both top and bottom it produces a force in opposite directions which is, in fact, compressive. Figure 4.23(f) Figure 4.23(g) ‘The second component of axisl force is due to magnetic unbalance between primary and secondary windings, ie, the axial displacement between their magnetic centres (Figure 4.23(g). RADIAL COMPONENT ‘OF LEAKAGE FLUX, {>> Forces on connucrors| iq _[ Ref Ree ner ewan al 2) Jo 19 ronet on oven wanowss PATH OF LEAKAGE FLUX TOF LEAKAGE BIA Figure 4.23(h) Axial force Figure 4.23(i) Forces caused by axial displacement of magnetic centres In vety large transformers, the designer aims to achieve as close a balance as possible between the windings, but this cannot be achieved entirely for a number of reasons. One is the problem of tappings. Putting these in a separate layer so that there ave no gaps left ia the main body of the HV winding when taps are not in circuit, helps to some extent. However, 101: i : wer. One way of doing this would be 0 ase a maltistart helical tappingacinding but, as mentioned above, simple Helical windings placed outside the HY winding would be very difficuit to brace against the cutward bursting, forees. Jn addition, spreading the tapping turns throughout the fell length of the layer would create problems in taking the HY tine-lead away {fom the centre of the winding. Another factor which makes it diffienkt (6 ebtin complete magnetic balance is the dimnensional accuracy and stability of the materials used, Paper isulation and pressboard in a large winding shrink axially by several centimetres ducing dry-ont and assembly of (he avindings. Although the manufacturer can access the degrce of shrinkage expected fairly accurately, and will attempt lo ensure that if is evenly distributed, it is difficutt to do this with sufficient precision fo ensure complete balance. Caleulation of Axial Force “The axial Forces cannot be easily calculated. Two major questions cncountered are: (a) What is the vatue of ampeze-tarns causing the radial leakage Mux? (0) What is the effective length of path for the radial flux? Many empirical equations and computer methods were developed to approximate the calculations of the ampere-turns and the effective length of path of the radial flux. 424 EXAMPLES OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FORCE PRODUCED BY A PHASE TO EARTH FAULT ‘The construction of the windings of a 3-winding transformer is shown in Pigure 4.24(b).. Correspondingly the directions of current flow and electro-magnetic force at normal service condition is shown in Figure 4.24(a). When a phase to earth fault occur on the Phase blue of the secondary winding, the direction of current flow and electro-magnetic force are shown in Figure 4.24(d), (e) and (1). LY. 7, WY. Lv. THY Fost [| [Fe Fa Hy] |] low cued 1O)| al Core Figure 4.24(2) ‘The directions of current flow and electro-magnetic force at normal service condition 102 _—~-Ligh Voltage ‘ransfornvers Inspetlane Cylinders Tv. winding. Eas | Lr AEy winding £ Figure 4.24(b) Construction of the 3-winding transfouner E Foren F Frasmg e nc dems ” Figure 4.24(¢) Fleming’s left-hand nde 1S ! a Fs Phase R Pace ¥ ote: @: Direction of corvento fant G) Direetton of exrvent to inside Figue4.24(d) The directions of current flow and electro-magnotic forces at « line-to- ground condition (Phase blue is faulty) 103ay Wee. Whe Wg Lv Wag, © \ & wt Phase aleetro magne vee sloetro-magaetic hue, force Phase Bed and Yellow Phase blue Phase Red and Yellow Figure 4.24(f) Distribution of Radial Electro-Magnetic Force 104 ———————___High Voltage Tronstorarers . ws (ORMER SOUND LEVELS 4.25.1 Definition of Sound Level Meastirement of transformer sound level are becoming more frequently a requirement from the purchasers, They may be performed to IBC 851 which defines the metheds to be used for ttansformers, reactors and assceiated cooling equipment. [t is important fo specify sound levels thal may be economically achieved in practice. The 1974 ‘Ametican NEMA Specification TRI gave useful guidance for attainable levels from reputable mannfacturers for different sized transformers. Also sec BEMA 227 andl in the UK Elecuicity Supply Industry publication 989907. Where noise is critical it nay be necessary to construct a special transformer enclosure. For the purpose of the standards, “sound level” is defined as the reading, given by 2 sound level meter which has a microphone, attenuator, amplifier and indicaling 3 meter. The instrument responds ta sound presstre, on a logarittimic scale, calibrated in dB (A). The “(A)" indicates the incorporation of the A-weighting network, which ives the meter a frequency response akin to that of the human ear. 4.28.2 Sources of Sound in Transformers One of the principal sources of sound ia transformers is magnetestriction in the core The alternating magnetic flux in the steel causes it to expand and contract ia length at vice the frequency, thus producing sound mainly at 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 Hz. The sound level produced is a function of core size and shape, flux density and frequency Another source of sound is the operation of auxiliaries especially fans and pumps for cooling. The sound level produced is a function of fan blade or sump bnpeller design, a3 well a3 diameter and rotational speed i In theory additional sound might be generated when the windings carry rated current, but this is generally negligible. Transformer sound levels can be reduced by redneing the flux density, by reducing fan cud pump speeds, and by screening. All of these measures add significantly to the cost of the transformer. 4.25.3 Addition of Sound Levels If two sources A and B produce souad levels of La and Lb when measured separately, where La> Lb, then the combined sound level will be: Lab=La+Lb where di. = 10 logip (t+ 10°") and x= Lb-La ‘Thus if La= Lb, dL = 3 dB(A) ifLa~Lb = 10 dB(A). then dL = 0.41 dB(A).High Voltage Trans! The meaning of this is that the result of adding ive equal sound levels, is a sound level 34B(A) higher, ‘The result of nuding another sound source which is quieter than the existing level by 10 dB(A) of more, is negligible. 4.25.4 Measurements of Sound Levet Measurements are made around the periphery of the transformer and cooler, al a distance prescribed in the standards, The average of the measurements is used as the sound level. The background noise must be al least 4 dB(A) below the measured transformer sound level, in which case the Jatter value may be corrected for backgronnd naise as follows Measured sonnd level -- Background 6 104 Correction ta be subtracted! 58 Tt is important that the (est environment be free from reflecting objects which could cause 4 falsely high reading. 4.25.5 Typical Sound Levels Threshold of Pain 140 dBA) Threshold of Feeling 120 Jet Take OfF (60m) 320 Very noisy Factory 100 City Traffic 15 31.5 MVA ODAF transformer 74, ‘Typical office 60 315 kVA transformer 35 Average home 40 Very quiet home 20 It has been suggesied that individual complaints start when a transformer is 15 dB(A} louder than ambient, and organised group complaints occur when it is 30 dB(A) fouder. 4.25.6 Sound Power For estimating the effect of transformer noise on the environment, the sound power radiated by it must be known, The sound power level is defined as: 10 logsa (P/Po) where Po = reference level = 107°, Sound power of some sound sources: Saturn Rocket 49 MW = 196dB 1964.26 4.264 High Valtage Transformers det engine HOW» 160d Chipping hammer IW = 120d13 3LS MVA ODAF transformer 6mW = 98d Conversational voice jouw 70 dB JIS KVA transformer apW = 65dB Ip derive the A-weighted sound power sound level “La” from the mean measured ttansformer sound fevel “Lp”, the following formula is used, Lw = Lp + 0 log 10° dB(A) where $= area of effective surface, This is a hypothetical surface on which measurements awe assumed 10 have been made, The sound ievel Lr at a distance R (for R > 3@m) may then be found trom: Les Lw- 10 logo Sh where Sh = are of hemisphere of radius R [1m] ie. Sh=22R*{sqin] ECONOMICS OF TRANSFORMER UTILISATION Introduction Electricity Supply Engineering is as much coacemed with economics as with engineering technology. Economic considerations apply for example, when evaluating teudes and snaking a choice of transformer for 2 given duyy, when deciding whether to repair er replace a faulty transformer, and when deciding at what point in the load growth cycle to augment transformer capacity. The question at issue here is how to minimise the total costs of owning and operating transformer installations. The costs usually considered include: a. Costs associated with the eapital outlay. b. Cost of transformer losses (which may be many times the capitel cost, over the lifetime of the transformes), Operating and maintenance costs are usually not included, firstly because they are usually much less than the above two categories, and secondly because they are almost independent of the choice made, ‘Altkough transformers are very efficient machines, increasing attention is paid to minimizing the cost of losses over the lifetime of the transformers, A wansformer 107a High Volta . nee es maniacturer ean bulk! a tower toss iansformer iFsequired but this usually results in the use of move moterials, or moxe expensive materials, with the ena! resull of a higher initial purchase cost. Even so, the total eost of buying and operating the transformer over a life of, say, 25 years con he fess for in initially more expensive, but fow loss, transformer. It is often useful for the supplier (o provide alernative designs (e.g. a high loss andl low loss design) to illustrate the variation in prime and capitalized costs as a function of tronsforer losses, The methods of capitalizing losses have been the subject of numerous studies. 4.26.2. Cost of Losses Energy losses in transformers may be divided into vo componerts:- a, No-load loss, mainly in the core, ‘This loss is assumed to accur at a xed rate all the time the transformer is encrgised. b. Load Jess, mainly in the windings and connections, but including also stray losses in core clamps, tank, etc. These losses vary approximately as the square of toad current. The total annual cost of losses is: L=a Wat b Wi [Spa] wo i where Wr — Guaranteed no-load toss, kW Wy, = Guaranteed load loss, kW. a=D+TE(S/kWpa.} @ b=p? (@D+f, ET)[$/kWpa.] 8) = Bs where D = Maximum demand charge, $ / kW per annum T=Tirae for which transforme: is energised, bours/year 8760 hours/year for contimious energisation Energy tariff, $ Wh eak load /transformer rating d= diversity factor fy = Toad fos factor = mean loss/peak loss f=03%+07f% and, a) b joad factor = mean lead/peak load ‘W, and p nmst be referred to the same nominal rating. “p" is constant for a generator transformer, or a transformer feeding a fixed fod such as a pump motor. For system wansformers. p usually inereases with time, in which case a mean value of padD over the economic payback period must be estimated, 108High Vol , .e Transfor similar to Equation (4), The constants usually estimated from fy usiig a foono! used (0.3, 0.7) vary in the literature, trom Kelv! daw (0.5, 0.5) lo RN. Barry's (0.2, Equation (4) scems to be a goad compromise, considering that most transformers have a different load curve cach day: Equation (1) applies to today’s costs. energy costs are subject to an inflation rate : “then the cost in year ‘m’ is Ln = @ Wx +b Wi) + 8) 7 ) ‘The present worth, discounted at interest AP is | (a Wy+b Wi) fe)" @ (hep + by ie, g= nett interest rate after inflation. where g=f(1+i)/ + hy 7 i The total present worth of these costs, summed over a period “Y” years is: G (a Wy tb Wy) = A Wet BW (51 om 1 i where o-[- hy) ifg>Oorg<0 (8) or G=Y ifg~0 7) A=Ga=G(D+ET) [S/KW] (10) B=G.b=Gp’ @D+f ED [SKW] a) 4.26.3 Total Ownership Costs Let C= Cost of purchasing the transformer Note: C includes delivery and erection, plus oi] filling. For comparison purposes, it ig not necessary 10 include costs which are about the seme for all alternatives being considered. ‘The total present value of the cost of owning and operating « transformer is: PV=A Wy+BW.+C[S] (12) Alwenatively, we may consider the annual cost of owning end operating the transformer. If , as is often the case, transformers are purchased out of loan capital, costs involved inglude payment of interest, and repayment of capital. If transformers are purchased out of intemal accumulated profits, then there is an opportunity cost, and a sinking fond must be set up to provide, out of annual income, for the replacement cost of the 109‘High Voltage 71 He hansformer and loss of interesl. In either event there will be an annual payment given by ay a3 where F-(t-5 15 ni iti>Ouri) Tap 2 (d) Tap 5 (Note: This is an off-load tap changer, the transformer must be de-energized before the moving of tap position is carried out.) 6. Describe briefly the considerations in selection of the following type of transformers: (a) mineral oil-filled transformer (b) expoxy-resin insulated dry-type transformer (c) silicon oil-filled transformer 7. The following diagram show the zero sequence circuit for a distribution transformer Zo 1 a o—0 Terminals my iy Terminals —__| _1 _ Figure Q7 By determination the open or close positions of the four switches, I, Il, IIT and IV, construct the zero sequence circuit of the transformers with the following configuration: 113Chapter 4 (a) delta ~ delin (b) star —star: both star point open, not connected to earth fc) star — star: primary star point solidly earthed secondary star point open, not comnceted to earth (@) star — star (with delta tertiary): primary star point open, not conncoted to earth secondary star point connected to earth (e) star ~ star (with delta tertiary): primary star point open, not connected fo carth secondary star point connected to cath with neutral ground resistor (1) delta ~ star: secondary star point salidly earthed (g} slar~ de)ia: primary star point open, not connected to earth 8 Describe briefly what are the types of protections normally provide for the foflowi types of tansformers (@) 22kV /LV and eV /LV {b) 22kV /6.6kV (c) B3KV/ TIKV (d) 66KV / 22k 9. (a) Desonibe briefly the purposes of the tertiary winding of @ siar / star transformer with delta tertiary winding, (b) Draw sppropriate diagram to illustrate the distribution of fault currents when « phase to earth fault occurs on the secondary network of a star / star transformer (with delta tertiary winding). 10. (a) Describe briefly whet are the requirements before any two transformers are allowed to be connected in parallel. (b) Explain briefly what is the effect to short circuit current when ovo network transformers are connected in parallel H1. Explain the effects of a short circuit current to a power transformer. 12, (a) Explain briefly what is meant by “Iorush current” of power transformer. (b) When 2 power transformer is closed on soak without load, the cireuit breaker trips on overcurrent relays. Explain the possible reason of this tripping and how this cen be prevented 13, The 33kW/11k¥ tréusformers and 22kV/6.6&¥ transformers may be connected in {a} Delta/Star in 2 windings, or (b) Stiu*Delta/Star iv 3 windings (Tertiary winding is Delta connected) Explain briefly what are the differences in (a) and (b) ipQuestions — Chapter 4 . High Voltage Transformers 14, Three manufacturers offer ansforavers as follows fo mot a given specification: Manufacturer A B c Prive, 8 $150 000 $200.00 $250 000 ‘No-toad toss, aw, 26 kW 20kW 18 kW Load loss, AW 130 kW 100 kW 90 kW Evaluate the overall cast and deternine which offer is the most economical solution.CHAPTER 5 SIZING OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS 5.1 INTRODUCTION KVA Rating KVA yating of any iransformer represents a critical decision in the design process of cleotricity supply system. In the design of 9 distribution transformer in au industrial plant, many unimowns may exist such as: (a) Maximum Demand (M.D, And Diversity Factor (DF) If the installation is new, the connected load (C.L.) in kW Cor KV) is known, bat the diversity factor (D-F.) of that load is unknown, Diversity Factor represents the percentage of the connected Joad that will be ntilised at any given time. Maximum Demand Connected Load Por example, the switchboard may be supplying six (6) nos. of 250kW motors but because of the design and nature of usage of plants, not more than four (4) of these motors may run at the same time, it would be too conservative to design the electrical systera with capacity to supply electricity to all six (6) motors concurrently. Diversity Fector = However, on the other hand, if the pattern or practice of usage is changed that, all the six (6) motots are to tun simultaneously, the electrical system which is designed for only four (4) motors to run may become undersized. This dilemina is difficult to overcome. (b) Future Expansion Another uncertainty is the changes that may ocour in the future. Although electrical system is normally planned for 10 (o 15 years into the future, unexpected sudden change in business factors may spur unanticipated expansions of the plants that affect the tequited kVA rating of the electricity supply transformer. Therefore, a good approach when sizing a distribution transformer is to make conservative, yet realistic estimates about the change in system requirement and provide sufficient Sexibility for an expansion plan that can be implemented when the transformer capacity become inadequate. 5.2 TRANSFORMER IMPEDANCE The distribution transformer at the electricity supply system sepresents a substantial impedance in series with the utility supply system impedance, ‘A transformers impedance is an important parameter that helps determine its suitability for’ ‘given application. Transformer impedance :s expressed in percent, based on the self-cool 16 es ci \o Tr an rat ra cit Te big rat po Tywt al Sizing Of Distribution Transformers AVA_rating, The impedance is nmiciiesliy equal te the percentage of riled voltage that would have to be applied to the primary lerminals to cause rated cantent fo How frome the short-cirenited secondary terminals, This cancept is ilustrated i Figuze 5.2(a. ‘Shot Cheuit Primacy Secondary Figure $.2(a) 7 =Abblied Primary Voltage oz, = Applied Primary Voltage y 199% Rated Primary Voltage ‘The tansformer percentage impedance voltage is the percentage of rated voltage needed to circulate three-phase rated current when the secondary winding is shorted Typical Values Of Transformer Impedance Transformer impedance varies according to design parameters, particularly the KVA rating and the basic impuise insulation level (BIL). In general, impedance inereases with kVA rating and also increases with BIL. Most distribution-class transformers have an impedance in the 4.5% - 6.25% range, but specific designs can cause the impedance to lie outside this range. Since the transformer impedance is critical for calculating voltage crops and short- circuit magnitudes, actual nameplate data should be used whenever possible, Transformer impedance is usvally expressed as a percentage reactance (a transformer is highly inductive) on the base of the transformer rating. For traasformers with dual or triple ratings (or example, ONAN/ONAF or ONAN/ONAF/OFAF) the correct rating base and tap position must be clearly detailed when specifying the tcansformer impedance required. Typical values are given in Table 5.2(b). invumm percentage Impedance (IEC 76) (%) up to 0,530 0.631 to 1.25 1251 10 3.15 3.15110 6.30 6.301 10 12.50. 12.508 16 25.00 25.001 10 200.00 Notes (a) Preferred transformer raungs a5 per IEC 16. (b} Impedance ranges for higher voltage transformer units typically LSOKV: 12% wo 15% and 275KV: 15% to 20% (2) Base is teansformer rating at nominal tep. Tappings may enuse variations of approximately 4 10%. FL wewvetenes = HL for equivalent two winding MYA x (HY ~ LVYAV. Table 5.2(b) Preferred two winding transformer ratings and minimum positive or negative percentage impedances (Z, and Z»), together with derivation fer auto- transtormer impedances a?Sizing OF Distribution Transformers Effects Of Transformer Impedance ‘The transformer impedance has two effects: Ga) It causes a voltage drop ip the transformer especially when a large motor is started or uring the times of heavy load, (b) It limits the prospective short circuit current at the secondary of the transformer. ‘The small values of the impedance of the distribution wansformers help to mmnimise the Yollage Muctuations but at the same time Jead to muuch higher fault currents, The impedance of transformer is usvally expressed in percentage value or per unit value, ‘based on the base power of the tansformer (usually the selfcooled kVA capacity of the transformer) and the base voltages of the transformer {usually the rated voltages). To convert this percentage impedance to Oluaie value: $62.) . [(Rated Yous wee) 2 (Ohm) = (G5 1 ase MVA 53 CONSIDERATIONS IN SIZING OF DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS ‘The kWA rating of the transformer and the aumrbers: of distribution transformers that may be selected for a electricity distribution system ere determined by the following considerations; | (@) Maximum Demand of the loads and the locations of load centres (b) Euture Load requirements (c) Desirable Fault Level at the secondary end of the transformer (2) Voltage Dip Limit at the terminal when one or more large transient toad started $3.1 Maximum Demand 1g the maximum demané Two methods are normally required to be used for estim of a building during the design stage: jethod Method During the initial planning stage, the detail design of the lighting system, generally power and air-conditioning system are not known, therefore, the exact loot I requirement based on the aciual design could not be made, A good preliminary, estimate based on past experience of electrical load per wait area in similar type © development is therefore necessary. This estimated value could then be corrected and adjusted when more detailed information of the facilities are known. Table 5.3.1? may be used as 2 guide, In this saethod, each indivienal category of the foads (lighting, gemerat power and ait conditioning) are obiained by multiplying the floor area with the possible lead 18 hapa _ Sizing OF Distribution Transformers: density, and these figures are then aikded together, taking into account the diversity Trotor, to obtain Ge maximurn demand load of the building, | Power (Wim) besos ‘ti General, oligiows building “10 30 Computer area 535 i, he. Lobby Rooms (99 cookin) | a Table 5.3.1(a) and Method 2; Actual Load Method Other electrical Ionds such as vertical transportation equipment, kitchen equipment, cally special equipment etc. which are not proportional to the orea usage should not be astimated using the Load Density Method. The actual Joad data must be gataered toad : . " sary fFom the suppliers and then added Co the totel estimated load obtained using method eof i and to! $3.2. Future Load Growth Pature load growth is hand (o be predicted as mentioned earlier. A 25% to 40% spare lair capacity may be assigned so that the transformer may only be loaded to about 60% Toad maximum leaving sufficient capacity for operation flexibility and future addition of loads. WdSizing OF Dist p Transformers _ Fault Level Consideration. The distribution wansformers at ay industrial installation represents substantial impedance in series with the utility (system) impedance, This factor can be crucial in limiting the fault current in the plant to acceptable levels, Large wransformers may be cheaper in term of per kVA cost and would be able to give saving on number of high voltage and low vollage switchgear. However, itis not | advisable to have 6.6 V/0.4kV, 1} V/0.4kV or 22k V/0.4kV disiribution transformers larger than 2.5MVA due to the resulting, high prospective 3-phase short circuil ewrent on the LV. switehboards. | Preferred values in rated kVA for distribution transformers are therefore IMVA, L25MVA, LSMVA, IOMVA, 2MVA and 2.5MVA. Example A IMVA 22kV/L.Y. distribution transformer with impedance at 4.75% as shown in Figure 5.3.3(). 22kV MSB IMA 400¥ MSB Self cooled capacity ACB CT Zr = 4.75% 8 Nos, of 5G0mm7/1C XLPE cable Figure 3.3.3(a) (a) On the L.V. side * Calculate fall load current on L.V. side 1000.x 10° VA, ix 400V = 1440, : Tex. (LV) 53 » A ISOOAE/I400AT ACB is selected. * and C.T. ratio at L4O00A/SA Is selected Plug setting of IDMTL relay on L.V. side 5. ~ Maximuin Allowable Current = 1499 x 190% = 100% Rated Primary Cutvont of C7, * 100%" agg. * 100% 100% 120Hig al LSOGAZ5A is sel low x 100% = 8 100% = BEIM 144 4500 * Rated Primary Current of CT * Fault level on LV. side = Be MYA, = 2IMVA Ze in per woHk 5 . ‘ 21x Loe Prospective d-phase short circuit current on LV, side Fix do0v Hea ‘The short breaking capacity of ACB on the LV, side has to De IKA, and rated short time current of LV. MSB has ig be 3IKA for 3 seconds. * LY, Cable 8 nos. of 50Gmm/1C XLPE cable is proposed and il is considered as 2 circuits of 4 nos, of SOinm'/1C XLPE, grouping derating factor for 2 circuits » 0.90, the 500mm? is derated to 0.90 x 973 = 875.7 For 2 circuits in parallel connection (8 nos. of S0Qnun/1C XLPE), the total current carrying capacity = 2 x 875.7 = [751 4Amp, which is sufficient (b) On the 22K side Calculate full load current ou 22k¥ side. 00 x OVA _ V3x 22x 10° Teg, Q2K¥) = 26.244 ¢. Typical CT. ratio at SUA/SA on H.V. side is used Similarly the relationship of transformer sizes, L.V. cables, L.V, cireuit breakers: and short circuit current ratings are tabulated in Table 5.3.3(b). Conclusion: It is noted that as the KVA rating of the transformer increases, the i prospective 3-phase short circuit current of the secondary side of the transformer has also increased. ! 5.3.4 Voltage Dip Consideration When a large motor foad starts, it produces a considerable vollage dip af the twansformer secondary terminal due to the impedance of the transformer: Starting KVA ofa load = V3 x Rated Voltage x Starting Current ——Starting kVA. sad Voltage dip (44) = ma BAVA. —— x % Impedance of Transformer The voltage dip will affect the performance of the motor as well as alf other voltage sensitive loads that are connected to the same switchboard. 121WS/WOODP 0 WS9 WSIVOOIE VSO) 30 WS/SL, . WALLS AVOO9E | Np-sng voso so vawar | favoo0 | voooe WRO9E STO VAMNOOST WS/VOO0E | ad1x WICS IO AVOO8T, a0 vase gimungs | wasse orvouse vaworos | savoooe | yg) vevoot | 2 VIEL VErzs SIV OOST 40 WHOS WEPVOOIZ WS/sh 10 VS/0S Vier Avooiz HOVAWOE | AVO0ST WEEE %S WANOOST vsrvonsl a0 vage wS/vOOPL VIE LVOOb! sovania | svo0sy ‘sty WAxaaO' Cow | Coe apis | apis “AvT Ops: ‘NH ‘aT uo | wo quazan5, >PIS WO pops aT | Bape | oman] seyey “A THO Wand quasand | we onmy | qHaa MOUS dui | amg | qmasng souuoysina : “LO | ous asend-¢ | azjsoursag | aiqeg | pro (%) AMO ace pesodosg pasodorg | aapaadsorg | OV j souepadnuy 40 ig Of Distribution Transformers dounszogsmely | AYP O/ANTT Table 5.3.3(b) 122,Time-cgeles Figure 5.3.40) A voltage sag due lo induetion motor starting Example A 400V, 3-phase 4004. motor (efficiency = 90% and p. by an aato-transformer starter with tap ratio at 65%, Motor Full Load Cument = SO we 3 Motor Starting Current = (Lap ratio)’ x (7.5 * fea.) = (0.657 x (7.5 x SOBA) = 784A, f= 0.85 at full load) started = 563A Motor Starting kVA = 13 x 400V x 1784A, = 1236kVA For a IMVA 22kVIL.V. transfarmer with Zy = 4.5%, 1236, 4.59, = 5.96% tagg * 45% = 5.56% For a 2MVA 22kV/L.V. transformer with Zr = 5.5%, Voltage Dip = Voltage Dip = L238 x 5.5% =3.40% It can be seen that the voltage dip 3s reduced as the rated kVA of the transformer is increased, Conclusion During the planning of electricity distribution system, it is necessary to: (a) single out any large equipment of machine which may produce excessive voltage dips and evaluate the effect of voltage dip and select the KVA rating and impedance of transformer appropriately. (b) segregate the high transient current loads and the voltage sensitive equipment such as computers, electronic product equipment so as they are 123“wing 0 Distribution Transformers Supplied from different transformers und switchboards as showa in Figure: $3.40). 20kY Incoming 22K Incoming No.1 No,2 Transformnes Transformer No.1 No.2 To Voktoge To High Transient Sensitive Loads Chovent Loads Figure 5.3.4(b) $4 TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY ‘The equivalent citcuit ofa tansformer is shown in Fi igure 5.4(a); Figure 5.4{a) Transformer equivalent cizeuit The efficiency ofa wansformer is 11> clficieney = Output Power Input Power This is often expressed as a percentage, efficiency = Output Power y 1 gy input Power a Output power is the input power minus the losses, with the power loss in the transformer eck Ue icon losses and capper loss, The copper loss is the term used to describe tae FR Tak 3 the copper conductors of the primary and secondary windings due to currents Owing through thei, eb 124 22>ing OF Distribution Fram Japut Power — Losses " Tnput Power) * 100% cy basses . (1 Tpat Power * 0% aq. Hg Loss + Copper Losses 5 a Input Power )x 100% efficiency = ( ‘A transformer operating al ils peak efficiency would be running with minimum losses ard the : energy being saved wonld be substantial as Lansfornzets are seldom shut off, A transformer : ‘would be operating at its poak efficiency when its Copper loss = Tron loss When the transformer is loaded al its peak efficiency, 4 peak ott. R= Iron loss Copper loss at peak efficieney = Thus, Ipeouern = V irom loss /R Full Joad copper toss = EaeaR ‘Thus, Iracs ~ Ful load copper loss/R i = Peak Efficiency kVA loadin ik Ei LF GS Ta bien tt Peak Baticiency Med kVA of the Transformer ~~ W-lnica Substiente in the above: _ [-_Woiviess Full load copper loss Peak Efficiency Load Factor, L1 128Questions - Chapter 5 ____ Sizing of ution Transformer 1. Given the percentage impedance of a 7SMVA 66kV/22kV transformer at 17%, convert this percentage impedance to ohmic value on 22KV side. 2. Delermine the appropriate cable size and the number of single core cables XLPE requited for (a) A 15 MVA 22kV/400V transformer {b) A2 MVA 22kV/400V transformer Determine aiso the framesize, trip rating and the required short circuit breaking capacity (kA) of tie 4-P ACB on the L.Y. side and the rated short time current of the LV. MSB 3. Assuming the biggest motor foad in the production facility of a manufacturing plant is 750 HLP., started by Auto-transformer starter with cfficiency, 1) = 90% and power factor 0.83. Determine the appropriate size of the transformer (o keep the voltage dip less than 5%. 4. A 1000 kVA 22kV/400¥ Oil Type Distribution Transformer has iron loss = 4.9 kW and full load copper loss = 15 KW, Determine the load factor (LF) of the transformer at which the ttensformer operates at maximum efficiency. 5. A 1000 kVA 22kW400V Oil Type Distribution Transformer has iron loss = 1.38 kW and fall load copper loss = 11.8 kW. Determine the load factor (LF) of the transformer at which the transformer operates at maximum efficiency. 6. A 1000 kVA 22kV/400V Epoxy Resin Dry Type Transforme: has iron loss = 2.2 kW and full load copper loss = 10.8 kW. Determine ihe load factor (LF) of transformer at which the transformer operates at meximum efficiency. 7. A 18 storey high-rise building is designed as an office building cum shopping centre and the usage of the floor areas are as follows in Table Q? (a} & (b). (a) Determine the maximum dernand of the building. () Determine the breakdown of total air-couditioning load, totat essential load, total lighting and small power load. (©) Identity the load centres and thus determine the muaber of transformers required and the appropriate kVA rating of transformers, Floor Intended Usage Rentable Avea (m”} | Circulation Ares Gm’) Roof Roof garden / Plant oom. 2400 8-18" storey | Office 1680 720 7 Cer park - 2400 1680 37 storey ‘Car pick 7 Restavram, 720 2 storey, ‘Shopping cenm. 1680 ‘Mezz, Floor | Exhibition hall = sto ‘Shop: el 720 Table QH{a) Normal loads 126Bscalators| Toad QW) Diversity | i oes na exe sprinider pump 3 Cee esti water pump | Co i i Table Q7(b) Essential loadsCHAPTER 6 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION 6.1 INTRODUCTION Power transformers develop faulis only rarely but the consequences of even a rare fault may be serious. For the purpose of discussion, fauits can be divided into three main classes! {a) Faults in the auxitiary equipment which is part of the transformer. {b) Faulis in the transformer windings and comnections (c) Overloads and externat short circuits. Transformer faults if not cleared quickly can cause severe damage to the transformer and may result in fire or explosion. The repair or replacement of faulty parts can be expensive and time consuming. The protective schemes applied to transformers therefore must provide fast and selective clearance of faults in order to minimise damage and reduce fire risk 6.2 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION Overcurrent protection normally serves as back-up protection for internal and external faults. Overcurrent reinys can be provided on one side or both sides of the transformer. P§855—| 88S ee oat High Impedance Taw Instantaneous Imepdance ‘Type ‘Type [aaa Tripecinewit Trip-ctyeuit. nip coi of ‘Tvip coil af circuit breaker sitcuitbreder onprimary side on secondary side Figure 6.2() Protection ofa AAA, 22KV/6.6kV or 33KV/1 kV twansformer 128 or ag!eH {ef High Impedance Instantaneous Type Figure 6.2(b} Protection of a 22kW/L.V, or LE&V/L.Y. transformer as overeurteat protection ean operate for both internal and extemal faults, it must bo tine fraxisd with the other protections on the L.V. winding as well as she outgoing networks in order to achieve proper discrimination. IDMTL Relays Overcurrent relays with inverse-cefinite-minimum-time lag (IOMTE) characteri normally used for 66/22kV, 22/6.6KV, high voltage, 33/11kV, 22kV/L.V., HIKV/L.Y, and 6.GKV/L.V. transformers. High Set Element are, “Tinwe (Secomds) 4000 alt Current amperes) Figure 6.2(c) Hi-set or instantaneous trip of IDMTL Relay 129ion . . corporated with high set Most IDMTI. overeurrant relays for transformer protection are imstantanceus elements which provide instantaneous (ipping at high fault levels and thus improve the overall system grading and security ‘The Hi-set element or instantaneous trip clement also serve to reduce the [et through cnorey ofa severe short circuit ‘Tho bigh set instantancoys.clement must be set above the maximum through Rail: current which the iransformertan deliver for a three-phase fault ai the L.V. side. The high set setting, which is based orf 130% of the maximum through fault current is often adopted for protection agaiast sevéfe shiort circuit. 63 STANDBY EARTH FAULT PROTECTION (SBEF) A low impeclance relay connected to a neutral CT provides standby carth fault protection for transformer having star winding with neutral point earthed [Figure 6.3(a)]. Ap gal 2 Tripping signal ron sau Figure 6.3(a) ‘The flow of earth fault current through the neutral arising frora an internal earth fault in the LY. transformer winding or an external earth fault in the LV. system will cause the standby catth fault relay to operate. This protection is therefore a non-unit protection. Like overcurrent protection, it must be time-delayed by DTL or IDMTL in order to achieve discrimination. 64 BALANCED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION (BEF) Balanced earth fault protection make use of the principle that the sum of cutrents af a healtiry 3-phase system should be zero, to check on any residvai current that would flow into the earth fault relay if a phase to earth fault has occur ‘The balanced easth fault protection scheme (Figure 6.4(a)} when applied to an unearthed star winding or a dela winding is inherently a restricted earth fault scheme. This is due to the fact 130 | | | tha fau see Nest 65 Thi car onl The the cur fay imt The unc pro.or he by ke ve the itar act Fransforme iol here fs no zero sequence component current Thaciag to (hese types af wind taeats extemal to the winding. Only far the internal earth Faull conditions that will have zero AMquonce euvvents and the resultant current fram the 3 CFs will operate the earth Fault rely. 1 1 a Fefpping igual | Hl Lage Gi) 3 phase, fine LV TEE} (2) Delta Winding (i tinearthed Star Winding Figure 6.4(b) Balanced Earth Fault Protection for unearthed star and delta winding 65 RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION (REF) This form of protection is applied to windings with their neutral either solidly earthed or earthed through an impedance. This scheme es in the balanced earth faull scheme protects only the winding covered by the zone of the 3-line CTs and the neutral CT [Figure 6.5(a)]. “The scheme is based on the circulating curzent prineiple as such that the relay is in paraltel to the 34fine CTs and the neutral CT. Under normal and external earth fault condition, no curyent vill flow throngh the relay and hence it is stable. However, when an internal earth fault occurs, there will be an imbalaace between the 3-line CTs and the neutral CT. This imbalanced current can only flow through the relay and causes its operation. The relay used should be of high impedance type so as to ensure stability of the scheme under transient through-fault condition. It is rormally used to supplement the differential protection scheme and it has advantage of low fault setting and high operating speeds, it 4for, bopparv aeerv at ae ite ing Secondary Crde. omally rot apply to Transformer Protection >2Lv dla to cost. 66 | MERZ-PRICE PROT! CTION The differential protection application for power transformer is a unit protection scheme. However, unlike the restricted earth fault scheme, it provides protection to all the windings of the transformer for all types of fault conditions, Principle Of Operation The differential protection scheme is based on the Merz-Price circulating current principle in which the input and output currents of the transformer are compared, ‘The principle can be demonstrated by the simplified scheme shown in Figure 6.6(a). Power Transformer CT Ratio 1:1 Ratio CT Ratio 1:1 Note: single end feed, Ta orlg will bezero, (ii) Internal Fault Condition (Double-End Feed) Figure 6.6(a) Principle Of Merz-Price Differential Scheme cebe — . ‘Transformer Protection Under normal condition as well ag for exicrnal fnults, the oulpuls from the CTs an the wy ind JW. side of the power transformer ane such that they nre egital in_magnitucle and in phase. As such a circulating current is set up in the secondary circuit with mo ewrtent going jhrough the relay. However, when an internaf faul( devefoped and with donble-end fved, the secondary e of the HV, and L.V. side of the C¥s are in antiphase and hence the two currents Now in the flay eireait to cause operation, With single-end feed, only one side of the Cs will have an putput current. As the impedance of the ather side of the CTs is very large, the resultant secondary cutrent will flow through the relay circuit to operate the relay 67 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION AGAINST OVER-PRESSURE, OIL, LEVEL. LOW AND EXCESSIVE TEMPERATURE ‘Typical protection against over-pressune, oil level low and excessive temperature at the transformers are provided as shown in Figure 6.2(a), 1.SMVA {¢ 22kW/A00V 1S on. ev TEP Ht presse RP INSTANT.) 1 i 1 i a 22KY SWITCHBOARD Figure €.7(a) 133| (a) Pressure Relief Device this is noninally found! in the oil-inmersed transformers, When s fink dees within the oildilled transformer, different mixtures of gas wil be prodaced duc tthe decomposition of insulating oil, pressure wishin the (anks will be built up. 6 ‘The pressure selie devieg fs provided on the iransformer in the form of a sealed ty h plate, When the gas pressure reaches a pre-determined valve, thy bursting pele saps or fapen and the large orifice ailows gas to be discharged and thus relieve the tank pressire, 1 (b) Low Oif Level Trip i Fi Low oif level is checked hy 2 oi level detector placed in the wansformer tank ta send a tripping signal to wip the HLV. switchgear controlling the tapstornmr, in the event of the leak of transiormer insulating oid which cause the oif level of oif-itiae iranstirmer to be excessively low (©) Pressure Gauge Pressure gauge is Fed on the tank of the oil-Gtled tansformer to monitor is interna] pressure, ‘The pressure gauge is also fixed with auillary contacts whieh cam be wired to the tripping circuit to trip the swilehgear when abnormal pressure is sleveloped within the lank. (@) Over-Temperature Protection Excessive hest produced fy the windings due to overloading or internal fault of the transformer can ceuse danvage (© the windings and insulations. Winding temperature indicator or sensor ave Hited with the oil-inmersed or cast-resia transformers to monitor the winding temperature. ‘The indicator and the sensor are also fitted with electrical contacis to enable: ) the operation of cooling fan (for forced air cooling Gansformer); i) the operation of the alarm; (iii) the tipping of associated switebgeer controlling the transformer. The thermometer is fiited with switches to. initiate alarm or trip signals. Typical settings of the overstemperature alam and tipping for oil-immersed transformers of insulation Class ‘A’ are as follows: ‘Oil temperature 90°C start 65°C slop, Winding teraporatire Table 6.7b) 134- nsformer for winding temperature Ue thermometer fas an input fiom a CP lo energise an internal heating element. This will create a heating effect duc to the load current, 68 COVERING ZONE OF PROTECTION SYSTEM In the selection of appropriate protection schon for power transtormers, it Is necessary ta iaderstand the Zane protected or covered by the protection schemes. the illustration of the protected zone of various (ypes of protection systems are shown in Figure 6.8(@), (b) and (v). fiers Price] [remp}-—— el eee ee bene Bs if a Figure 6,6(b) Protected Zone for 22kV/6.6kV ‘Transformer Protection System 13522RVMOOY 22K Transformer 4o0y SaR TOO Tranformer tomas} Figwe 6.8(c}_ Protected Zone for 22kV/400V Network Transformer Protection System RTH FAULT 6.9 TYPICAL OVERCURRENT AND BALANCED PROTECTION For HV, and LY. side of a 22kV/L.V., KVL. of 6.6 /L.Y. distribution transformer, overcurrent relays and balanced earth fault relays are normally incorporated as shown it Figure 6.9(@). The overcurrent relays are connected in series with the current ansformer (C.T.} an each phase of the system. The earth fauli relay is connected across the star-points of the C.T.s and the O/C relays. (a) Under Normal Condition Under normai conditions, the current detected at the secondary of the C.T.s are balanced (in + ty tis = 0}. No current will Slow in the E/F relay. Therefore, the E/F relay will not operate; however, the O/C relay may operate if the secondary cuctent flowing in the relay is higher than the setting of the O/C relay. (b) Under Earth Fault Condition Under earth fault conditions, the earth fautt curcent has to return through earth fault path to star point of the transformer. Therefore, the current at the secondary of the C.T.s are no more balanced ((ig + iv + ja # 0), end the unbalanced current will flow in the E/F relay. Es relay will operate. 136LY rer, in and ced ver, the vath, >n0 lay. Prntection oy BD wpe KI ACE a Transformer Pimtection ta TEV MCR on oR Figure 6.5{a) Typical protection circuit for 22kV/..V. and 1 kViL.V. Transformers of IMVA, LSMVA, 2MVA and 2.5MVA Earth Fault Protection Earth fault protcetion ena be provided with normal overcurrent relays, if the minimuna earth fault carront is sufficient in magnitnde. However, the magnitude of earth fault current is usually fow compared to the phase fault currents because the fault impedance is much higher for earth faults than for phase faults. Hence earth fault relays are set at tow settings between 20% to 40% bul low values of current settings impose a higher burden on the relay with rated current in the primary of the C.T. It will be seen Guat unless the earth fault current is limited or special CTs are used to provide a higher output, time/current geading of earth fault relays is not practicable. Fortunately the grading of earth fault relays, unlike overcmrent phase relays, is normally Jimited to one system vollage due to general use of delta/star step down transformer, as the earth fault on LV. side of the transformer will not be seen by the earth fault relays on the other side and hence the grading between the relays on the different voltage systems is not required. Earth Zault protection cen be provided with only one telay connected in the residual cizeuit. A current will flow through the earth fault reley winding only when a fault involving earth coeus. Fignte 6.9(b) shows the location of the earth fault relay along with the phase overcurrent relays. 137‘Fransformer Protection When both overcurrent and earth fitult protection are required using IMTL relays it is sunt fo provide two-phase relays instead of three-phase relays with one earth fll relay From economic considerations [Figure 6.%e)]. iapraines. Rete) Figure 6.95) Location of phase relays and Ef? Figure 6.9{c)‘Two-phase relays and one telays. O/C — Overcurrent relays HF rekay (phase relays); B/E — Farth fault relay. Iall the C.T.s sere ideal, under normal operating conditions and interphase faults no current would flow through the earth full relay. However, when supposed to be identical C.T.s are used some current would stili flow throug: the relay. This is duc to difference in errors and. in amount of residual magnetism. This current is called spill curreit which is in the range of 6.08 to O.1A af rated primary eurrent and many times larger when beavy phase fuk currents flow. Figure 6.9(¢) illustrates the principle of carth fault protection. Obviously during normal operation and alse for thice-piase and line-tc-line faults, the current passing through the relay is equal to zero. Figure 6.9(d) Principle scheme of E/F protection 138 {usformer Protection ‘igh fapedange Barth Fault Relay Or Voltage Operated B/E Relay ability under through fault condition fay on the Linder through fantt conulitions (j.e. a fault gveur on the £.¥ side) the earth fant se HAV. side of the 22kWALV. (or UWA... and 6.6KV/),.V.) ansformer must remain stuble Daring stich an extemal faut one C.f amy become saturated producing na output while a parallel connected C.7. might rain unsaturzted and continue 40 preduce full output, he current from the remaining operating C.T. will divide between ihe relay and the othes am of the circuit comprising of comecting fad impedance and the effectively short dircuited saturated C.T. By using a relay of sufficiently high impedance such as the modern solid state electronic relays, the proportion of current Mowing though the relay is reduced helow the operating level of the relay making for stable operation under these heavy dhrough fault conditions, Because the relty bas a high impedance the voltage developed across it during an intemal ante may be sufficiently high so as to foree the C.7s inlo saturaiton, ICs therefore necessary hen applying bigh impedance relay protection to calculate the relay circuit resistance ond CT. ‘knee point® voltage such that the CT. is still able to produce sufficient output ender saturated condition: Tse Current, ee Teansforwae: 1 ranstormer 2 ormes Earth Fault L Relay, Ry Effectively Short Ciruwted cr Figure 6.9(e) High impedance protection under exterzal fault conditions Where, Ra = C.T. Resistance Ri = Lead Resistance R, =Relay Resistance ‘As shown in Figure 6.9(e), the relay circuit resistance, R,, is calculated for the highest combination of Rt + Ry in accordance with the formula, Re where R, ~ required relay circuit resistance Iue= CT, secondary current equivalent to design through fault current Ri lead resistance between saturated C.T. and the relay connection poiat Re = resistance of saturated C.T. relay setting current 139Having selected a ratio for Ry the minimum knee point voltage is then determined in order meet the relay manufactuyers’ requiroments. Most relays require a C.T. knce point volage equal to twice the voltage devcloped across the relay cireuit when passing a curvont equal fo the relay setting. Assuming the knee point voltage, Vip, to be at least this value then: Vin 22 1x Re 6.10 INVERSE DEFINITE MINIMUM TIME LAG (IDMTL) RELAY IDMITL relays have beer evolved for use for discrimination by both time and current, With the characteristic of the IDMTE relays, the time of the operation of relay is inversely proportional to the vel. The actual characteristic of the relay ig also x finetion ‘of both the ‘time’ and ‘current’ seitings. Historically this type of relay characteristic bas heen produced using electromagnetic relays. shown in Figure 6.10{3). A metal dise is pivoted so as to be free {0 rotite between the s of two electromagnets cach energised by the current being monitored The inverse-time relay is 20 induction dise relay in which the torque produced by the interaction of fluxes and eddy current induced in the dise is proportional fo Figure 6.10(2} A typical electromagnetic relay The disc speed is proportioual to the torque. As operating time is inversely proportional to 2 function of current, 140‘Tronstarmer Protection he dise is free to rotate agains! the sestraining or resciting torque of a vonirol spring Eyntacts are attached to the dise spinulie and under peesel current levels aperate to trip 2 $4 and BS with the foitowing: ‘The theoretical characteristic is defined by IL formula: vo oe nace (GK) k Time, ayy where (= theorelical operating time G-= value of applied cusrent s of current setting, k & a are constants For normal inverse time curve, k= 0.14 and a © 0,02, the standard 3/10 normal iaverse lime carve is shown in Figare 6.10(b} 4.0 For very inverse IDMTL, k = 13.5 and a For extremely inverse IDMTL, k = 80 and a= 2.0 6 x 10 20 Current (Multipte of Plug Setting) Figure 6.10(b) Standerd IDMTL Curve (3/10 Characteristic) In comparison with grading just by time setting alone. [DMTL relay allows grading to be achieved with reduced operating times for relays located close to the power source. “ 14]Plug Setting Or Current Setting (P.S. ‘This velay has « range of current settings, usually 56 {0 200%, of nominal enrrent in 25% steps. The setting is generally selected by the position of a plug in a plughridge whic determines the number of active turns on the operating coil and therefore the current setting. ‘Time Multiplier Setting CLM) The relay operating time can also be varied. Ai the maximum time setting the dis¢ has to travel through 180° before contact is mide, By moving the dise reset position laser (@ Ihe contact-making position the operating tinie can be reduced. Thore is an adjuster, known as the time multiplier, with a calibrated scale of 8.1 (0 1.0 which is used 10 sel the digo reset position, In some cases a 0.05 position is marked! Inverse Time Character “This type of relay is knowa as the Inverse Definite-Minimum Time (IDMTL) refay. Inverse because as the curreat increases the time decresses-lefinite minimum because the characteristic appears to approach a definite minimum ime, This is not the ease, all tnverse curves appear to do this but are in fact jist as inverse al high values as they are al Tow values. However, the name has been appiied to this class of retay and itis in general use, The relay has also another peculiarity in that it does not operate al selting eurcent. The dise resetting force is provided by @ spring and the definition of seiting is when the operating torque is exactly equal to the resetling torque. Unfortunatcly, the spring torque depends on the disc position, the more it is wound up ihe higher the torque, To compensate for this the disc has same means of reducing the torque produced af low spring wind-up end of the travel either by slots in the dise or by dise shape, A typical time/current, characteristics of 3/10 curve IDMTL relay for TM = 9.1 to | is shown in Figure 6.10(¢). 6.10.1 Microprocessor Controlled Solid State Relays ‘The IDMTL time-current characteristic can be held in the memory of modent microprocessor controlied solid state relays, Electronic comparator circuits are used io measure the source current and initiate “tipping depending upon the relay settings. Atypical electronic type of IDMTL relay is shown in Figure 6.10.1¢2). Unlike the electro-magnetic induction cise velay, the advantage of the clectranic type relay is that plug setting (P.S.) can be set at any value. Example ‘A 3-phase 400V incoming supply fiom a IMVA, 22KV/L.V. distribution wansformer has full load current, Tee, OO) = -LQOOKYA ~ 1443.8 3x 400V 142‘Transforoter Protection at SOUA/SA is seloeted, plug. seffing has Lo be set al, 1443. vy 4 PS. (4) = TERA « 10th = 86.7% An clestronic type IDMTL relay induction dise relay has PS. in fixed s magnetic 150%, ete : a ' ‘ 3 ‘ i 3 : 3 A , a d e f ! 456 8 » Current (multiples of plug setting} i Figure 6.10c) Typical time/curreat characteristics of 3 seconds i standard electramechanical LD.M.T. relay 143Cransformer Pratection wree-phase, low-sel ovecewrent Umi Exton: definite time or inverse definite miinimuna tine built-in sevia! pot DMT charscteratic Onistonding design flexibility for easy ase, high-set phase overcurrent Unit sctection of appropriate operation schemes for sor delinite tine function different applications Low-set, nondirectional earth-fialt unit with Numerical display of setting vanes, measured definite time or inverse definite minimam time values, memorized fault values, faull codes ele. ADMIT) charneerisie Enhanced system reliability and avalability High-set, non-divcetional earth-fault unit with due 1 continuous hardware and software sell instantaneous oF definite lime function supervision with anto-tiagnosis Built-in breaker failute protection function Powerlul safivace support for setting and parimetrizing of the relay and for recording of nelay parameters with a portable PC, Two heavy-duty and four Jightduty outpat selays with field. seloctable configuration Figure 6.10.1(@) A typical electronic type of IDMTL relay 6.10.2 Definition Of Plug Setting (P-S.), Time Multiplier (TM) and Multiples Of Plug Setting (PSM) ‘Time Multiplier Setting (TMS) In order to apply the relay ina graded sysiem, it is necessary (o be able to modify the time scale of the time/cunrent characteristic. This can be achieved by control of the amount of disc movement, since the operating time is proporttonal to such movernent at any given current value. This adjustment is known as the time raultiplier and is adjustable front 9.05 v0 1.0, This means that at time multiplier TMS = 1.0, if the time taken fo operate is second, ther, for TMS = 0.1, the relay will operete in 0.1 x S seconds For TMS = 0.8, the zelay will operate in 0.8 x S seconds. 14 |Transformer Protection “Therefore, the time multiplier seiting for an IDMTL relay is defined as = TMS ayy where T= the required time of operation TM = the time obGained fram the relay characteristic curve al TMS ~ 1.0 Plug Setting IOMTL relays are rated at SA, which is also the rated secondary current at the current transformer (e.g. 300/5, 50VS ratio, ole.) Plug settings are the edjustments in the form of tapped plug bridge for changing the relay cucrent settings. Relay current setting = Plug setting (2%) x 5A or Plug setting (%) = Bol. eurent selling Example (a) If phug setting = 50% relay current setting = 2 x $A = A 100 J (b) Tf plug setting = 200% : relay current setting = Fr x5A=10A Hiples Of Plug Setting Current ag PSM or Multiples of plug sotting current which appears on the X axis of the IDMTL relay characteristic, is the multiple of the actual secondary fault current Slow ia the relay against the relay current selting. pom ~ Agual secondary current flow in the relay Relay current setting Example 1 Fault current in the primary circuit is 24004, if C.T. ratio is 300/3A and relay plug setting is 200% (of SA). What is the multiplies of plug setting current (PSM)? nd, Solution Relay current setting = 200% x SA =10A iS leFransformer Protection 300 3 Actial secondary current flowing in the relay = 400A 2 2400 AOA 506 408 4 --Maltiples of pug seting (PSM) = 30.8 Example 2 (a) An (DMT. relay rated al SA is msed to protect a HV. 22kV cable of Sikh ‘Amperes capacity. Deiermtine the (i) CP. ratio for protection (ii) Plug setting current and percentage for the overcurrent relay (b) If the fault current is S000 Amperes, determing the operating time of the overcurrent relay if @_— TM = 04 (i) TM=01 Gi) TM = 02 Solution iples i = ~-FaulLowrent in primary circait__ G2) Moltiples of plug setting, PSM “575 senting current (Primary curren’) = Paul current in relay coll Set current ef velay Fault current in primary cireuit CT Ratio and set current of the relay = P.S. (in %) x Rated secondary current of C.T. where fault current in relay coil Gi) Since this is a 500A circuit and the rated current of relay is SA, SOQA/SA CT. ratio is selected, Gi) The plug setting (P.S.) should be set Maximum allowable current (in primary curent x 100% Rated primary current of C.T. ° = 300A % = 100% 00a * 100% 100% tom (b) pgM = Fault current in multiples of plus. setting Plug setting current Plug setting current = P.S. (26) x Rated primary current of CT. 146ner Protection = 10 times Check from IDMTE, 3/10 characteristic as shown in Figure 6.10.3(b): AUTM = 1, PSM = 10, 1= 3 seconds, 3seconds x 0.1 = 0.3 seconds Now if TM =9.1, PSM = 10, Actua! operating time seconds «0.2 = 0.6 seconds if TM = 0.2, PSM = 10, Actual operating tim 6.19.3 3/10 Characteristic and 1.3/10 Characteristic ‘There are two types of normal IDMTL characteristic: (8) 3/10 Characteristic (Ax PSM = 10, TM = 1, operating time of the relay is 3 seconds) (b) 1.3/10 Characteristic {At PSM = 10, TM = I, operating lime of the relay is 1.3 seconds) ‘The typical characteristics of a 3/10 and a 13/10 IDMTL relays are shown in Figure 6.10.3(@) and Figure 6.10.3(b) 6.10.4 Combines IDMTL and High Set Element IDMTL relays are normally added with a high set instantaneous overcurrent element. : With the high set element, tripping time is reduced at high fault levels, overall system ‘ grading is also improved by allowing the “discriminating curves’ behind the high set instantaneous elements to be fowered. ‘As shown in Figure 6.10.4(a), one of the advantages of the high set olemeats is to reduce the operating lime of the circuit protection hy the shaded area below the ‘discriminating curves’. Figure 6.10.4{a) also clearly illustrates the important point that the grading with the relay immediately behind the instantaneous elements is carried out at the cunent setting of the instantaneous element and not at the maximum fault level that would be required for grading standard IDMTL telays. For example, relay R2 is graded with relay Ry at SOA and not 11004, allowing relay R; to be set with a 0.15 TMS instead of 0.2 while maintaining a grading margin between relays of about 0.4 - 0.5 second. Similarly, relay Ry is graded with Ry at 1400A and not at 2300A. 147 a‘Transformer Protection Operating Time in Sees Cperating Time in Sees Fault Current in multiple of Phug Setting (PSM) Fault Current in muleple of Plug Seiting (PSM} Figure 6.10.3(a) Time Current Characteristic Figure 6.10.3(b) ‘Time Current Inverse Time Relay Characieristic Inverse Time (1.3/10 Characteristic) Relay (3/10 Characteristic) 6.5 When using instantaneous overcurrent elements, care must be exercised in choosing the settings, to prevent them operating for faults beyond the protected section, The reason for this is that although the steady state r.m.s. value of the fauit current for a fault at a point beyond the required reach point may be less than the relay setting, the initial current due to an offset in the current wave may be greater than the relay pick- up value and cause it to operate. ‘When applied to power transformers, the high set instantaneous overcurrent elements must be set above the maximum through fault current that the power transformer can supply for a fault across its L.V. terminals, in order to maintain discrimination with the relays on the L.V. side of the transformer. eat It is t be noted that high set element is set as multiptes time of the rated current of the relay, ie. 4x, 5x, .... 10x of the relay rated current ai SA and not the multiples of the plug setting current: | 148‘Transformer Protection Fault Curren (amperes) R2 Ratio VL 400/18 Fault Level Fault Level Fault Level 13,000, 23004 100A, 1.D.M.T. RELAY SETTINGS — HIGH SET INSTANTANEOUS RELAY Ry setat 500A 0.125 TMS Ry set at 30008, Rzsetat 125A 0.15 TMS R; set at 14004, Ry setat62.5A__0.10 TMS Ry set at 500A Figure 6.10.4(a) Characteristics of combined I.D.M.T. and high set instantaneous overcurrent relay 6.105 Grading Margin The time interval between the operation of two adjacent relays depends upon a number of factors. (a) The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker (b) The overshoot time of the relay (c) Errors (@) Final margin on completion of operation - Safety margin 0.5 sec is normally recommended as the grading margin for the co-ordination of protective relays. 6.10.6 Other Types Of Inverse Time Relays Other types of inverse time relays include very inverse time characteristic and ‘extreme inverse time characteristic as shown in Figure 6.10.6. These characteristic curves are shown at TM = 0.1. 149Time (seconds) Current Gnultiples of ping setting) Eigure 6.106 Comparison of electromechanical overcurrent relay characteristics The following are the theoretical characteristics as defined by IEC 285-4 and BS 142, Standard Inverse; Time, t= O34 KGGy) 1) * Very Inverse; 13.5, Time, t= (GG) i] 150Protection Exttemely [aves fh {G/G5)? 0) Time, t= where, = relay operating time G © value of applied current Gp ~ basic value of current setting a, Very Inverse Time ~ CDG13 If there is a substantial reduetiou in fanli level as the distance from the swurce increases, there may be advamage to use very inverse time relay. The operating time of very inverse relay is approximately doubled for a ceduction in current from 7 10 4 times the relay setting. This enables the use of commen time multiplier setting (T.M.S.} fora namber of relays in series ». Extremely Inverse Time - CDG14 pal to the “The operating time of extremely inverse time relay i Ly nropontio square of current. Long operating time of this relay at peak values of load current makes it suitable for grading with fuses which are protection of feeders which are subject le peak currents on switching in, 3142,Questions — Chapter 6 . er Protection |. Expiain briefly how the saturation af current transformer would af mmeitection circuits. 4 the performance of in the sefection of current Qansformers for a an scheme. 2. Explain briefly what are the considerations hakanced overcurrent and earth fiult prot 3. Draw appropriate diagram to explain the operation of the following, type of earth full protection fora 22/6.6kV A (aeith a tertiary) transformers: (a) Balanced Earth Fault Protection (b} Standby Barth Fault Protection (c) Restiicted Earth Fault Protection 4, Draw appropriate diagram (o explain the operation of unit operation for a 22/6.6k¥ AWK (vith A tertiary) transformers 5. Draw appropriate diagram to explain the operation of the following protections for a 2IKVAL.V. transformers:- (a) Temperature alarm and trip (b) High pressure trip (©) Oil level rip 6. A restricted earth fault protection scheme is {o be installed at the socondary side of the 10 MVA 22/6.6kV cvansformer (Star/Slar connection, with Delta tertiary winding and soligly earth at neutral). Determine (a) The current tansformation ratio (b) The minimum knee-point voltage of the c.. to avoid steady state saturation, Given; (a) % impedance of 22/6.6kV transformer: (b) Burden of relay: (©) Resistance of CT: (4) Resistance of each 2.5 mm? lead from line C.T. to relay: (e) Resistance of each 2.5 mm* lead from neutral C.T. to relay 7, Calculations For Stabilizing Resistor For A 6.6kV Transformer Switchgear Panel ‘The existing earth fault element of the PAK 410 relay of the panel is a low impedance device and as suci under through-fault condition will cause maloperation of the relay. 152)td ind To prevent stich maloperation, a stabilizing resistor, R is introduced to the cirenil as shown in diagram below. Given: (a) CT. Ratio: IOOA/SA, Vin = 40V {b) C.T. Resistance: 0.027618 ofim {c) Loop Lead Resistance to Relays: 0.0571 ohm (4) Transfocmer impedance of 1O00KVA transformer is 4.75% Determine the ohmic value of series resistance, R- Balanced Balanced. EA" Tew Relay EF Relay Stabilising Resistor (i) Original Circuit (ii) Madified Circuit Figure Q7 8. Determine the voliage setting of voltage operated Earth Fault Relay for a 22kW/L.V. Transformer (1600KVA). Given: (a) Resistance of C-T.on yellow phase: 0.0272 (Ra) (b) Resistance of the lead and ammeter on yellow phase: 0.1712 (Rind (c) C.T. Ratio SOSA (d} Transformer unpedance is 6% 9. A LS MVA 22KV/400V distribution transformer supplying electricity to a 400V Main Switchboard as shown in Figure Q9, Determine the setting for the O/C and E/F celays on the H.V. side to coordinate properly with the L.V, side, 15312 x6300m7C XL~LPE 2S00A5A. ocTRa TOMTL IBMTE (Voltage Operated IDMTL WEL OIC relay. OC Relay 1 GIOIDMTL) PS. = (LIGSA25I0A} x 100% I = 86.6% ar 21654 4 times of relay rated current TMS = G.I (i.e, SA) of 20A to avoid tripping by Direet Acting Trip = 45008 maximuny through fauit cusrent from 1.¥, Side Ei Relay Relay * Instentaneous * Voltage aperated type to ensure stability during theough-fault from L.V. side * Operating voltage = 20V Figure Qo 154a CHAPTER 7 RIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEARS a1 INTRODUCTIC ~ The Circuit Breaker The cirewit breaker is the switching and interrupting device of a switehgear. 1k is requines! to conivol the flow of power in the electrieity supply network by switching the cirew! ON and OFF daring a normal operation and fo interrup’ the Fruit current during a faut, Under normal conditions, the circuit breaker is in its ON position providing load or in. its OPEN position providing circuit isolation. ‘The impedance across the contacts should be ‘close €0 zero when the circuit breaker is in its ON position; and close to infinity wher the circuit breaker is in its OFF position. (a) The fonction of cizcuit breaker is 49 open and close the circuit under normal and abnormal conditions, ‘The breaker consists of & set of moving contacts and fixed contacts, are quenching device, an operating mechanism (spring charged mechanism) to open the circuit breaker. (b) The protective relay continuously monitors the current flowing through the circuit breakers and could detect abnonmaily high current flowing in the circuit which could be signs of an electrical fault. short circuit or overloading. (c} The are quenching and current intercupter of circuit breaker serves to extinguish the arcing when tbe circuit breaker’s. movable contact is being pulled apart from the fixed contaci, The temperature of the arc may be as high as 6000°C and it must be quenched in a very short time to prevent damage due to electro-thermal effects anc electro-mechanical effects, To create the necessary conditions to sweep away the ionisation products in the contact pap at current zero and replace them by a medivem which can withstand transient recovery voltage, the following types of are interruption media are available:- + Oil * Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF) = Vacuum ‘The enormous energy generated by the large short circuit current as then to be absozbed by the interrupter within such a short period and in such a manner that it would not cause any damage to other distribution equipment connected to the switchgear In the case of high voltage circuit breakers, these propertics are particularly required to have quick arc extinction and have less time for quick recovery voltage build up. Vacnumn circuit breakers and SF¢ circuit breakers have better properties in this respect 155High Voltage Switehgears - _. compared (© conventional bulk oil, mininran il circuit breakers, ‘There is, there fire, n tren to ase vacuuin circuit breakers and SP, circuit breakers in high voltage systems ‘To meet demanding requirements, a designer may require a few years of development and testing work to produce # new eireuit breaker. Yet his prototype medel is usually not accepted by the end users until it hns passed a series of s0 called “type tests” designed 10 simulete the different kinds of severe stresses normally encountered in a power network ‘There are a few testing laboratories which perform these stringent tests as a third party to. the manufacturer and the buyers the more reputable ones are: " KEMA Holland * ASTAUK. + PHELA Germany » CSET aly * ESEF France 7.2 TERMINOLOGY (a) Cirenit Breaker A circuit breaker is designed to switch both load and shori circuit currents, it enables supplies 10 be quickly restored after operation on short circuit. A cirenit breaker is therefore defined as a mechanical switching device, capable of making, canying and breaking cunents wider normal circuit conditions and also making, carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short circuit, (b) Disconnector or Esolator A disconnector provides in the open condition a specific isolating distance. H bas only a very lirnited current switching capability and is not intended for frequent use, A disconnector or isolator is therefore defined as e mechanical switehing device which provides, in the open position, an isolating distance in accordance with the specified requirements. A disconneetor is intended (0 open or ciose a cireuit under negligible current conditions or when there is no significant voltage change across the terminals of each of its poles. Jt is capable of carrying rated current under normal conditions and short circuit through cntvents for a specified time Disconnector is sometimes known as off-circuit isolator or no-load isolator as follow 156High Voltage Switehyours: () off-eireuit isotator ~ capable of switching “dead? (nou-enerpized) circuits only, i) no-load isolitar — capable of switching under ‘no-load” {negligible enrrent Mow) conditions: only, Ensure when specifying such a device that itis capable of switching any applicable no-toad charging current. (&) Switch and Fuse Switel A switch is used for switching load current but is not suitable for frequent operation Switches may be manual or motor operated, and have a short circuit current making capability but no breaking capability and owst theretore be used in combination with a short circuit interrupting device (usually fuses) Waere the fise and switch are in combination in series the uni! is calted a switeh fuse. Where the fuse forms part of the moving coatact of the switch il Is termed a fuse switeb. ‘A fuse switch is defined as a switch in which a fasclink or a fuse carrier with 2 fusefink forms the moving contact, Such a device may be capable of closing onio a fault (*fault-make’ and the fuse will operate). (@) Barthing Switelr Farthing switch is defined as a mechanical switching device for earthing paris of a Gueuit, capable of withstanding for a specified period current under abnormal conditions such as those of @ short circuit, but not required to cacry curvent under aormal circuit conditions An earthing switch may have a short circuit making capecily Lo cater for inadvertent ‘operation of a live circuit (9 earth, (@) Gas Lasulated Switchgear (GIS) Gas insulated switchgear (GIS) is the switeligear with all live parts contained in Sg gas-tight enclosures, GIS uses SEs gas to insulate not only the breaker contacts, but most of the switchgear panel including the busbars in the steel enclosures The busbars are physically erranged in wefoil formation to cancel out the resultant stray magnetic fields and any associated enclosure eddy current losses, The enclosure may also be seetionatised with insulating parts to farther reduce such losses. GIS has deen used at higher voltages, namely 65kV and above, but it is alse becoming an option for medium voliage (33KV and 22kV) application in special circumstances. Cay ‘cult Breakers, Switches and Isolators ‘Table 7.2 identifies the functions of the different items of switchgear. 157Cireui Fault Make ane Isolatar Breaker Load Break Switch Disconnector ¥ eS. Fable 7.2 Capability al circuit breaker, switch and Igolator 73 WIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHING - Short Circuit Making and Breaking Current High voltage power circuits can be seen as a combination of simple resistors, inductors and capacitors as shown in Figure 7.3¢a) 1 Circuit ' Breaker | ims. vilus of symimetsieal short cisevit eurrent anree voltage source resistance = load resistance between circuit breaker and fault load inductance between cincuit breaker and fault Figure 7.3(a) Typical H.V. network representation under short circuit conditions Where Z, = Ry + jwL, is the source impedance and Zz, = Ry + jwLs is the downstream impedance from the circuit breaker to the foulf. ‘The shunt capacitive impedances (from machines, cables efe) can be ignored since they aze many times greater than the series impedances A sudden application of a sinusoidal voltage source on these components like in the case of 2 chrouit breaker closing onto a short circuit, will produce the typical transient current waveform as shown in Figure 7.3(b). The current is displaced from the zero axis for the first few eycles due ta the presenes of circuit reactance, and gradually assumes a symmetrical waveform after the subsidence of the transient, This waveform comprise a pure sinusoidal A.C. component superimposed onto an exceptionally decaying D.C. component. 158High Voltage Switehgears are the envelope of eurrent-wave is the normal zero line is the displacement of current-wave gero-line at any instant e rum.s, value of the a.c, component of current at any instant, mensured from the instant of contact separation (initiation of the are) is the making current the peak value of a. is the r.m.s, value of the a.c. component of current at instant EE” component of current at instant EE? Ine is the d.c. component of current at instant EE? ‘ace 0 is the percentage value of the d.c, component ure 7.3(b) Short circuit current IEC 56-2 Right after the contact closing, the value of the D.C. component is at its largest value and the displaced waveform reaches its maximum instantaneous value at the peak of the first cycle, ‘Theoretically, for a circuit with zero power factor, the value of the first peale can reach two times the peak value of the sinusoidal wave at the steady state (DOUBLING EFFECT). This peak value is termed as the “Short Circuit Making Current”. Large electromechanical forces are induced by the peaky current during the first fow cycles after making onto a short circuit, Sturdy supports are therefore required to hold the current carrying conductors in place and the design of which is largely dependent on the Rated Short Circuit Making Current of the switchgear. ‘The short circuit current will, if allowed to persist in the circuit, lead to the deterioration of the conductors and eventual damage of the circuit breaker. Therefore, the protective system must trigger at some point of time the opening of contacts to interrupt the short irouit, The Short Circuit Breaking Current is taken as the rms value of the current wave at the precise moment when the contacts of the interrupter separate. Due to the asymmetrical nature the short circuit waveform, the Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current is represented by the two following values: 159itigh Voltage Switchgears. . . np + Rens value of ils A.C. component at the instnal of contact separation, + Percentage D.C, component over A.C. component Ji most cases, contact separation occurs before the steady state is reached and the circuit breaker is called upon to deal with some degece of asymmetry. For this ceason, standard specifications state that ip all symmetrical breaking capacity tests, the dc. component shall not exceed 20% of the a.c. component, but in asymmetrical test the d.c. component wnust not be fess than a specific level determined by the minimum opening time of the cirenit breaker, In old switchgear specifications, the Short Circuit Making and Breaking Capacities of a switchgear were expressed in terms of MVA. Latest issues of IEC and most national standards have revised this practice by expressing these ratings in terms of the magnitude of the currems, Le. RAp for making current and kA rms for breaking current. This revision is duc to the fact that the severity of a short cireuil is largely dependent on the magnitude of the electromechanical forces produced during circuit makiag and the amount of thermal energy released during, cireuil breaking, As mentioned extlies, the making enrvent can rise ap (0 two times the peak value of the A.C. component for a circuit with zero power factor, In practice, however, the power factor of a cireuit is seldom low enough for the making current to exceed 1.8 times the pouk value of the A.C. component. On this basis, Rated Short Cireuit Making Current = 1.8 x peak value of rated A.C. component = 18x V2 xm. value of rated A.C. component 2.55 x Rated Short Cirevit Breaking Current This a standard practice for the manufacturer to assign the Rated Short Circuit Making Current (in kAp) of a sevdtchgear with a value whieh js 2.5 times the Rated Short Circuit Breaking Cuvrent (in kA rms.) ‘ynical Circuit Breaker Life ‘The citowit breaker has been designed to withstand and interrupt very high short circuit currents. Short cizeuit current operation places quite high electrical and tuechanical stress on the cizeuit breaker components, For this reason, circuit breaker life is typically liraited 0 approximately 100 short circuit operations, depending on the specific type. Furthermore, circuit breakers are generally limited to eround 20,000 load break ‘operations end 30,000 mechanical operations 7.4 TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE (IRV) Immediately after contact separation, are is drawn across the contacts and intense heat is built up in the interrupter. The current and voltage wave behave as shown in Figuze 7A(), The arc extinction process is dependent on the rate of recovery of dielectric strength between the partng contacts, At each current zero aficr contacts separation there is @ 160 1 f © 5 ‘ « « y qone High Voltage s ising volinge ehygears Jace belweent the rule of recovery of dielectric streagtly and the system for the First few current zero, the rising system eestrikinss vollage breaks dower the gente space and the aire restiikes. This continues until the de-ionation process is ically advanced such that the gap withstands the rapid rising voltage and clearance st is shen achioved. eontact break current prospective oy vollage final herent mer. are voltage Figure 7.4(a) Transient Recovery Voltage Transient Recovery Voltage Immediately alter the iptermuption of current, the contacts have to assume system power frequency voltage, which is at this instant close io its peak andor mest short circuit conditions (due to the almost zero power factor), This voltage therefore appears to apply. suddetily across the contacts and the reactive components of the cireuit connected to the circuit brerker. ‘The net result is @ transient waveform oscillating at a frequency determined by the inductance and capacitance of the cireut. Cirouit losses damps the oscillation and the energy is gradually absorbed. ‘Phe damped oscillatory transient voltage is superimposed on the power frequency vollage ard is termed “Transient Recovery Voltage” or TRY. TRY is also termed as “Restriking Voltage” as this voltage tends to restrike the are against the rising dielecsric strength across the contacts. Therefore, the rated TRV 10 be withstood by a switchgear significantly influence the design of its interrupter. Tn particular, “the rate of rise of restriking voltage”, or RR. in short, is amongst the most important factors affecting the severity of the duty of a citcwit breaker. Due to the varied nature of TRY waveforms, the severity of TRV imposed on a circuit breaker cannot be expressed in a single value. IEC 56-2 gives a list of standard parameters which govern the shapes of TRV waveforms adopted for switchgears at different voltage tewels. ‘The recommended standard TRV parameters aud its waveform for switehgears at 22kV and 6.6kV are reproduced in Table 7.4(2). The insulating medium ensures that the TRV does not cause a flash-over between the contacts and a recurrence of current flow. 16lHigh Voltage Switehgears jandard values of rated transient recovery volinge: Rated voltages up Co and including /00kV: Representation by two parameters: firsl-pole-to-vicar fiictor 5. Rated TRY peak Time co- ‘Time Valtage co — “Fime co Rate of voltage value ordinate delay ordinate ordinate vise Ue ts a Ww t alts RV Wis wea 14x LENS weOlst — forU<52kV we Hus ta 0.05 for U2 S2k¥. Table 7.4(a) (Table V4 of IEC Publication 56-2) Envelape of prospective test TRY D Referenes ine oF speeifed TRY Delay line of speed TRV ‘ Figure 7.4(b) Standard TRY ~ IEC 56-2 7.3 METHODS OF ARC INTERRUPTION The common insulating media and are interrupting media of high voltage circuit breakers are as follows:~ “ Oif Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF) * Vacuum Ja oif circuit breakers, ihe extinguishing force builds up relatively slowly after the motnent of coninel separation, and hence the arc is usually extinguished after a few half 162_ oo cvuseunvi tutte igh Switehgeary cycles ((ypically 4 cycles) af current hawe passed. The preveniian arg re-ignition requiees a high dielectric strength of the ave p ts fast recovery after current zere, ‘The are js extinguished by the particuler circuit breaker are quenching mechanisms used aud involved stretching die arc and rapid cooling, In the case of high voltage cirenit breakers, these properties are particularly required to have quick are extinction and have tess time for quick recovery voltage baild up. Yacuun circuit breakers and SV, circuit breakers have better properties in this respeut compared to conventional bulk off, minimum oil breakers, in modern SE, or vacuum circuit breakers the current is interrupted at the next or next but one current zero (2 eycle breakers) at time tof Figure 7.5¢a). Lo short cireult.carrent Pine, t : Vohiage ‘Transient recovery Vallage Recavery Voltage Time, t NL Are voltage tiene, ty time, t - elreuit breaker open ~are titerrupted Figute 7.5(a) Shoxt cireuil current and characteristic of teansient recovery voltage There is, therefore, a trend to use vacuum circuit breakers aud SF¢ circuit breakers in high voltage systems If the power factor of the faulted circuit is high (Le. resistance is a significant proportion of the total fault impedance} then the circuit or power source vollage at current zero will be low, At low power factors (predorainantly inductive or capacitive circuits) the cireuit voltage at current zero will be high and result in a tendency for the arc to restrike. This is the basic reason why inductive and capacitive circuits ave more difficult to interrupt than, resistive circuits. - 1630 vifchgears _ 7.6 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS In the case of vacuum circuit breakers, the vacuin offers the highest dielectie strength wien the A.C. circuit is opened by the separation af contacts in vacuum, It applics the principle that it is virtcally impossible for electrical curtent to Slow in 4 vacuum shen the contacts separate inside a vacuum holtle as shown in Figure 7.6(8). Fined contact Bid Capa Contact Tip sputter: Shieta Bellow: Moving Contnct——-¥ Figure 7.6(a) Vacuum Circuit Breaker rent Chopping Effect in VCB {a) The original designs of vacuum breakers exhibited the phenomenon of current chopping ie. switching off the current at a point on the cycle other than the cunent zero point, (b) The uniquely high dieleciric strength of vacuvm ensures that the current is almost always interrupted om the first current zero encountered. However, this supetior interrupting capability could tum out to be undesirable at times when it forcefully extinguish the are before the natural current zero is reached — a pronounced problem in VCB known as “current chopping”. (c) When switching smalt inductive currents, the “chopping” produces over voltages in. the inductive circuit due to tbe sudden interruption of current 2s shown in Figure 7.6(b), With improper comtvol, the over voltage may rise to 2 — 3 times the normal voltage and cause damage to transformer insulation (d) Subsequent developments of VCB overcome this shortcoming by the use of “sofer”™ contact materiel, to maintain metal vapour in the are plasma so that current continues 10 flow until point zero. 164High Voltage Switeh gears " 4 Vatluge erase the ¢ ‘ i sontnet up of VOB: 5, cnudnetive tant Co Tenge Copueltnce Current ity Cara itennaptel h, Voltnge fe ‘ourcent anteerptton phar wit sourvent chopping ‘current jufereption a( gatwral careent 2ec0 recovery voltage wiih “carrent-cttap pina” recovery vedloge with Interruption a asus zer0 Figure 7.6(b) Intercuption of induetive current by YCB and the curvent chopping effect Current Interruption by ¥CB (2) IF « pair of contacts carrying current in a high voltage system are separated under vacuum, break down occurs immediately upon separation and power frequency current is carried to the end of the first cycle when it is interrupted. Deionisation takes place in tess than 10 after the cuivent crosses zero. With « vacuum switeh, the dielectric recovery sizeaglt builds up fast. (b) There are limitations on oii circuit breakers in switching capacitive curzents. in off circuit breakers, after an intecruption takes place, the dielectric. strengih build up a such a slow rate that delayed restrikes take place oficn as much as half'a cycle later. The vacuum switch is free fiom this trouble since after half a cycle, corresponding to 2.5 mi contact separation, a dielectric strength of the order of 100kV ims is available, This type of switch has the advantage of restrike {ree performance. [ts ‘operation is also practically independent of contact parting time. Construction The constmetien of VCB is very simple in comparison fo oil circuit breaker. A schematic diagtam of such a ciccuit breaker is showa in Figure 7.6(a). The outer envelope is made of glass which is joined with metallic end caps. Glass envelope facilitates the examining of the breaker from outside after the operation. If it becomes milky white ftom its original finish of silver mitcor then it is a sign of losing 165iItage Switchgear _ . — Vacuum, Afler ibe énvelope there is a sputter shield made of stainless steel to prevent the metal vapour reaching the envelope. Inside the shielt the bresker has one fixed and the other moving coatact. The moving contact moves through the metallic bellows made ol stainless stecl. ‘The typical construction of a vacuum bottle and the vacuum circuit breaker are shown in Pigure 7.6¢e) and (¢) respectively. The superior performance of the vacnnm intereupte resalls fam an application of the following technologies: Vacuum technology «9 maintaia a high vacua for a longer pes ied of tine. Vacueen-cisting techuology 19 produce elvctreste materials with Bigh interrupting capabilities al non-gas absorption chavactetistics. Desipn and manufacturing techmolopies based on an advanced quality essveance program, Note the constimetion of the elecirade in the diagrain of the eacuant interrupter, “The electrodes are made of special copper alloy produced by aclvanced melting and Costing technologies under vacuum, and Tae the following reanarkable Featues, Large interrupling capability Resistance to meliing, evem in heavy cusrent Reduced chopped! current Fer large curren interruption, mvdii-pole axial rmognatie field type elecitoris, consisting of main and coil ofoctrades, are used to redvce the size ef tie whole interrupres. End plate Metal vacuum seal Insulating vacuum envelope Stationary electric terminal Coil electrode Main electrode Movable electric terrainal Mellie bellows Guide 10, Metal vapor condensing shield LL, Scal-off ube Figure 7.6(¢) The cut-emay view of a vacuum bottle ies. wer Swifching Applications Vacuum Breaker Pro The major factors which indicate the practical and desirable use of vacuum switches are as follows: (a) Rapid recovery of very high dielectric strength on current interruption so that only half cycle or less arcing occurs after proper contact separation. 166_ High Vollage Switchgears 1. Yariune loteesupter 2 Mau discoumer tng fered 2. Epos rasta buat 4 tentoning horton Figure 7.6(0) Rear view ofa VOB 2b) Current intercuptien occurs at the first current zero after centaet separation with no restiking, making it exceptionally good for capaciter and cable switching and long line dropping, {© Very high power frequency and impulse withstand voltages with small contact spacing, allowing ease of actuation and timing (a) Noneinflammable, non-toxic, non-explosive for any atmesphere or Tocation, {e) Enclosed and sealed are during interruption. (Usable where exceptionally tong life and maintenance free operation is desired “The disadvantages are: (a) No practical method has yet been developed to monitor the vacuum pressure in the bottle. (b) Tend to cause voltage spike when interrupting large current. ‘A vacuun interrupter can typically break 20 full short circuits, The number of operations, however, increases considerably with lower interrupting duties. After the prescribed number of operations, contects erosion sets in and the bottle require replacement, ‘The permissible limit of erosion can ustally be read off from a marking on the mechanical linkage connected to the movable contact. Monitoring The Vacuum Pressure Vacuuin interrupter tubes or ‘bottles’ with ceramic and metal casings are evacuated to pressures of some 16 to 10° bar to achieve high dielectric strength. The contact 167 omHigh Voltage Switchgear . - . separittion required at such low presse is only some O to 20 mm and tow encrpy iiechanisins may be used to operate the contacts threngh expandable bellows. No device has yet been developed fer ditect conection to the bottle 10 monitor the vacuum pressure due to the difficulty in preventing leakage from the device itself Theig is also no simple way of measusing the vacuum pressure of a bottle in service by using a external insirument. The only feasible approuch is to apply a pre-determined 1.C. pressure across the contacts during sorvicing, and measure the leakage current for comparison with the manufacturer's recommended lowest permissible value ‘The simple truck constuetion ~ with wheels om both sides of the main. body of the breaker, i( can be easily drawn out ~ has allowed a reduction in size and simplification of the design, As shown in Figure 7.6(2), the rear view of the VOB, the vacuum interrupters are supported by an epoxy-resin insulator and separated by insulating barriers. 7.7 SULPHUR -HEXAFLUORIDE (SF@ CIRCUIT BREAKER, Properties of Sulphur — Hexafluoride {a) This gas is extremely stable and inert, and its density ss five times that of air. (b} ICs non-toxic and non-inflamumable. (0) It is an ideal medium for circuit interruption. Its properties malce i€ an ideal Insokaiing and are quenching medium. (a) Tt has 9 thermal conductivity bigher than that of air and belps in better cooling of current camying parts. (c) li has exceptionally low reactivity and does not attack metals, plastics, ete. (2) lis dielectric strength at atmospheric pressure is 2.35 times that of air and 30% less than oil. At three times the atraospheric pressure, it is more than that of oil. The pressure of SPs gas in $F, breaker is geneially maintained at a few atmospheric. (g) The gas at atmospheric pressure can interrupt currents of the order of 300 times the value of those that can be interrupted in air with a plain breaker interrupter. (h) The low are time constant (S 1s) and its capacity to absorb free electrons due to its electromagnetic character make SF an excellent medium for are quenching. Figure 7.7{a) gives a comparison of the dielectric breakdown. strength of SF gas with both air and transformer oi] as function of gas pressure. SPs gas possesses excellent insulating properties when pressurized in the range 2 to 6 bar and has a dielectric strength some 2.5 to 3 times that of air at the same pressure. 168High Voltage Switchgears Breakdown Strength. I Diclectric inkV) Figure 7.7(a) Dielectric breakdown strength of SF¢ as a function of pressure SF, Circuit Breaker In modern design of SF circuit breaker, the construction of SF breaker is similar to that ofa small oil volume circuit breaker as shown in Figure 7.7(b) and (c) in that the three interrupter poles were housed in insulated “live” poles. SF¢ Circuit Breaker Design Concepts Circuit breakers can involve three systems, as described here: (a) Single Pressure Puffer-Piston System “6 gas at low pressure (5 kg/em’) provides the insulation and energy for interruption. ‘The breaker chamber consists of fixed and moving contact. (b) Double Pressure System ‘The functions of insulation and interruption are performed in two separate chambers, SFs gas at about 14 kg/cm’ is stored in a high pressure chamber and is used for quenching the arc. The gas at low pressure about 8 kg/cm? provides the insulation (c) Single Pressure Self Blast System or Rotating Are System ‘The pressure for the axial blasting of the arc is obtained by heating the quenching medium by means of a rotating are. y 169: ‘ h Voltage Switchgears L.Main connections 2. Cylindrical coit 3. Lad cuusemt contacts 4, Fixed arcing contect (ting) 5. Moving contact 6. Extinction chamber 7 Pressure equalizing chamber 8. Operating iever 9 Operating shaft 10, Avxiliary compression piston Self-extinguishing are principle ‘With she sol- extinguishing prineiple ihe current is transferred, daring a trip operatios. via the arcing -conlact ring toa cytindriea! ceil (2), The resulting magnetic field causes the ate to revolve im the form cof'a spake. The beat creaied by the are produces an ‘SFeegas ovecpresstie in the extinetion chamber (6) resulting in a Bow of gas axialto the are which is intensively cooled ané extinguishes at current 2200. Figure 7.7(b) Rotating Are S&g Civeuit Breaker 7.71 Single Pressure Puffer System Jn single pressure puffer system, the SFo gas remains in the circuit breaker at a constant pressure in the range of | —5 bats, Some designs use the gas to insulate the parts of the circuit breaker having different potentials, During the opening operation, only the gas inside the arc quenching chamber is compressed by a piston attached onto the movable assembly. The compressed gas is discharged through a specially designed interrupting nozzle which is located such that the flow of gas covers the aro, thereby teking away the eat from the are space. Fresh Sf gas is replenished into the nozzle by the piston and the dielectric strength oF 170 Maio conection ‘Load current contacts Fixed acing contact Moving eamiact Venteri tube Pressure equalizing charaber ‘Operating rod (3 pole) Bellow seal Operating lever hinge poimt (0, Operating lever Campressor-piston principle With the coospressor-piston principle the STipare ‘quenching pressure is produced diving an opening ‘operation by means of a piston attached to the owing contact. The are extinction takes plice in the insalating nozale (5). A generously dimensioned eusrent eurrying path concentrically ‘arvanged srond the arcing contsets nllows high Joad currents to be accommodated. Figure 7.7(c) Single Pressure Puffer SF Circuit Breaker1 1 1 i 772 113 the contact space is cupidly recovered due 10 High Voltage Switelygears 9 the renarkible ingalaiug prapertios ofthe gas. ‘The narne “pulfer' is giver to dhe palfing action al the gas nozzle over the gas daring are extnetion. Figure 7.7(6) shows the construction of a single pressure puffer St citeuit breaker. Doubie Pressure Puffer System ‘There are high and low pressure gas compartments int a double pressure puffer system, hence the name “double pressure puffer”. The high pressure is maintained by @ compressor in an ausiliary tank or gas reservoir af about 1S bar and the gas is released by opening a valve daring circuit interruption. Like ia single pressure puffer systew, the ate is extinguished by the discharge of the hizh presse gas through the pufler. The compressor then pumps back the exeess $15 gos from the low pressure comparonent back to the high pressure compartments Most double pressure puller systems are of the dead tank design. Rotating Are System Tor relatively lower current, interruption is possible with ihe help of the rotacing arc system as shown in Figure 7.7.3{a). ruignetic field XN. Figure 7.7.3(a) Rotating Are System Whea arc is struck in 2 SE interrupter, heat is extracted fiom the arc column to decompose the SF gas, and subsequently released in other cooler regions where the decomposed elements recombine and the gas restore its original properties. In conventional puffer systems, fresh gas is continually introduced into the arcing zone, the are can be “cooled” and at the same time the decomposed elements removed. The process eventually lead to arc extinction st a current zero when the rate of recovery of dielectric strength exceeds the rate of rise of recovery voltage, oz RRRV. ALMigh Valtage Switengears _ _ ‘Ase extinetion can be achieved by moving the are into the region of feel gas instead of introducing fresh gas to the are. The rotating arc system adopts this principle by transferring the root of the are from the arcing contact to a circular coil [refers to Figure 7.7,3(a)]. This ampere-tutns induce magnetic field which sends the are to revolve at high speed within the coil [Figure 7.7.4(b)]. Ate eatinction takes place when the arc loses heat fo the SF¢ gas as it progresses around the coil. The decomposed gas is removed dy the turbulence resulted from he revolution of the are. ‘arrows shaw the motion af elements initial are of arc column produced under the fluence racially of the magueti¢ Field] Figure 7.7.3(b) Rotating Are System The roiating ac system permits the elimination of the piston assembly in a pulfer system and hence the use of low energy operating mechanisms. 7.8 SMALL OWL VOLUME CIRCUIT BREAKER Smail oil volume (SOV) circuit breakers as shown in Figure 7.8(a) have their three interrupters housed in three separate poles, usually made of dielectric materials containing insulating oi. The poles axe of “live tank” design - one in which che poles are falty insulated from earth and aze supported on the truck through pole insulators. In SOV cireuit breaker, the dielectric materials of tie poles segregate the contacts of the three phases and they assume the line voltages in normal circumstances, This arrangement allows for firstly 2 closer distance between “tank” walls and contacts and secondiy between two adjacent phase-unit assemblies. The end result is a circuit breaker which has an overall compactness. In addition, the stnaller “tanks” require much less oil, hence the name “smnall oil volume” or “SOV" in short. In SOV circuit beaker, the oil is purely used for are quenching and not for insulation. Insulation is provided by the dielectric material of the poke. 172 [High Voltage Switchgears 15 Breaker open 12 Contact 13 Piston starts to Arc ‘extinguished ut Breaker closed separation, are move, oil flow struck cools arc Figure 7.8(a) Small oil volume circuit breaker {As arcing in oil causes carbonisation and sludging, changing of oil is necessary from time to time for any oil circuit breaker. Apart from the frequency of operation and the duty of switch performed, how often oil change is required will largely depend on the volume of oil available in the tank. In general, replacement of oil in SOV circuit breaker is recommended after every fault interruption, SOV circuit breakers operate in the same way as bulk oil circuit breakers. It can be said that a small oil volume circuit breaker is a single break bulk oil circuit breaker with its three poles housed in separate insulating poles fitted with improved are quenching devices. 7.9 GAS INSULATED SWITCHGEARS This is the premium switchgear. Apart from the power interrupting and the arc~ quenching device, the bus bar section is also compartmentalised and sealed and insulated with SF, The arrangement is made such that the switchgear is very compact and can be installed in very confined spaces. In addition to the advantages offered by SF« switchgears, the GIS can also be installed in any dusty, humid and hostile environments and still require minimum maintenance. 7.40 SHORT TIME CURRENT During a short cireuit, a switchgear may have to carry the fault current for @ period of time determined by the time-setting of its protective relay plus its total break time. The capability of a switchgear to withstand the fault current for a prescribed period of time without sustaining any damage is characterized by the two ratings known as “Rated Short Time Current” and “Rated Duration of Short Circuit” 173igh Voltage Switchgears Low-voltage equipment (protective equipment) Breaker operating mechanism Vacuum interrupter Monitoring facility for pressure Busbars Busbar chamber Three-position switch Gastight bushing Circuit-breaker c! Convent transformer High-voltage terminals Support frame Low-voltage terminals Figure 7.9(a) GIS Switehgears ‘The Rated Short Time Current is the same value as its Reted Short Circuil Breaking Current, During a test, this value is taken as the average of the r.in.s. value of the short Oxcit current waveform, Tle Rated duration of short circuit can be either 1 second or 3 seconds. The two ratings dicteles the size af copper conductors used in the switchgear and the design of mechanical support required to holé the concuetors in place curing a shori circuit. 741 INSULATION LEVEL -- POWER FREQUENCY AND IMPULSE, VOLTAGE ‘The rated insulation level of a switchgear is desiguated ss the combination of the Following ratings (a) “Rated one minute power frequeney withstand voltage” (b} “Rated impulse level” or sometimes known as “Basic Impulse Level (BIL)”. ‘The Rated One Minute Power Frequency Withstand Voltage, or commonly known as “A.C. Pressure Withstand Voltage”, generally represents the highest rms, value of the phase to phase A.C, voltage for which the switchgear is designed to withstand, ‘The rating indicaies the capability of the insulation to deal with the normal fluctuation in the sinusoidal power frequency system voltage due to any circuit disturbanee. Some tansient voltages. however, do not appear in sinusoidal waveform. They are caused by atmospheric discharges due to lightaing, or switching operations in extra high voltage transmissicn line network. The lightning impulse is induced in the teaismission line by the intense magnetic field radiated from a lightning discharge. Of general concern to a switchgear designer are the rate of rise of the wavefront, the peak voltage attained and the duration of the impulse. 174 n ™. eee High Voltage Switebigears “yhese factews ave expressed in kVp ul standard impubse wave refers £0 the rise time of the wavefront and SQjts relets te the decay Hime to 50% af the peak voltage. withstand veltage positive or negative | polarity RV ros. KY (peak) i “SThese values are For familzarity For actual practice refer the retevant standoxds ‘Table 7.4 1(0) Power fequency voltage withstand ses! and Impulse voltage withstand test For Voltage up to 72.5 kV (Reference Values)" ‘One Minute Power Frequency sti nd Volage ‘st Reduced voltage E i insulation kV (ums) ; ! Table 7.1 1(b) (Above 72.5 kV Reference Vaiues)* The power ftequency withstand test voltage and impulse withstand test voltage of bigh voltage switchgears are shown in Table 7.11(a) ane (b}. 7.12 RATED OPERATING SEQUENCE “The cated operating sequence of a circuit breaker is the prescribed sequence at which the short circuit making and breaking capacity tests are conducted. 175h Voltage Swifehgears According to IEC recommendation not intended for auto-reclosme, is the rated operating sequence far breakers which O-1t-CO-1-CO where O = breaking operation CO ~ closing followed by opening, 10 — Sine interval expressed it minutes ‘That is 19 say that the circuit breaker must be capable of a short circuit test sequence of Ont COmt?~ CO at its rated short circuil breaking and making capacities, 7.13 SPECIFICATIONS OF HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEARS ‘The sample of specifications of the 22kV switehgeass ate shown in Schedule “A as follows: heute ‘A’ Ratings and Electrical Requirements Complete Switchgear Equipment (Circuit breakers, isolating deviees, earthing devices, busbars, current transformers, vollage iwansformers, cable boxes) Rated frequency Hz Rated vokage KY (rms) Rated insulation level: 3.1 One minute power frequency withstand KY (rms) voltage 3.2 Impulse withstand voliage KY (poak) Rated short time current ka (cms) Rated duration of short cireuit sec Reted fifteen-minute DC withstand voltage of paris directly connected to power cables 61 Between phases 6.2 Between atl phases and earth Critical corona voltage (phase to eacth) | Circuit Breakers Rated operating sequence O-3min-CO-2min-CO | Rated short cirevit making current 625 Rated AC component short cirenit breaking 8 current i 17612, Be 4 15. 16. 1 18. 19, 20. 2 22. Rated lransiont fecovery volkige (an necordance with BS S31) 411 TRY peak value for terminal faults at tated short breaking current, 41.2 Time co-ordinate, b 313 ime delay. ty 114 Voltage co-ordinate,” | 11S. Time co-ordinate, C }16 Rated of rise, ats 117 Fitst-pote-to-clear factor Rated power froqeney recover voltage Small inductive breaking ewrrent 13.1 Ratect smatt inductive bees (3.2. Maxine instantancous yale oF current chopped by circuit breakers when Dreaaking small inductive currents ing carver! Masimninn TRY when breaking small inductive ‘gurrent up 0 rated value {4.1 On supply side of efruit breaker 14.2. On load side of cic breaker Cable-charging breaking evwrent: 15.1 Rated cable-chorging breaking current 15.2. Maxinwim instantineous value of eirouit breakers when breaking eable-charging, currents Maximum TRY when breaking eable-charging current up to rated value: 16.1 On supply side of circuit breaker 162 On toad side of circuit breaker - Opening tine Maximum arcing time Raved maximum total break tine Closing time Rated normal carvent 2EL Feeder 242. 22/6.6KV wansformer 243 22eV/L.¥. transformer 24.4 Bus section Voltage divisioa across units of multiple unit cironit breaker: 22, Maximum across any unit 22.2 Mi im across any UAIE Voltage drop across terminals of a pole at rated normal current | Insolating Devices. ie. isolating contacts Rated peak short cifcuit current _ High Vottage Switehgears AY (pent al hs a8 ts 2 WwW 138 Hs as kVA oa? AY (rms) 24 | i Aves) | »6 Ati) | <1 | KY (peak) <4 EV (peak) <4l A (ms) 28.25 A Gms) 1" KY (peal) Negligible KY (pik) | Negligible ms 39 ms 2 rs st ms at Arms) 1250 Aris) 4250 A (ims) 1250 A (rns) 1250 % Not applicabie % Not applicable milivats | 625Ligh Voltage Switchgears — Schedule ‘A’ (Continue) 32. 33 178, Rated normal eursent: 25.1 Feeder 25.2 22/6.6kV transformer 25.3 22kV/L.V, transformer 25.4 Bus section Yoltage drop across terminals ofa pote at rated pormal current Earthing Devices Rated short circuit making enrrent Rated perk short cireuit current | Bushars and Connectors Rated normal current 29.1, Main busbar 29.2 Cirenit connections: 29.21 Feeder 29.2.2 22/6.6KV transformer 29.2.3 2KV/LN. transformer 29.24 Bus section Current Transformers for Feeder Pilot Wire Protection Class designation in accordance with BS 3938 Limits of error: 341. Custent error at rated primary current 31.2. Limits of composite error at accuracy limit primary current ‘Transformation ratio | Rated outpot A (ams) Aims} A tims} A (ms) millivolts KA (peak) KA (peak Arms) A (rms) A (rms) A (rms) ACs} 1250 138i) 1280 1250 High - 0.02 Low ~ 0.06 NA 300300/5 NALons ~ Chapter 7 . High Voltage Switeh gears | With the diagrams of typical fault current and recovery voltage (as shown in QI) which occurs when a fault current is interupted, explain clearly the prine extinction in OCB and SPgCB. girs Ke a! ae: Figure QI Circuit breaking | 2. With the diagram of inductive current ag shown in Figure Q2, explain clearly the ! principle of are-extinetion in VCB and the effect of ‘curent-chopping’ in the interruption of inductive currents. 3. Explain briefty the advantages and disadvantages of (a) OCB (b) SECB (c) VCB 4. For the high voltage switchgear, explain briefly the meaning of {a) Rated short cizeuit breeking capacity {b) Rated short circuit making capacity {¢) Rated short time current (a) Transient recovery voltage {e) Rated power frequency voltage (2) Rated impulse level {g) Rated operating sequence 5. What ig meant by ‘GIS’ and briefly explain the advantage of GIS" . 179Questions — Chapter 7 iligh Voltage Switehgears = Voltage across the ; [ Current @) (Curvent interrupted ~ i, Voltage (e) Conditions occurring when interrupting small induetive currents (cor B O lagging) L_ Iuduetive toad C Leakage Capacitance AA} current interruption peint with ‘current-ehopping? CC! recovers voltage wiih ‘carrent-choppang™ Figure Q2 180 t a u &CHAPTER 8 HIGH VOLTAG CABLES gl GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA the essential components ofa power cable consists of (a) The Conduetor to carry the specified load cnrzent and short circuit current, ¢b) The Insutation to provide adequate insulslion al the specified working vollage fe) The External Protection against mechanical damage, ingress of water, ele Za The Serean to reduce electrical stress as shown in Figure 8.1(a}. Single Cove Cable ‘Three-Core Cable | Cenduetor (copper or akuminivin) 5 Metallic sheath (copper tape) 2. Conductor screen {fseri-condncling material) 6 Jute filler 3 Iasulation (XLPE) 7 Tape (compoundefilled fabric tape} 4 Insulation shicldiag (semiconducting material} _ 8 Jacket (PVC) Figure 8. fa) Typical construction of XLPE cable High voltage cables for distribution of clectricity shall be designed with the following considerations:- {@) The cross sectional area of the cable conductors shall be sufficiently big to carry the specified continous load current without overheating and the voltage drop shell be within the required limits. The cross sectional area of the conductors shall also be sufficiently big to carry the short term maximum short circuit current for a specified duration without overheating and daraage. (®) The insulation provided to the cable must be adequete for the specified working voltage with high dielecure strength, high degree of thermal stability to ensme electrical safety and reliability (© The cable must be mechanically strong but sufficiently flexible to be installed in trenches, buried in ground, laid in ducts or cable trays etc. 1SEigh Vos s ‘All materials used in the construction of the cables must have high degree of chemica and physical stability for the environment of installations B.2 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF CABLES Alb cables basically consist four parts ia their construction: 1. Condnetor 11 is either copper or aluminium, The conductivity of aluminium is about 0.6 that of copper Current ratings of aluminium cables are about (1.7 £6 0.8 that of copper cables of the same cross-sectional areas. Conductors in multi-core cables are usualfy sector-shaped for vattayes below 22kV. Oval-shaped conductors are commen for 22 and 33KV cables. Multicore cables normally have conductor sizes of 185 and 300mm”, Single-cere cables have commen sizes of 630 and 100mm". 2. Insulation Usually ydrocarbon-oilimpregnated paper or XLPE for high eapecity (above 50m) cables. PVC is used from the smallest size up to 630mm", 3. Sheath Lead ot lead alloy is extruded over the insulation to protect against co:rosion for undergrouad cables, Alloy E or alloy B used for unarmoured cables also provides mechanical protection to the cables. 4, Finishes Usually steel wires or steel tape armour is provided for mechanical sttength and protection for inulti-core cables. Corrugated aluminitm sheath may sometimes be used. In that case no more armouting is required. An overall exteuted PVC serving or compounded fibrovs material (e.g. Hessian tape) oversheath completes the cable finish and provides protectite against chemical corrosion and mechanical damages. 83 CONDUCTOR MATERIALS ‘Tbe bvo most common metals used as the current catrying conductor of cables are coppe and aluminium. 83.1 Material Copper Copper is the most widely used metal for the conductor, primarily on account of its cleettien! conductivity, thermel conductivity an ease of fabrication, Copper las (he following properties:- 182Ligh Vol — ‘ables 1) conductivity (electrical resistivity is 0.0172 4182) # eal {a) High eles (b} High melting point {083°C} and High thermal conductivity (380 WénIcy (c) Basily hand drawn for cable conductors, (a) Basy for bending } far jointing (H Good mechanical strength and able to withstand clectromagn: thermal sires during short eivcuits (g) Resistanee to eorcosion and celatively hard, not so easily dunaged The disadvantages of coppers are: per. ame (a) High density (8890 kg/m’ ages (b) Unstable price core Ron Aluminium ‘Aluminium conductors are used in place of copper when the price of copper is : exceptionally high, In recent years, the use of aluminium in cables has increased considerably not mainly only for conductor material but also for sheathing and 2 on) armouring Aluminium has the foflowing propetties:- Ga) Good electrical conductivity (62% of that of eopper or etecttical resistivity _for is 0.6283 12-m) ‘ides {b) Low density (2703 ka/m? or 31% of that of copper) (c) Resistance to corrosion (d) Non-magnetic property (therefore suitable for use as steath for ingte core cables) High voltage overhead cable is consicucted of stranded aluminium conductors formed ction around a core of steel sanded conductors as shown in Figure 8.3.1(a). The case, alurninium conductors carry the current and the steel core provides the tensile von strength required to suspend the cable between pylons. oti Aluminium Conductor Steel Core + >ppet Figare 8.3.1(a) Overhead cable constrection “The specific gravity of alumininm is only 2.7 compared with 8.9 for copper and its ft conductivity is 62% of that of copper. It follows, therefore, that the diameter of an o ne aluminium conductor will be about 25% greater than that of a copper conductor, in as the order to carry equivalent current, and, the greater diameter of the aluminium conductor necessitates a greater volume of insulation, etc 183: : High Voltage Cables — ‘The major disadvantage of aluminium is the thin hard oxide layer which bas a high resistance. This requires the use of special techniques to remove or break Uhis Layer before making soldered joints. 8.3.2. Selection Of Conductor Size And Type “The conductor section chosen must be adequate to cany continuously the specified Joad current (amps) during normal operation and (a catty short curation of shot circuit currem during abnormal situation. The heal generated when passing through the surounding insulation will not overheat it and so initiate electrical and mechanical breakdown. 84 CONDUCTOR SCREEN OR SHIELD ‘This is a semi-conductive layer epplied on the conductos. IL provides the conductor with a smooth surface, reducing the electric stress on the air voids thet exist between the conducie and insulation as shown in Figure $.4(a) Conductor Seami-condycting shield XUPE innuation Serni-conducting PE shield Copper wire shield Figure 8.4(a) Crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) cable with extruded semi-conducting sitields The purpose of a conductor shield or screen is to provide a uniform voltage stress over @ relatively rough stranded conductor surface and in the case of extruded cables, in particular, to provide close bonding between the conductor and the adjacent insulatioa, so as to exclude any interspersed voids that may constitute soutees of partial discharge as shown in Figure 8.4(b). ee (@ Field ina cable with ij Section ont of @) (ii) Field in acable Civ) Section out of ttl) unscreened conductor with screened conduetor. Figure 8.4(b) 184 Ain sere whet pst the oth > onfied bor augh and z 7 : itha xelor ields vera ular, clude vp ite! ay ‘Airis poor insutator having a sticloctric strength less dl cen, the air trapped then geeur and reduce the Hfe of the jaswlation. The sovsen is aio used far the eater High Vullage Cable an the cable insulation, Wither this setrigat or pantiol discharge will n the voids will be averstressed, insulation layer the screen can be ciths «# Plain carbon black papers or tape «= Metallised plain paper or coated carbon paper. 85 CABLE INSULATION There are a number of insulation materiats suitable for use with cables, ‘The more commen ‘ones are: BSL 85.2 PVC Insulation This is very widely used for L.¥, and contrel cables. I is a thermoplastic material, ie. it softens at high temperatures, In general, PVC can withstand a maximur operating temperature of 70°C although there are grades capable of operaling al up to 85°C. Tt is sesisiant to oil and many acids and alkalis. PVC can also be used for cable oversheaths. PVC insulation is nowadays being rapidly superseded by XLPE cables, However, it js stil] specitied and is suitable for cables rated up to 7.2kV. PYC. has the advantage over paper insulation in thal i is non-hygrescopic and does not therefore squire a metallic sheath, The absence of such a sheath simptifies jointing by the climination of phimbing operations on the lead sheath, Moreover, itis both lighter and tougher and inherently more flexible than paper, ‘Therefore, PVC- insulated cables may be bent through smaller radi than paper-insulated cables thus easing installation problems. PYC is resistant fo most chemicals although care must be taken with instaations in petrochemical cnvivenments. It is a thermoplastic material which sofiens st high temperatures ard therefore cannot withstand the thermal effects of short circuit currents as well as paper insulation. Impregnated Paper Insulation Many years ago, this was the most commonly used insulated material especially as PILCDSTA (paper insulated. lead covered, double steel tape armour) cable. Paper has the advantages of low cost, high electeic strength and durability. The paper is impregnated with lubricating oil for the following reasons: © Allows movement when bending the cable. © Eliminates air voids, which can cause eventual failure. 185186, # Provenis the paper from dying aut and breaking down, The insulation consists of helical paper topes with a small gap between tums. When the cable is bent, the tapes stide over cach other without damage. ‘The oil used mast be of the MIND (mass impregnated non-disining) type s0 that it will not migrate when the eable is laid vertically. Paper insulated lead sheath cables have an excellent record of irouble five servive, although there have been some instances of failtnes with J3kV belted types and GORY solid “#1 types, when existing saccessfial cable designs were extapolalod to accommodate higher system voltages. {a) Belted Type Cable This cable was developed more than 70 years ago, The construction of the cable is shown in Pigure 8.5,2(a). REFERENCES 1 Shaped stranded conductor 2 Impregnated paper insutation 3 Fillers 4 impregnated paper belt 5 Sheath, lead oF lead alioy 6 Bedding 7 Galvanized steel wire armour 8 Separator 9 Galvanized steel wire armour 10 Serving Figure 8.5.2¢) ‘Three-core Belted Type Cable Ench core of a 3-core cable is separately insulated with a layer of oil impregnated insulation paper and the cores are then laid up in trefoil formation, A layer of belt iasulation of the same material as the core insulation is wrapped over the laid up cores; the saterstices adjacent to the cores and inside the belt being stuffed with fillers to an extent that the belt insulation forms a cylinder over the cores, A metallic cable sheath, usuaily lead or its alloy, is then extruded over the belt insulation.High Voluige Cables Gwing to this consiarction, (he zor or earl equipotentiat surlace, which is the cable sheath, lies outside of the boll, ‘The ouler surface of each core insulation is not fixed al zev of cath potential. AC any particular instant of the veltag the cquipotential distribution survomiding each core are not circles coneentrie with the conductor of tre core due to the inOuence of the vollages in the adjacent cores. This sesulls in electric stresses in each core which are not radial to the core axis bet which have stress components tangential to the circumference Hf core insulation, The dielectric breakdown strength of insulation paper along its place is only a fraction (5 about 1/15 to 1/10) thai of its withstand for stresses perpendicular to the plane of the paper, Conscquenily belied cables are vulnerable 19 dielectric breakdown fromm tangential stress components if they are porated at higher site (b) “HY or Sereened Type Cable “The phenomenon of distectric breakdown of belted cables cue to tangential stresses prompfed the development af the *H’ type cable as shown in Figure 8.5.2) by Mir Hochstadter in 1914 4 REFERENCES 1 Shaped strand conductor 2 impregrated paper insulation 3 Seren of metal ape innescalated with paper tape a Fillers 5 Copper-waven labs fane 6 Sheath, leat or kart allay ? Beating 8 Galvanized steal wire amour 9 Sening 6643 274 Figure 8.5.6) —-‘Three-core ‘H’ Type Cable The ‘H’ cable has a metallised paper screen wound over each core insulation Contact between the metallic cable sheath and the screen is then provided by removal it of the belt insulation. In this way, contact between the iasulation screens and the earthed cable sheath ensures that the screens are at earth potential. Voltage Gistribution within cach core are confined to cizcular equipotential surfaces concentric with the axis of each cote and the cquipotential surfaces within each core is not influenced by that of the adjeceut cores. 1878.5.3 183 tageCables ee “Therefore, only radial stresses will be present, From the foregoing discussion. it cam be seen that the rationale of using belled cables for voltages up to and inchidkng 6.5kV is that these cables operate af a low stress values whose tangential componenis are tolerable. (€) SL Type Cable ‘This cable as shown in Figure 8.5.2(c} is an catension in development of the "H’ type In addition to the core insulation screen, each core is individually sheathed and ten the whole is encased in an overall metallic cable sheath. IC may be noted that its electrical characteristics from the viewpoint of tangential stress component control is not necessarily superior to the ‘TF type. However, if is mechanically betler protected and offers a more simplified form of termination. REFERENCES 1 Circular stranded conductor 2 lmpregnaled ape insulation 3 Screen of metal tage € Sheaths, lead or lea alloy 5 Core serving 6 Jute tler 7 Tape necding 8 Galvanized steel wire armout B75 54 R21 3 gemien Figure 8.5.2(c} ‘Phree-core ‘SL? Type Cable ‘The solid type cables described thus far would operate satisfactorily if their desig? maximum stresses do not exceed the dielectric breakdown of air. In practice, this limitation can be realised for voltages up 10 and including 33kV. Oil Filled Cables Power cables operating at 66kV and above are normally designed for stresses higher than that of the breakdown of air in order to ecanomise on, the physical size of the cable, Solid type of cables, with tbe exception of cross-link polyethylene type whieh was developed in the late 60°s, ave not suitable at these voltages.TT . . . cee High Voliage Cables Oii-filled cables are special paper insulated design and have been used for voliiges fiom 33kV onwards. The cable is Filled with low viscosity oil, which is keys uncer pressure at all times by storage tanks al regular intervils along the Get Briel pf — Carbon Pap fi} ——eulaiion Shielding Auiviare Sheath Figure 8.5.3(a) Single-core, concentric stranded conductor, paper insulated, aluminium sheathed, plastics jacketed, oil-filled cable This type of cable can withstand higher stresses than PLLC cables. The main disadvantages are the higher of capital and operating costs. Hl has now been supersecied by X/.PL cables. Conduct Carbon Panes Lape tis (Carvon Paper Hap, Duet ical ns Paes filo | Pastics Facket n 8 Figure 8.5.3(b) 3-core, compacted stranded conductor, paper insulated, lead sheathed, plastics jacketed, oil-filled cable 854 XLPE Insulation cy 1e Crosslinked polyethylene is a thermoset material achieved by 2 process akin to sh vaicanisation of rubber, which does not deform at higher operating temperatures, It is used from 400V up to transmission voltages. ~ 189Tigh ¥ _ ‘One of the main advantages, besides its good insulation, is ils higher temperature rating during normal operation end shart circuit condition as shown in Table 8.5.42). ‘This increases the current carrying capacity of cable for the same size of cross sectional arca, IPE pvc Imapregnated paper Up to 66K Upto 1SkV Lip to 22k Up to 33k Oil-Filled Table 8.5.4(a) Maximum Conductor Temperature XLPE maierial combines the advantages of PVC insulation (high diciectric strength, good mechanical stength and non-hygroscopic nature) with thermal stability aver 2 wide temperature range. XLPE has no true melting point and remains elastic at high temperatures therefore permitting greater chrrent carrying capacity, overload and short eircuit performance in comparison with PVC- and papes-insulated cables. HEC 502 covers the design and testing of these single and three-core cables up to 36KV. Scandinavian and Japanese specifications may be referred to for voltages ib the range 150k¥ 10 275kV where single core cables are normally employed. Cables for voltages above 36KV are also manulactwed generally in accordance with IECS02, Cross-Linked Polyethylene Type Cable The basic material for all types of XLPE cables is low density (LD) polyethylene, Polyethylene (PF) has for a long time been widely used as cable insulating and sheatit material owing to lls excellent electrical and mechanical properties, its lightness, good low temperature flexibility and good resistance to moisture, chemicals, ozone, ete. LDPE, however, has properties which limit its use as cable insulation. Being thermoplastic, its softening temperature is 105-115°C. By means of a process reminiscent of the vulcanisation of rubber, the PE molecules can be cross-linked, thus greatly improving the thermal and mechanical properties of the material whilst its electrical properties remained unchanged. Polyethylene has @ linear molecular structure as shown below in Figure 8.5.4(b\(i) and bunched as in (i). However, if they are bonded in a three dimensional network as in (iii), they have strong resistance to deformation even at high temperatures. ‘The product, XLPE is therefore no longer a thermoplastic. If soflens at the crystalline melting point of PE (105 - 115°C) and assumes an elastic, rubber like consistency, # property which it retains during a farther rise of temperature, after which it becomes cathonised without metting at about 300°C. 190ze Cables: igh Vol : Figure 8.5.4¢h) Cross-linking Process XLPE cable is superior to the paper insulated oil filled cabie conventionally used for i high volage power bansmission in lal the absence of oil-fecding equipment results i in extremely sinaple maintenance and that the charging current and dieleetri¢ toss are small ! Advantages of XLPE Insulated Cables 8 Oil impregnuted paper insulant has excellent electric properties and good thermal n overload capacity. PVC insxlant has good cleutric properties and is son-hydroscopic. s PVC insulated cables are simpler in construction and are also cheaper. The cable - insufaat which has the combination of the non-hydroscopic nature of PVC and the excellent electrical and thermel properties of oil impregnated paper is the XLPE. . “The principal advantage of cross-linked polyethylene as a power cable insulant is that ®. it combines the excellent electrical properties of polyethylene, and the physical h robustness of polyvinychloride with a thermosetting characteristic. Furthermore, the 8 4 cable operating temperature, overioad and short cironit temperaiures are higher than ° i the PVC and the mass impregnated paper insulants. Some of the more important properties of cross-linked polyethylene as compared « | swith the other insulants are shown in Figure 8.5.4(e). of The supericr ageing properties and the resistance to deformation wader mechanical ‘a loading at high temperature enable the material to withstand the effect of even higher i). temperatures for shott durations. XLPE has an emergency overload temperature of ve 130°C for a maximum duration of 100 hours per annum, XLPE has better dielectric strength as compared to PVC, Butyl Rubber aad mass ne impregnated paper. As such it is possible to construct XLPE cable with thioner oa i insulation in the medium voltage range. For L.V. cables the thickness of insulation is ves | determined by the mechanical stress and not on the electrical stress. Better dielectric strength docs not contribute to savings in manufacture. The loss angle, tan 8, is very 7 191High Voltage Cables snail for XLPE cables. With the ine consideration especially in the design of high vollage cables, ap, important cwsings cost of encrgy. ‘lis i Genexally, XLPE cables have lower weight por unit Jengtb, higher Hexibiity, seater bonding mdius, lower maintenance cosi, less complicated ecessories and are move easy t0 install, “Oil Empregnatedd Relative permittivity at SOHz, 20°C 3 3 AC. Breakdown Voltage (kV/mm) 20-30 Impulse Breakdown Voltage (k¥émm) 166 Logs Factor, tan § at SOHz, 20°C 007 10" 600 ‘Volume resistivity at 20°C, ‘Thermal resistivity °C env W Max continuous operating temperature °C 90 65 ‘Max conductor temperature at short ciretit 250) 138 current °C Tensile suength Nimo 15 15 Elongation at rupture, % 500 250 Flexibility 20°C good excellent 10°c good peor Abrasion resistance good good Deformation resistance at 150°C good poor il yesistance at 70°C good good! Fire resistanoe poor excelent, “Ageing resistance at 100°C excelient moderate good 120°C good poor moderate 150°C. moderate - oor Figure 8.5.4(c) Properties of XLPE materials, PVC and Linpregnaed Paper 8.6 INSULATION SCREEN OR INSULATION SHIELD The purpose of the shielcing over the outside insulation boundary are as follows:~ (a) With the ower shield grounded, the electrical field of the conductor attains radial symmetry and is confined to the insulation itself for safety considerations; () Intimate contact between the outer shield ard insulation serves the purpose of preventing partial discharges within air cavives between the insulation and the outer grounded 192a ae . _Migh Voltage Cables inctallic shield, Ta addition, the outer grounded shich! provides also protecGon tor the cable against any potentials that may be induced extraneously ipiptental tins, Facies . Kepipctenti ines slain Sean Conductor Conditar Screen : lrsufation Server Fine ines Condo rec Stross distribution in cable insutation Stress distribution with section of insulation sergen missing igure 8.6(a)_ Insulation screen One of the main factors concerning the dielectric serven is that it should be easily removed for jointing. A layer of semiconducting polymeric material, compatible with the insuiation, can readily be extruded and cured in the same operation and techniques and materials are now readily available to enable the manufacture: to produce either a firmly bonded screen or 2 ‘strippable? screen, which although in intimate contact with the insulation ~ can readily be removed without recourse to special tools. Up to 33eV the majority of cables use strippable sorecns, whilst banded screens are occasionally used for 33kV and almost always for higher woltages. Semiconducting sercen are usualy followed by either 2 copper tape, applied felically, or a concentric layer of copper wires. ‘The amount of metat in these screens must be related to what is required for carth fault current-carrying capacity: if tapes are used for deee-core cables the metal tapes can be supplemented by copper wires in the filter spaces. 87 PROTECTION OF CABLES 8.7.1 Armour In order to protect cables from mechanical damage. they are lapped by one or two. layers of armours, there are two types of ermouts as iotlows:- jal : {a) Steel Tape Armour, e.g. DSTA Or Double Stee! Tape Armoured i Steel tape armour consists of two steel tapes coated with preservative compound, ng applied helically in the same direction over a fibrous bedding, the outer layer ted ____ covering the spaces between the tums of the inner Jayer. This type provides @ good ~ 193High Voltage Cables 8.7.2 8.7.3 194 protection against mechanical demage but stecl wire armour is recommended when: ‘additional, longitudinal stressed may occur during installation or in serv (b) Steel Wire (Single or Double Layer) eg. SWA Single wire armour consists of galvanized steel wites applied over a componreled bedding. For double wire armour a sccond layer of wires over a fabric tape separate is added (a provide extra protection and additional fongituclinal strength, the direction of lay being opposite to that of the first Iyer so that the torsion effec! is rednecd, Double wire armour is used for cables in vertical runs, in river crossings, anil particularly in mining cables, to give the high degree of mechanical protection needed. Wire armour is more expensive than tape armour but has greater tensile strength anil provides better corresion protection. ‘The wire armour also acts as a betier earth foul current conductor, the overall cross-sectional area of steel wire armour tends to be gremer than that for the equivalent steel tape amour mechanical protection and therefore SWA presents & lower impeclance if the armour is used as the earth retuen conductor. Stee] or magnetic materials cannot be used as armour of single care cables. This is because the creation of hystersis losses and eddy currents will generate heat. It will then heve to be @ non-magnetic material such as aluminium ot copper. Sheath The cable sheath can be either metallic or PVC. Itprovides mechanical, chemical fire and environmental protection. The types of sheath are:~ (a) Lend sheath is usually protected with an armour because of its so/tness. (b) Aluminium sheath can be either plain or comugated, The corrugated design is, more flexible and provides greater cable cooling surface. However, aliminivin is susceplible to corrosion when buried in the ground ot exposed to damp condition, It requires 2 PVC or bituminous overshesth but does not need any armour. (©) PVC Sheath, An extruded oveisheath, which facilitates handling and protects cable from oils cr chemicals. When used to protect an ahuminiumn sheath, it is preferable to have a coating of bitumen on the aluminium to prevent the spread of corrosion resulting from damage to fhe PVC. Crossbonding of Cable Sheaths (@) In a theee-cove cable, magnetic symmetry of the condactor currents ensure that the resultant magnetic flux linkage with the cabie sheath is negligible. There is therefore very little or no induced voltage on the sheath and earthing of the cable sheath at both ends willl not cause circulating currents to flow in the sheath. Figure 8.7.3(a)Use at is te __ High Voltage Cabtes Bigure 8.7.3(8) (b) In the case of single core cables lald in flat formation, as shown in Figure &.7.3th) magnetic dis-symmeiry due (o conductor currents generally result in a voltuge being incuced in the sheath surrounding each core, ‘The valuc of induced voliage is proportional t6 the conductor current, sheath length and the frequency. Figure 8,7.3(b) (©) @) Iu practice, a potential difference of some tens af volts cau exist between the two ends of a sheath of 300m fength and for a conchictor current in excess of 500 amps. (Figure &.7.¢c}(i)] Figure 8.7,3(c)(i) The voltage induced in the sheath of the single core cable carrying curcent, | is Vy = [Xm = SoM x10" = Tea.2 x In (2s/d) 107 (Vem) where I = Conductor current (A) M ~Mutuel inductance (H/m) $7 Axial spacing for trefoil formation 1.26 x phase spacing for flat formation d= mean sheath diameter (a) Example: 1=1000A, s= 0.5m at trefoil formation, d= 0.03 2 Ve = 1000 x 20x 50x 0.2 (2a 2 x 0.50.03) x 107 = 220 Wem 195High Voltage Cables ne noe - Gi) Thu ‘a cable sheath of length 20 km may induce a dangerous potential — | relative t6 earth if one ond of the sheath is earth only. Gil) The high sheath potential may be overcome by earthing the other end of the sheath as well, However, high sheath circulating current will result a shown in Figure 8.7.3(c)(i). ‘Tiuis will mean increased sheath losses and de- rating of the cable owing fo thermal effecis. Figure 8.7.3¢¢}(H) The sheath circulating current is ee ee Me Lo Ie? ere where Ry = sheath resistance (Q/kin) Xm = sheath reactance (62/km) The sheath energy loss due to the circulating current is 25 ep, = acl 2 + Xm Examaple: As Sheath Voltage, V, = 220VAan and R,=0.2/lon, Xm = 0.226vkm, Therefore the sheath current is I, = 220 / [(0.2? »- 0.22")] * = 74GAmps and the sheath energy loss is 1,°Rx = 109kWiphase (iv) The induced voltage on the cable sheath may be reduced by dividing it into smaller sections [Figure 8.7.3(6)Gii)]. Farthing of one end only of the respective sheath sections would then mean that the unearthed ends of each sheath section will have a lower voltage. Figure 8.7.3(¢){iii) 196circulating carrents of losses and de-rating af the (a) Induced sheath voliage and circulating current effects are minimised in extra high-voltage network with the use af the Kirk-Searing method of crass-bonaling, as shown in Figure 8,7, : Figure 8.7.3¢¢) : The span £, R phase sheath has an induced voltage Vp, span 2 Y phase sheath has induced volinge Vy and span 3 B phase has induced votkuye Vy. IF the following sheath connections were made, the voltage will sum ta zero. The ends A and B are then. at equal potential and may be eacthed without fear of eirculating, currents, (c) In practice, the induced voltages in the three sheaths are unequal and do not form a balanced set because their physical dispositions are different. Fence, small circulating eucvent will flow when points A and B are earthed ‘This setback may be minimised or made negligible by transposing the cables at Joint positions fallowed by the orossbond, It can be scon that the crossboad of sheaths now cour on corresponding phases which ate in the same physical position. Conaplete bajance of the 3 voltages is therefore achieved and points A and B may be earthed without circulating currents flowing as shown in Figure 8.7.3{8). Fignre 8.7.3¢e)(i) 197Nigh Voltage Cables, Similarly, gables in the otlier physical positions are crossbond in the same manner. ‘Sheath Bonding 90; sei vit” Cat Figure 8.7.3(¢\if) Cross-bonding of exbls sheaths to provide transposition for reducing sheath losses 8.8 TERMINATION AND JOINTS {a) General Cable terminations and joints forms an essential parts of the power cable system. Proprietary cable jointing and termination ‘kits’ includ Connections for conductors suitable for the rated current Suificizat insulation between phases and between phase to earth, Stress control. Overall protection. It is important to ensure that the following electrical requirements are observed during the jointing end texrsination of cablesi- «Safe separation between phases and between phase and earth # Capability to avoid dielectric breakdown at the interface and around reinstated jeinting insulation under normal foad aad impulse surge conditions. # Adequate stress control measures to avoid high fields around screen discontinuities and cable / joint interfaces. In all cases great care should be taken to ensure dry clean conditions during the jointing process on site, Tents may be erected over the jointing area to prevent ingress of dust oF moisture. ‘Atypical termination of H.V, cable is shown in Figure 8.8(3). 198Prk OARTLOOR TAHA TROL CHDY, STALEY 3 COGeh TEER Ai TE PEA ANISH CNGE RoE Rese Lem csfadcHsiga A ISMN AE et, ERC uEaippe vee Ho, crass FOE eons ” hey i 4 BE a ev dietantaon a cob is oe SRRL URE INCLATaD ache wes ntceaita aa Tahoe bee FO RIA UTA. ae herr Bene ustemne eure Fee a Heretrcons ‘Tenmnatten ena 1H one ater mune. ERSUATION TER ALPE INSILATEOR STRESS CONTROL TinaiMG (SSC8) SEWL-coNBUCTINE SCRE ‘COPPER TAPE SCREEH DUC REMEASHEBTIC CABLE AMOUD, ‘errURERTING GLOVE SULDER Tack et Taare rnase ER APR 20 RS fam cami pian renee Ig, Bote: The above clearamoos D and & gare as agnide Please consult local $n ra SRL Eve OUTERSIEATI BARYHING BRATD ° Sugg po tetare foe Figure 8.8(a) A typical H.V. termination ® (b) Conductor Connections * Compression ferrules and lugs nef Cable core connections are normally achieved using compression lugs and ferrules. oo} These provide good mechanical grip and electrical contact, are designed to avoid any oxide layer boild-ap in cases using aluminium cores and provide a more repeatable solution than soldered connections. Specially designed band-operated or hydraulic tools and dies are used. 199: : Viuore are three common types of compression di « Circumferential, * Hexagonal. « Deep stepped indent, Compression connectors produce satisfactory results without the need for skills required for soldering. Soldered Ferrules and Lugs Soldered connection with operating temperature limits of some J60°C are not compatibve with the 250°C short circuit temperature rating of XLPE cables, In addition, such saldeied connections reqaire a well-trained workforce if high resistance connectians sre to he avoided. ‘The individual wires in the conductor are first tinned during a suitable flux acearding te the conductor. The ferrule is then placed around the conductor and filled with solder. After the conductor has been tinned, the hug is filled with solder by pouting in hot metal Soldering is a highly skitfal operation and requires different types of solder For euch conductor and process. (©) Stress Control As stated in eatlier section, high voltage cables with rated voltage more than 6.6kY, itis necessary to provide semi-conducting screens to control the electric stress within the primary insulation. ‘The core insulation screen cannot simply be cut back and lefl at the cable end as very high electric stress would occur at that point [see Figure 8.8(b\()} Such areas of high stzess can cause partial discharge within the insulation, which result in erosion and eventually failure of the cable at that point neuen. Conductor Figure 8.8(b){)) High voltage cable sereen termination without stress control 200High Voltage Cables ican be seen fiom Magure S.8¢bXi) that there is also a weny high shes in the air whore the screen terminals, and this nay be sufficient to cause discharges in the airal working, voltage. It is therefore necessary (0 incorporate a stress control system inte the termination of high voltage cables. Stress control is necessary for high voltage cables to reduce suck electrical siresses below the breakdown level. This is achieved by speciaily designed stress control wbing, ‘The design must ensure (hat the vollage rises wradually fron the earth potentiat af the end of the sereen until abort 90% of the conduetor voltage of the end of stress control tubing, ‘This stress contrat Uibing is of the heat shrinkable type. In effect, it redistributes the elocirie sires s0 that it is evenly spread out. The fesult is a gradual increase in Ue voltage along the thing, re RCH}, A typical stress control tubing is shown in F ser cor coittaer, Cable termination without stress control sreess Ago 366 Mo me —_ggy na voL-UREE ROSARY Fs ATOR Cable termination with heat shrinkable stress eoatrot tubing Figure 8.8(bYi) A good termination or joint ensures that the cores do not Louch afler the end of the earth screen. The distance between the cores increases after the sexeens to ensure that the stress is Kept to within acceptable levels. If the cores are too close, the ait space between them will be over-stressed and discharge will occur, The contral tubing comes in precut lengths and should not be cut. High voltage tubing is “tted on each cove outside the conttol tubing to provide a nonstracking surfece. A sealing tape is applied at the base of the termination (o seal against water ingress. For outdoor terminations ftom 6.6kV and indoor terminations above LIKY, it is necessary to extend the creepage distance by the use of sheds. (The creepage distance is the distance from the ‘live’ terminels to easth. 20111s major disadvantage is the formation of a hard andl high resistance layer of aluminium oxide, This has te be broken down to achieve good electrical contact. A. simple way is to wire-brush the strands before soldering. Mechanical dies and connectors will also break through the oxide berrier. (c) Care During Termination & Jointing of Cables ‘Termination, jointing and connection are processes, which are to be performed with the best possible eare fo ensure long service contimity. To achieve this, the following axe needed. * ‘Frained personnel who understand the basic theory and appreciate the emphases for high uality of work. + All processes are to be performed in a clean environment using proper tools. Some of the simpte precautions that can be taken to avoid commen failures ate:- Ensure that cores or sheds do not touch each other, Ensure that XLPE insulation is not damaged by a small cut. Ensure that conductor strands are not damaged or removed, Ensure that the insulating semi-conducting layer is removed from the exposed end of the enbles towards the screen using a clean wipe cach time. This is to prevent depositing the conductive material on the exposed cable insulation. + Ensure that any umesed openings in the switchgear are properly sealed to prevent entry of rats. = Ensure that single-cote cables do not pass through # mild stcel piate or enclosure, = Use ofa special torch that will produce a broad soft blue flame. = Ensure that the aluminium conchactor is properly wire-brusbed, * Check compression dies regutarly for wear and tear, which can zesuil iu poor contact, * When crimping, start at the end nearest the palm and working towards the open end of the barrel. For joints, start at the middle and alternate towards each other Ensure that the proper washers are used 16 maintain contaet pressure. Ensure that panel heaters are switched on. A typical te:minaticn joint on the bigh voltage end of « Wansformer is shown in Figure 8.3(0), CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF CABLES 8.9.1 Current Rating Tables {a) The continuous cmrent rating of a cable is dependent on the way beat generated in the conductor, insulation and metallic components is transmitted through the cable and then dissipated to its ex:ernal surface. The difference between conductor temperature and external or ambient temperature is ditec:ly related to the total hest Josses and the law of the heat Low,of aw oat x ae ced the ent a, High Voltage Cables 8.9.1 fa), using the invalyedl, aad fron the conduetun current anlage as shown in } fechnique illustrated, it is possible to calculate the losse: result, Gerive the permissible current ratings. cable Ground Sorfase — Suifage Bedding Soil Protective Finish = Heat Input (rsulation Figure 8.9.1(a) Equivalent cirenit diagram for the heat flow in. a three-phase high voltage cable (b) As stated earlier, the maximum conductor temperature of cable with different types of insulation for continuous load eustent are as follows:= + PVC 20°C © Inpregnated paper 65°C. - 80°C © XLPE 90°C The insulation with a higher temperature limit such as XLPZ will have the advantage of a higher current setting. 203High Vottage Cables XLPE INSULATED DISTRIBUTION CABLES (BS $467 or BS 6724) 1.9/3.3kY - armoured. stained Curent ratings, Conductor size Single-core® Jn air, (mm?) Trefoil Flat A) AY Copper conecia's 226 282 346 120 402 150 487 185 523 240 615 300 702 400 800 500 905, 630 tao 800 1407 1000 1202 Aluminium Conductors 300 533 686, *Single-core cables with aluminium wire armour. For relevant conditions see the notes in Table 8.9.1(c\iv). 208 16 23 35 30 169 70 212 95 259 120 302 150 343 185 304 240 465 Table 89.1(6x) 21a 268 328 382 ABA sor 595, ‘core (A) 106 140 166 201 292 309 359) 400 an 586 639 740 20 434 Trefoil fA) “Flat fA) Examples of current rating table of 1.9/3.3kV XLPE cablesHigh Voltage Cabtes XEPE INSULATED DISTRIBUTION CABLES (BS 6622) B.RI6.GKY lo RISKY sasiained Curent Concluctor size (nm?) ne] teen A), Copper condbietors 25 las 1a 283) 95 360) ASS 330 26 338 30 120 als 520 vs 360 380 310 150 a0 an Asti 10 Aw 380 185 S40 690 ago ASS aBs 430 240 640) 820 sm 520 560 ann 300 740 940 650 580 640, sd 400 Bao 1100 740 650 730 600 soo 940 1280 716 $30 630 Lg 1500 760 sao, 800 i270 1746 810 1970 1900 1400 1960 60 80 Adwniniun Condictors 28° is us 35° 140 3a3, 50” 180 230 U0 te 175 160, 70 225, 290 210 210 2S 195, 98 260 350 250 250 260 230 120 320 Ato 295 280 295 265 150 365 465 330 315 330 300 185, 45 330 385 355 375 335 240 00 6G 450 405 440 380 300 580 730 510 455 495 435 409 679 360 590 510 370 490 500 1 1916 570 650 630 a0 1196 640 750 800 1052 1400 769 "Copper wire sereen ° Not applicable to af! voltage. See dimension tables for availability, For cable designs and celevant conditions see the notes in Table 8.9.14eXG Example of current rating table of 3.8/6.6V to 8.7/15kV XLPE cables 205 Table 8.9.1(b)¢4)XLPE INS! DISTRIBUTION CABLES (BS 6622) 12. 2/22KV to 19/33KV. Sustained Current ratings Conductor size 77 {mm’) Trefoil Copper conductors 35 50 245 0 300 5 360 120 425 150 485 185, S50 240 650) 300 740 400 850 500 980 630 1130 800 1290 1000 1430 Aluminian Conductors 35 30 190 "a 235 95 230 120 330 150 375 185 430 240 510 300 580 400 680 500 790 630 920 800 1070 1000 120 Fe 2S a atnEESLEEEEEEn aie ne “Fh ee 2) ee ) 298 365 450 520 590 670 800 920 1070 1250 1450 4690 3910 230 285 245 400 435 526 620 70 840 980 1080 1360 1560 *Copper wire screened, unarmoured. “W) 180 225 275 330 380 430. 4901 370 650 740 860 230 280 335 380 430 48s 560 640 730 830 950 1070 1190 For cable designs and relevant conditions see the nates in Table 8.9.1(o)(iv). Table §.9.1¢b)(if) Example of current rating table of 12.7/22kV to 19/33IcV XLPE cables 206High Voltage Cables ‘sustained Ratings ‘The mbulated ratings have been deicimined im accordance will IEC 297, They ate fora single cirewit wi the standaad cotditious piven below, For other conditions the ratiag Gacters shout be applied, Bar eahles to HS 5467 and BS 6724 (xp to 3 AKV) the ratings givew in this oppendia, aro in accordance with PRA Report 69.30, Pant V Gxiich is an conformity with (EC 387), Far cables aa aie ratings o1¢ based on an uiwbiont temspersinre of 30°C ta align with dhe TEL: Regulations for Htectrical Insalhitions. Ths ratings actually tabufated in ERA 69-30 re based on 25°C bu after application of seinperatvre eorrecti¢a facloss the ratings become idence) Maximum conductor femperature ove: cenit protection GOOFIOOOY eables shoukl be selected wih a eating af not fess than fhe nominat eustent of the deviee jroviding protection ayainst uvectoad, or not bess U lines thiy salve if the device will not operate ‘within 4 Bows at [45 times its neminat current Enstallation in An ambient temperature of 31°C for cables up to 1.9/3.3kY and 25°C lar higher voltage cables. “The cables are shieidod from ihe direct rays of the sun, Ait eisculation is nox restricted significantly, eg. if fastened to a walt the cables are spaced at feast 20 mame feo i; i i a bench they are not covered. ‘Adicent cireuits ane spaced apart and suitably disposed Lo prevent avanual heating. Cables laid direct in ground Ground temaperaties 15°C Grown thermal resistivity 12k Adjacent circuits Abloos 8m apart, Depth of iaying 4.5 m for voltages up t0 1000) V aud 0.8 m for higher voliage cables (mezsured trom groond surface ta contre of cable ar ‘refoil group} Single-core cables ‘The data apply t theee oF four single-core cables operating 3-piuse. Bonding For uefoit instalation itis assumed that the armour will be solidly bonded, .2, bonded at botl ends of the run. For very short nins i may be found possible to bond at orie end only but consideration must be given to the value of the standing voliage which can oceut along the cable length under bot normal aad fault conditions. ‘For flat formation the ratings for 600/100 cables are based on bonding at both ends and for higher voltage cables on single peint bonding. Trefoil A.close trofoil fs asswined with the cables touching Fat formation ‘The ratings and techaieal data are based on horizontal installation with a spacing between cable centres af twice the overall diameter. Cables installed vertically wil have somewhat lower ratings. Table 8.9.1(b)(iv): Example of stated conditions of design and installation 207High Valtage Cables 8.9.2 208 (¢) With assumption of ambient air temperature and ground temperature, the cable mannfactwer prepared their cable current rating tables as shown in Table 8.9.1(6}(i), 8.9.1()Gi) and 8.9.1(b\ iit} for XLPE cable, the manufacturer wsvally slate the conditions for using this kind of tables as shown in Table 8.9. 1(0)6). (Note: These lables are produced in this book anfy for the purpose of illustration and education in basic method for determination of cable ratings, readers are requested to find relevant cable manvfictuters for appropriate current rating and catalogues for actual use in their project and nit to solely rely on these tables in the actual design and instaflation). Manufacturers usually state the ambient sir temperature of 25°C (Europe) and ground temperature at 15°C (Enirope} as shown in Table 8.9. 1(b)(i¥) (d) Electrical Research Association (ERA) in the UK. has done very valable research with regard to cable current carrying capacities in ERA report 69-30 (8 parts) (¢} IEC publication 364-5-523 and IEC 287 provides the basic methods for calewiating ratings using standard data included. (® Genexally speaking, armouring ard shcathing losses in multi-core cables do not have a very isoportant effect on the overall loss figure, However, in single-core cables, josses arising from circulating, currents and eddy currents can be significant (a) Single-core steel wire of steel tape armoured cables are not recommended for use in AC circuits due to the heavy losses which aceat when magnetic material is used for armouring. When the degree of protection afforded by armouring is required on such cirewits, non-magnetic material or aluminium may be wsed but, nevertheless, allowance for circulating and eddy currents must still be made. Cables Laid In Air ~ Ambient air temperature Manufietwrers current ratings tables are generally based on an ambient air temperature of 25°C (urope), Separatz mannfactarer’s tables state the factors to be applied to obtain current ratings for the particular site conditions. For example: A 33kV, 3 core, 300 mm?, CU Conductor cable is to be laid in an ambient air temperature of 35°C. If the current rating given in manufacturers tables is 650A at 25°C and @ de-rating factor of 0.9 is applicable for 35°C operation, the cable rating at 35°C is 650 x0.9= 585A. In the case of cables laid in a concrete trench, the ambient temperature in the trench wooid be higher than the outside ambient air temperature. In addition, the proximity to other power cables laid in the same trench will have an effect on the cable current carrying capacity. Derating factors are inctuded in manufacturers’ literature.Seat 8.9.4 8.10 on ste se High Voltage Cables Cables Laid Direct In, Ground ~ Ground temperature, ground Hhermal resistivity and cable laying depth Ground Femperatare Manufacturers current rating fables are generally based on gronnd temperature as follows:- Japan :25°C Turope: 15°C Ground temperature deviates from the stated temperature of the current tating tnble age taken into account by suitable application of derating factors Ground Thermal Resis Mamufactiress curseat rating tables usually based on ground thermal resistivity of 12°C vW for U.K, Derating fictors in comparison with 12°C mW may be obtained from ERA report 69-30 Cabie Laying Depth Manufacturers curcent rating tables usually based on a depth of 0.8m for high vollaze cables, measured from ground surface fo centre of cable ar irefoil group. Adjacent Circuits Where cables are aid together in one trench, the proximity which result in heat affecting cack other, derating factors have to be applied ta obtain the correct current carrying capacity, Cables Laid In Ducts: Cables may be installed in ducts buried in the ground with an earth, sand or conerete suttound. Generally, it is good practice to install only one power cable per duct and the jiternal diameter of the duct should be at least 35am greater than the cable diamote:, Cable ratings in ducts corcespond to typically 80% of the direct in-ground bu:ial rating, FACTORS AFFECTING THE CONTINUOUS OR SUSTAINED CURRENT RATING OF CABLES The factors which would affects the sustained ratings of the high voltage cables are therefore summarised as follows: (2) Ambient temperature on ground temperature. (b) Conductor temperature limit for the insulation, 209High Voltage Cabes (6) Installation conditions » Soil thermal resistivity, the depth of laying, (d) Effects of neighbouring cables (e) Deviation from standard conditions (a) Temperature ‘The ambient teraperature at which a cable operates depends on whether the instaltation is out of doors, within a building or buried in the ground. Climate “Fopical Subtropical 40 15 Temperature 28, 10 Table 8.10(2)(7) Example of ambient air and ground temperatures vased upon geographical climate Table 8.10(@Xi) gives details of temperature levels which can be expected generally in tropical and semm-trepical zones. Readers are requested to find more information from IEC 287, Variation in ground seuperacr eee hush econ 35 Ground temperature °C Derating factor 1 or 093 as 0.36 a ous oe Variation in ground cemporagare, cables Lapa in single wa} acts 35 Ground temperature °C Derating factor u 0 997 oe 89 0.86 oe O76 bu Figure 8.10(a)(ii)__Derating factors for various ground temperatures TEC 287 provides derating factors for various ground temperature as shown in Table B.10(aXii). Maximum conductor Insulation Cable design eanporature (°C) Impregnated Paper 600 ~ 6.0kV Belted Impregnated Paper 6.0 - 10KV Belted Impzegnated Paper 6 — iSkV Screened Inmpregnated Paper 12 ~ 30k MIND Screened Polyvinyl chloride All designs Cross linked polyethylene All des Table 8.10(b) Conductor temperature limits for standard cable types 210igh Voltage Cables (b) Maximum Cable Coaductor Temperature Maximum cable operating temperatures based upon design and insulation of the cables are specified by FEC as ia Table 8.10(b} (c) Installation Conditions Soil thermal resistivity When cables are buried in the ground the beat transmitied from the errent-carying conductors passes into the surrounding soll. Generally, soils containing a high deyree of moisture will have a lower thermal resistivity and therefare. provide betier heat dissipation properties “Thermal resistivity OkmAV) ‘Soll condition Weather conditions Very moist ‘Contimausly moist Moist Regelar rainfall Dy Sekiom rains Very ds; Lille oro rain i | ‘Table 8.10(¢}0) ‘Typical soil thermal resistivities Table 8.10(6)(i) gives general guidance for values of soil thermat resistivity expressed in Kelvin metre/watt, : ; TEC 287 provides derating factors for consideration of soil thermal igsistivities as shown in | Table 8.10¢c)(ii), (ii), (is) and ¢v). Conductor area, mm? j . £9 Ls 2.0 le ‘Table 8.10(cXii) Variation in soil thermal resistivity, single core cables, direct burial in ground auIligh Voltage Cables Conduetor avea, mm Gos 092 992 p92 oor 092 92 0.92 092 092 oor ‘Table 8.10(c}(4i) Variation in soil thermal resistivity, multicore cables, direet burial ia ground ‘Conductor ‘Thermal resistivity, & area, wn 2 iW Table 8.10{c}{iv} Variation in soil thecmal resistivity, single core cables installed in single way ducis Conductor Thermal resistivity, G area,mm? 2emiW, OB Tabie 8.10) Variation in soil thermal resistivity, mullicere cables installed, in single way ducts cs 0.83 083 O83 083 O82 ast 082 oR oa ORL 212High Voltage Cables Depth of Laying VEC 287 provides derating fetors for variation in depth of laying as shown in Table 8.10Ce vi) of laying (n Cables ever 300m 0.80 4.00 42s 1.50 1s 2.00 2.30 3.0 ov more, Table 8.10(e){vi). Variations in depih of laying measured from ground surface fo the contre of a cable or ta the contre of a trefoil group, direct burial in ground (a) Effects of neighbouring cables Heat generated by neachy cables have to be taken into account in inslallation design of hight voltage cables, TEC 287 provides derating, fhetors for effects of neighbouring cables as shown in Table 8, 10(4)(3), (i) and ( No. of groups Groups touching Groups at 0.151 fhetsween centres* Groups at 0.3m berween coutres Groups at 0.45m between centres: *"This spacing no: possible for some of the larger diameter cables. Table 8.10(d)(i) Variations due to grouping, single core cables (in close trefoi) formation), direct burial in ground No. of groups Groups at 0.15mi between centres* Groups at 0.3m between centres Groups at 0.5m, between conites This spesing aot possible for some of the larger Glamever cables Table 8. LO(4)(ii) Variations due to grouping, single core cables (in flat spaced formation), direct burial in ground 213Ciroups tonching Groups at 0.15 isetwveon centres Groups at 0.3m bebveen centres Groups at 0.4Si0 Detwoen centres ‘Table 8.10(d}(iii) Variations due to grouping, mutticore cables, direct burial in ground 8.11 SIZING OF HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES Selection and sizing, of high voltage cables has to take the following into considerations:~ (a) Sustained curcent carrying capacity (b) Shotl cireuit withstanding capacity (c) Earth fault current rating (a) Voltage érop considesation (where necessary) (a) Sustained Current Carrying Capacity ‘The effective current cerrying capacity of the high voltage cables is Ip esi Curent _ PERC Cw eK Cy where C), Cz ......Cxaze the correction factors for deviation from the standard conditions of installation stated by cable manufacturers in their sustained cusrent rating tables. A cable on Sustals y size Smm? is then selected from the manufacturers" sustained curcent rating table, 80 that dhe correspondiug current rating It found fiom the table is bigger than the effective current carrying capacity required by the actual conditions of installation. (b) Short Circuit Withstanding Capacity Power cables are designed to operate below a certain maxinum temperature, this limit depend on the conductor material and the type and the thickness of insulation. The conductor in a three-phase circuit must therefore be able to carry the bighest symmetrical three-fault short circuit current at that point on the network fo: a specified short duration without causing the conductor tempersture fo exceed the limit. Short circuit rating are normally taken over @ ] second ov 3 seconds fault duration period for a conductor temperature not exceeding 250°C for XLPE ~ Insulated cables and 160°C for paper Insulated cables, 214 The wh St to in: of at st mt ior ‘ov a High Voltage Cables The general formula for ealculating the allowable short circuit current he ten BA wT : ie mps) or Atm) = ea al and on the jnitial and final where K = a constant depending upon the conductor mate temperatures associated with the short circuit cone (© duration of short circuit in seconds A= cross-sectional area of the conductor jn mm? The typical values of K for paper and XLPE Insulated cabies are given in Table 8.11 (aid. Types of cables | Limit of conductor , Ke values — temperature netor_| Aluminium conductor Table 8.1 (fayti) Short circuit ratings are not published for individual cables in eny official documents, because of the large number of the cable types and sizes involved and the fact thal they have to be relaied to the duration of short circuit which applies to the particular circuit. Figure 8.1 (bX) illustrates a typical example of the graphs available from manufacturers to provide information on & basis of a maximum conductor temperature with a range of duration, 630runF. a0rang 100 20a in 2¢0ram esenen, 0mm? Hom TZ 03 04 080810 20 Duration of shert eircuit (6) Figure 8.1 1(a)(ii). Short-cireuit ratings for copper conductor XLPE insulated cables (Temperature rise 99 to 250°C) 215 paHigh Voltage C: (eg) Earth Fault Ratings Some high voltage systems make provision of neutral ground resistor (NGR} at the star point of the source distribution transformer to reduce the phase to carth fault current. Where this is not the case, the phase fo earth fault current is very high and is expected to be carried by the cable sheath and the cable armour ‘The following ferrmula may be used to determine the cross sectional area of cable sheath and armen, where Ter = Maximum phase to earth fault current (= duration of the fault current k = thermal constant (k value for lead sheath is 24 and k value for yalvanised steel vite armour is 44) @) Voltage Drop Voltage drop is seldom a problem for high voltage cables as transformer tap changer is often lilized to adjust the system voltage to the loads. However, for high voltage load which is sensitive (o voltage drap, voltage drop calculation may be performed. 216High Voliage Questions — i. Explain ly what are the 2, ‘The declared prospective S-phase short cironit carrent of the high vokage incoming: supply from Power Supply Company are as follows: (a) 25KA G sec)at 22k (b) 20KA (3 sec) at 6. kV Determine the appropriate cross sectional aroas of the high vokage enble tw reveive electricity supply from the Power Supply Company Jain briefly what is KLPE cables and the advantages of using XLPE cables 4, Describe briefly what is the purpose of the following: (a) Conductor screen of high voltage cable (b} Insulation sereen of high voltage cable (c) Stress control tube of high voltage cable termination 5. A 2MVA 33kV/0.415KV AN transformer is to be suppliod from a 3.3kV switchboard using a circuit breaker with a rating of 800A. The back-up protection clearance time is | see. The 3.3kV switchboard fakes supply from a SMVA 11kV/3.3KV transformer with Zr=% The cable route length is 500m, pact of which is in air at an ambient temperature of 25°C and part buried direct in the ground having a thermal resistivity of 1.3 KawW and « temperature of 15°C. The ground in one section has recently been made-ap but is otherwise of average consistency. The depth of buvial is 0.8m except in the made-up ground where this is increased to 1.25m, The maximum duct length when passing through walls is 300mm. Determine the cable size of the XLPE cable size required. 6. A 1000kVA 22KV/400V distribution transformer is connected to the 22kV main switchboard with prospective 2-phase short circuit current at 25KA. Assuming that the protection relays of the circuit breaer can operate within {a) | sec (b) 3 see Determine in each case, the zequited cross-sectional area (unm?) of the multi-core high voltage XLPE cable for the transformer. ‘The high voltage is laid in cable trencl with ambient temperature 25°C. 27Questions - Chapter 8 . . TR IMVA TRV 7 415¥ distribution gansformer is supplic ‘with fault level 2S0MVA, The [kV Gansformer cable ts Jaid in the ground with thermal resistivity 1.9°C mf, the depth of burial js 1.25mi and ground semmperatene 25°C and there are no other cables in the Wench, Assuming thet the protection is able to clear the 3-phase fault within 3 second, determine the appropriate size of the cable (amnr') 28CHAPTER 9 EARTHING FOR HIGH VOLTAGE SYSTEM 9.1 INTRODUCTION Faull op HY, and B.H.V. systems are infiequent especially phase to earth faults, but the current can be large, due to multiple infeeds from various sources and generators, The purpose of an eacthing system is therefore to provide an adequate path for earth find currents to return to the system neutral, This has to be performed in a manner which ensures ‘safely to personnel’, ic., without giving rise to dangerous touch, step or transferred potentials, i. Suitland Te nr es cusentcan oneatnasyster Figure 9.1 (b) Earthing for H.V. and E.ULV. system - with cable sheath connection 219Earthing for High Voltage 8) . ee The carth foul current nist rein fa the system neitiral pointe (or star points) at ‘unsformers via conducting paths including the general mass of eneth and cable sheaths, as shown in Figure 9,1fa) and (8), ete. These conelueting paths ean be expressed as an impedunee from the earth clecitodes parallel with the cable sheaths, The (otal impedance and the eurent determine the total voltage rise, It is important to minimize the volage rise $0 as 10 limit the potentizls hazard to services connected to the substation such as telephone, water supplies, ote. and to protect personnel who may be endangered by tonch or step vollages. Facthing of electrical equipment and power systems therefore provides a number of fanetions, essentially ax followss~ (a) To provide an carthing system connection for (rensformer acutral (or sia paint) so as to be capable of passing the maxintum phase t earth fault current, {b) To protect personnel against potential electtic shock and burns when in contact with covery exposed conductive parl and every extraneous conductive part at the time an electrical fault aconrs (©) To provide equipotential bonding within the power system so that no dangerous potential gradients (step or fouch vollage) on transferred voltage will oceur under normal or abnormal conditions. al {d) To ensure that the passage of fault current does not resuit ia any thermal or mech: damage to the insulation of the electrical plant, 9.2 GRADIENT IN FARTH POTENTIAL, When earth fauli currents flow to ground, a potential gradient is formed around the earth alecirore due to the sesistance of the ground. This potential gradient is grcatest adjacent to the earth electrode and reduces to zero or true earth at some distance from the earth electrode, Three methads of contact with these potentials arc considered and defined as stop, fouch end transferred potentials, These are shown in Figure 9.2. It is essential to know that ‘earthed’ metal work (Le. switchgear and transformer enclosure. steel frame/support, fencing, etc.) have an impedance with respeet ta true earth to tise 40 @ dangerous hazard potentials when the fault current passes through the impedance. ‘Understanding of the following definitions of the term used in IEEE 80 — 2000 are essential in the design of eatthing system: (a) Step Voltage Iti the difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of Jin with his feet without contacting any other grounded object. Person ‘a’ in Figure 9.2 illustrates ‘step voltage’. Here the potential difference V; seen by the body is limited 10 the value between two points on the ground separated by the distance of ane pace. 220a 2 ince the potential gradient in the ground is greatest immediately adjacent to the electrode area, it follows that the maximum siep potential under earth fault conditions «will be experienced by a persoa whe has one foot an the arca of maximum rise and the other foot one step towards true earth. ‘ot eae having cuntinwous yetale sheath ingulat {trcughaut but with noth: ends ‘ext, Sheath banded ta main ‘earth pid at substation end only Equipotentiat tines surfing flow a oath fav current Figure Curvent Flow Pat ‘Step Potential arm-bodylegs ’ ‘Touch Potential arm-body-arm ‘Transferred Potential arm-body-leg ‘Transferred Potential Figure 9.2 Earth Potential in High Voltage System (b) Touch Voltage Ics the potential difference detweon the carth potential rise and the surface potential at the point where a person is standing, while at the same time having his hand in centact with an ‘earth’ structure, Person ‘bin Figure 9,2 illustiates ‘touch porcatial’. Here the potential difference V3 scen. by the body is the result of hand-to-both-feet contact. Again the highest potentis! will occur if there was a metal structure on the edge of the high potential area, and the person stood one pace away and touched this metal. The risk ftora this type of contact is higher than that from step potential because the voltage is applied across the body and could affect the heart muscles. (© Transferred Voltage Itis a voliage established between exposed bonded steel work physicelly distance for the Zault and trve entth during the fault conéition. Person ‘c” in Figure 9.2 illustrates the case of a high potential being transferred into a zeto potential area via the armour of a cable. Since the amour is bonded fo the main earth grid at the power station, the voltage V5 will be the fuil ‘rise of earth potential of the power station’, 221rthing for High Voliage System Seen The distmee bewween the high potential area al tre electrode and thal of true bye sufficient 10 form # physical separation rendering a person in the high potential are, immuned from the possibility of simultaneous contact with zero potential. However, a metal object having selficient length, such as a fence, cable sheath or eable core may be located in a manner that would bridge this physical separation, By such means, evn earth potential may be tinsferred into a high potential urea or vice-versa, earth may | In the illustrated ease, the person is making simultancous conteet Imnd-to-hand with the cable sheath and irue earth, However, if the person is standing on tme earth then the voltage Vs seen by the hedy could he the result of a hand-to- bath-feet contact, in Figure 9.2 represents the case of zero potential being transferred tn a lugh potential area via a cable core which is earthed af the remote paint, ta this case, the | vollage V, is lower Juin V5 which represents the stalion rise of carth potential, because i person ‘a is located some distance from the main earth electrode andl therefore ig 5 subject to the ground potentia) gradient, Quite clearly if person ‘d? had been on or touching the main clecirode, he would have experienced the full rise of earth potential Vn Person, ‘Transferred potentials are therefore considered to carry the greatest risk sinee the shack voltage may be equal to the full rise of earth potential and not a fraction of it, as is the case with step or touch potentials. (a) Earth Potential Rise Itis the maximum vollage that a substation earthing system may attain relative to a distant earthing point assumed to be at the potential of remote curth, This voltage rise is proportional to the magnitude of (he earthing system current and to the carthing system impedance. (e) Mesh Voltage Jt is the maximum touch voltage to be found within 2 mesh of the substation earthing grid. This is usually the worst case situation to be taken info account in the design for comparison against the hazard voltage tolerable limits. 93 RELEVANT STANDARDS; CODES OF PRACTICE AND GUIDES FOR EARTHING SYSTEM International standards covering substation earthing practice are listed as follows: (1) Engineering Recommendation, $5/1 (OR ER $5/1), Blectticity Association, UK. - Earthing Installations In Substations (2) Engineering Recommendation, $34 (OR ER $34), Eleciticity Association, UK. = A Guide For Assessing The Rise Of Earth Potentials At Substation Sites (3) IBEE Standard 80-2000, The Institution Of Electrical And Elecwonic Engineers, USA - IEEE's Guide For Safety In AC Substation Grounding 222Earthing for High Voltage System (4) riish Standard 7354 (BS7354) ~ Design OF High Voltage Open Terminal Substations (5) British Standard 7430 (BS7430) British Standard And Code Of Practice For earthing (6) Singapore Standard CP16 ~ Singapore Standard And Code Of Practice For Harthing 94 THE EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT ON THE HUMAN BODY 000 009 Daration cf amentow, | —e 8 0 of} — 1 hk | ‘ NE H my OL bf SF 1s B30 TO 200 SOT TeUT0IN FON Foe Body vorvent.1y 9 wa Bolex Tne regnds vette Staats gare dates tthe fests of sven whieh Flown ‘aputh lf kad tae” 1-— Rue peta Ooo hs gonrepands te. Hbation praaehiy e dearda of .4% Figure 9.4(a) Time-current zones of effect on humans at 15 — LOG Hz: Physiological Effects Zone 1 | Usually no ceaction effects. Zone 2 | Usually n0 harmful physiological effects. Zone | Usually no orgonic camage to be expected. Likelihood of muscular comteactions and difficulty in breathing, reversible disturbances of fortuation end conduction of impulses | in the heatt, including atcial fibrilistion and transient cardiac arrest without ventricular Ihrilation increasing with euczent magnituce and time. Zone 4 | In addition to the effects of Zone 3, probability of ventricular fibrillation increasing wp | to about 5% (eurrve C,), up to about 50% (Curve C5) and above 50% beyond curve Cs. [Increasing with magnitude and time, pathoghysiological effects such as cardize anest, breathing arrest and heavy burns may occur, Table 9.4(b) Physiological Effects 223Varthing for High Voliage System . sont oe Effects on the human body ave produced essentially by the current passing through the beds and the supply voltage is immaterial except in its ability to force the current to flow dirouyh the body, Body weight and the path of the current are alsa important and current passing through the heart is potentially Kihal, The physiological cfivets of different magnitude of current are as shown in Table 9.40}, Human beings are partenturly vulnerable to SOHZ/60H2 ac. curtents with a threshotd perception of ImA and a.c. enrrent of 100mA can be deaclly. It is interesting to note that death és less probable for very shart duration, even for very high current, this is because veniricular fibrillation tends to oeewr only when the electric shock current Sows during the vulnerable peried int the ‘T” phase of the cardiac cycle which occupies about 10 10 20% of the tolal gardize eycle as shown in Figure 24¢c). T Phage = ]50neseeont Figure 9.4(c) ‘Typical human heart eyele ‘The 1EC approach to determination of clectric shock effects, as detailed in IEC 479 has been adopted in Europe and many other countries, but in the USA, a more quantitative approack has been adopted to the determination of the possibility of electrocution. The well-known equation of Dalziel is used (sce, for example, IEEE Ste. 80 ~ 2000) (0 determine permissible touch and step voltages and to assist in earthing design Based on the results of Dalzicl’s studies, it is assumed that 99.5% of afl persons can safely withstand, without ventricular fibrillation, the passage of a current in magnitude end duzation determined by the following formula: Ip= kit where k= V8p, and §, = Empirical constant refatad to the electric shock energy tolerated by a certain percent of @ given population. Dalziel found that the shock energy that can be survived by 99.5% of persons weighing approximately 50kg (11 0lbs) resulis in a value of Sp of 0.0135, Thus, kso = 0.116 and the formula for the allowable body current becomes Tas @Hl6/Vt for S0kg body weight Note that the above equation results in values of 116mA for Is and 367mA for 0.1 s. Since the above equation is based on tests limited fo a 0.03 ~ 3.0 s range, it obviously is not valid for very short or long tines, and some values of current can be tolerated indefinitely. 2241 1 1 7 | wad igh Vollage System INTIAL AT THIGH VOLTAGE "ASSESSING THE RISE OF EARTH POTE SUBSTATION AND SWITCHROOM 1 Return Of Earth Fault Current By Cable Sheath The development of high voltage distribution systems from 6.6kV lo GGKV has fod te the earthing of the neutral poiut of star-connected three-phase tansformers al substations which provide the sources of supply to the distribution network ‘The earthing of the neutral point(s) is effected by connection to a system of honded earth electrodes at the substation premises. Cable sheaths and armouring terminating at the substation are also bonded to the carth electrode system. Ifa failure of insulation of 2 high voltage conductor to earth occurs on a nebwork, the resuiting fault current or a proportion of , will Cow wia the general mass of carll and yeturn to the neutral point(s) of the supply transformen(s) supplying the fault current through the substation earth electrode system which bas an impedance to the ciiment flow. There will therefore be a rise in the potential of the substation carth electrode system and of the earth in the vieinity of the substation relative to the potential of the general mass of earth, If the voltage rise is excessive and metallic connections are brought into the substation oF into the immediate vicinity from remote points - e.g. telephone, water or gas services — then voltage differences might represent risk of damage to equipment and in extreme cases even danger to persons. In such cases certain measures may be required fo eliminate such risk or danger. The difference in earth potential across a substation site due to this rise of earth potential is usually of no consequence since ali rormally nen-cerrent-cartying exposed metalwork is bonded togetiver. HEN, Sustehivoaed eltage fon enithing systomn Lys .g for HV. and E.HLY. system — with cable sheath connection, Figure 9.5.1 2259.8.2 226 arihing for High Voltage System . . © underground eable networks of the utifity supply networks provide 9 pat The extensi multitude of complex bonding earth connection via the gable sheath and armor the underground cable as shown in Figure 9.5.1, the sheath and armouring of the many cables provide the return paths for phase to carth faull current with the least impedance and would therefore eany the major portion of the return current and As redueng the rofurn carth fault current t the star point of sauce Gansformer vig electrode resistance and the soil and as a result, substantially reduce the tise of cart potential. To addition, the instalation of neutral ground resistor (NGR) at the star point of the 66KV/22KV stardelta/stir Waasformer has substantially reduced the earth foult current to about 18004 to 20004, For 22kV system with NOR + 6.5 Q al the 66 / 22k tansformer, M3. BOKWINS = 1953 Amp NGR 6.5 ohm The carth potential rise due to Tye = kx Tyra GPR. = Tye x Ra = (KX ber) & Ra is substantially reduced the small portion, of phase to earth fault current passing to cath where Igo =e x ks electrode. Acceptance Criteria From U.K. Engineering Recommendation ER 85/t Acceptance criteria are related to the rise of earth potential and iés duration in the following manner (a) For high reliability systems, ie., systems having high specd protection, the gnaximum permissible rise of earth potential without special precautions is 650V. ‘Tis requirement, given in Engineering Recommendation S5/t is based on limits set by the Intemational Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Commitee for installing telephone equipment without special protection for personnel or equipment. A duration is not given for the clearance time associated with high reliability systems, but this is generally accepted as 0.2 seconds. Although this value of 630V originates from requirements for telephone equipment, it is now also used as a criterion for safety generally. Therefore, providing this limit is not exceeded, experience bas shown that no special measures are necessary in respect of potential rise, step, touch or transferred potentials. (b) For systems protected by overeunent protection, the maximum permissible rise of earth potential without special precautions is 430V. This requirement, also taken from Engineering Recommendation 85/1 is based on CCITT recommendations for telephone equipment, Once agaia, no fault duration ig given for this condition but using the criterion given in (a) and extrapolating on i | 1e ___._.. Farthing for High Voltage System an Tt basis, for the 430¥ limit a naximum duration of 0.46 seconds is obtained, ‘As for (a), providing the criterion is not exceeded, no special measures site sequized in respect of step, touch or transferred potentials. (©) British Standard code of practice BS : 7430 requires that the potential difference between two normally earthed items to which personnel may have similtaneous contact should not exceed SOV. Bearing in mind the criterion given in (b), this Jimit of SOV is applied to all rises of earth potential that exist foc durations in excess of 0.46 seconds. (d) If the criterion given in (a), (b} and (c) cannot be complied with, then special precautions must be taken (o protect personnel and plant. An example of precautions to protect aguinst transferred potentials is the use of isolation transformers on incoming felephone lines. A fiwther example is the provision of focal bonding to give immunity by ensuring that all metalwork 10 which simultancous contact can be made is al the same potential. 9.5.5 Earth Faults In High Voltage Networks As illustrated in previous section, an eaith fault may produce significant rise of voltage on associated plant and earthing systems with respect to the general mass of earth. Ground potential rise (G.P.R.) is dependent on the magnitude of the cirrent and the impedance of the path taken by carcent returning to the point where the system neutral is earthed, Electrode earth resistance determines the distribution of “source voltage” between the network source and the point of faull as G.P-R. GPR. will obviously be greater in high voltage networks with large earth fault current which may be present for several seconds ‘The general effect of an earth fault in high voltage distribution cable nctwork is shown jn Figure 9.5.3. GPR. introduces voltage difference with respect to local or remote carth and possibly touch voltage between equipment, metal work and cables. Telecommmunication equipment and remote metallic wiring ot services ave particularly vulnerable. Limits for acceptable G.P.R. in high voltage initially were based on CCITT requirements to protect telecommmunication equipment, staff and users. The limits remain as: + 430V for cireuits with a fault clearance time in excess of 460ms (0.46 sec) + 680V for high reliability circuits with fault clearance time less than 200ms @.2 see) Where the G.P.R. limit may be exceeded, either at a nefwark source suiostation or at 2 distribution point nearer to the pomt of fault, the location should be treated as “hot” and special protective measures may be required. ‘This inchides assessment of actual touch voltage and step voltage. 227s for High Voliage Sys cane Te Seaton Shen Y “F nx. as. ihe fox =" i) ——— i being ‘N. on ar ps, \ ‘I Wy gail ea tos EE Toa sega GAN Sire “Tater Pigure 9.5.3. Rise of potential of substation plant 95.4 Evaluation Of Earthing Resistance And Ground Potential Rise (GPR) 9.5.4.1 Equivalent Hemispherical Electrode (Reference From ER $34) In an ideal situation, curren! entering the ground fom « point on the surface will distribute radially and uniformly in alf directions, resulting in the formation of concentric hemispherical equipotential shells decreasing ix potential from the point ‘All cleotrodes used i» practice result in @ non-uniform distribution of current into the ground in the close vicinily of the electrode but as the disance from the electrode Increases 50 the current distribution becomes inore uniform. ‘An earthing system in the shape of a hemisphere bvried at the surface of the ground would make an ideal electrode both from the peint of view of its efficiency and its simplicity Zor mathematical computation. It is mainly for this later reason that when the electrode parameters of practical earthing systems are being assessed, it is frequently of advantage to represent the real electrode system by its equivalent hemispherical electrode, the radius of which can be determined from:- .? th SRR radius of equivalent hemisphere (metre) 0 = soil resistivity (ob - metre) resistance of the electrode system 228current fiow to earth Figure 9.5.4.1(a) Equivalent hemispherical ctectrode and touch and step vollages in a zone: of earth potential rise The voliage on the surface of ground at a point x metse from the conte of this, equivatent hemispherical electrode as shown in Figure 9.5.4.1(a) is, Ven Phe where x= need Table 9.5.4.1{b) lists a pumber of practical electrodes and formulae for ealeulsting | the value of resistance R. To use the formulae, the value of soil resistivity has 10 be known, The method most commonly used for determining this quantity is by the Wenner 4-pin method. Assuming that the separate earth electrodes are spaced sufficienity far apart to avoid any serious interaction between them, then to determine the overail impedance of the substation, it is normally sufficient for a pracGcal result to sum the values of the ‘ separate parts of the electrode system in parallel, The effective overall resistance of t the earth electrode system is:~ e fib iyi e 23 nl BR 9.5.4.2 Estimation Of The Zone Of Earth Potential Rise (Reference from ER $34) is In those circumstances wiere the rise of earth potential on an earthing system can zi exceed a declared safe value, it may be necessary to determine the voltage profile in Ss the ground sway from that system in order to establish at what poiat on the ground nt the Voltage is low enough to be declared safe and not give rise to interference. In a conductor of uniform material and cross-section, the voltage difference between any two points along the conductor is proportional io the current density (a constant) flowing between those two points. Where, 28 in the case of an earthing system, the conductor is ground, which in this context can be considered as having infinite volume, then the current density through the soil is not a constant but decreases as the distance increases from the point at which current enters the ground. 229System ge High Volta for = = | rwostsepawys | sFE6 aun ee aouaeees 20VANY =eaNe | sONDINH=1 2azHN ts, AD. AoypBnayU0:) azenbg MoqoH UT |" spew yo dno, | aeavma | | wmetren co | pap poung | dung pong pou ora, Pon, pang aun “UH wonduaser aponnarg, SINDISAS IGOULIITA HLAVA TOMAL AO DONVISISAY FHL ONILV INI TV9 YOd AVINANOd ILVWIKOUdaY Table 9.5.4.1(0) 230Earthing for High Voltage System 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 8 72 ‘Total Number Of Rods In Hollow Square Array ~1¥ Figure 9.5.4.1(c) Curve for evaluating formula in column 6, Table 9.5.4.1(b) ‘This changing value of current density complicates the calculation of the voltage difference across the soil particularly where, as in most practical electrodes, the initial current distribution across the interface between the electrode and soil is uneven. Because of this complexity most of the practical formulae used are based on electrode shapes which permit easier analysis yet can be made to represent approximately the real electrode. Electrode Description _| Hemisphere Configuration EQUIVALENT PLATE _ ELECTRODE ‘Voltage On The z Surface Of The vee BE ane sin Ground At aries Point ‘S’ With WIRE) gp? Respect To True ARC SIN GN RADIANS) Earth Table 9.5.4.2(a) Approximate formulae for calculation of the voltage profile around earthing electrode 2319.6 arthing for Voltage Syster - However, i will be appreciated shai the concentricity of the equipatential contour Fines may be significantly distorted in the real condition. Tahfe 9.54.22) gives some of the more usefil] formulae for calculating the voltage on te surface af the ground surrounding the equivalent electrode. Where the objective of the calculation is lo obtain the point en the ground where the voltage is regarded as acceptably sale, then the formala incosparating the equivalent hemispherical electrode cin be used te provide a reasonable approsimation. The tadins of the equivalent hemispherical electrode ean be obtained as stated in section 4 ising discrete earth electrodes, the voltage profile has te For earthing systems comp! jon oF the voltage profiles af the individual efeetrodes. be obtained by the superpe: For ewthing systems where the main electrode is a distributed grid, it would be sufficient to consider this in tems of a single equivalent horizontal Mat plate electrode representing the whole grid. However, the radial dimeusion will normally de smaller than the Maximum distance from the centre to the perimeter of Gre teal electrode system and therefore the calculated distance derived from the formula should be applied from the edge of the real electrode system, Whilst these formutne provide a usefil guide as to the manner in whieh the surface voltage cheniges with distance from the electrode, reliability on the accuracy of the absolute values must be viewed with some uncerlaintly when applied to the real clectvode. Variations in soil resistivity and the presence of other buried objects ex alter local voltages significantly and, because of the uneven distribution of the current at the real electrode, the calculated values of voltage near t the electrode become more suspect, EARTHING FOR HIGH VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATIONS AND SWITCHROOM For substations up to 6.6KV, L1KV and 22k¥, simple multiple ea:th electrade arrangements are used. For any such station there is only one earth bar. ‘The earth bar is supported on 2 wali in the cable basement by menns of porcelain insulators and the transformer neutral earthing cables are brought separaiely fo the bar. It is advisable to install the electrode carthing system in the form of a ring path as shown in Figure 9.6(a), so as to be inadvertently cut, at least there is another alternative path available and the substation will not be left without an earthing system. ® Sinking Of Earth Rod Suitable positions normally near to or surrounding the substation or switchroom site are to be chosen to determine the numbers of earth red to be driven in, This is done by taking the earth resistence when each of the earth red was driven down. In practice 2 t0 3 ‘or sometimes 4 tods in cach point is sufficient. Care must be taken to secure the coupling uring the process of sinking more than 2 earth rods. After the murber of earth rods is cetermined, proceed with scoond position waich is to be separated by approximately the 232Fhe process is repeated nitih The total length of the numbers of earth rod driven ip overall resistance of the electrode system oF ene olin cr luss thun one bmn is achieved Tan be st thie Ev ‘Broun 5 ‘ia ing “Teaneck ASLE paStareNe SBS nc sam coe | Teeaie | Tm ites | ‘Woe Cois re! | = Toe ne Figue 9.6(2) Earthing for Distribution Substations ‘A wench of shout 1 to 1! feet deep fo be excuvated (o join up all the positions and the carth rods must then be connected by bare copper wire of 2 x 70 mm? ot 2 nos. of 3 mr x 25 mm copper tapes to form a ring and they are then brought into the main earth bar (MET) of the substation or switchroom earthing, All the earth rods connection are to be Sinmly seoured and covered with conpourd. Gi) Main Earth Bar A main earth bar to run at side of wall or cable trench and should be spaced sufficiently to allow permanent or temporary connection. The main earth bar should be provided to allow the shortest connection 4 all major equipment such as high voltage switehgears, transformers and low voltage main switchboards as shown in Pigure 9.6(b). 3 tY 4 iat aoe Tn tae Figure 9.6(b) Earth bar for High Voltage Switchgear ‘The cross sectional acea of the main earth bar in the electrical switchroom for common use by H.V. and L.V. electrical equipment shall be determined by the formula, 233Farthing tor High Vo : ee . Kists Pt OR $= wt where § = C.S.A. in mm? I= RMS. valuc of A.C. faull current t= operating time of the disconnection device in seconds K = thermal constant for material of conductor i.e. for bare copper conductor, K = 176 | iL current via cable sheath, the cable sheath of high vollage i braid as shown ia Figure 9.6(¢). For retum of phase to earth cable is connected fe earth ia cart ‘Cable Longa ation So v ts Ea f cate Boithed 3 & & op Suicigem 8 fi Figure 9.6(c) Earthing the cable sheath to earth bar of H.V. switchgear Example 1: b For the main earth bar (MET) to be commonly connected to earthing system of 22kV high =| y voltage sysiem with a short time fault current of 25KA for 3 seconds, and the earthing system =| ofa 400¥ system with a short time current of S0kA for 3 seconds. 5 Solution: The highest faule current of SOKA for 3 seconds is considered, with K = 176 for bare copper earth ber, 3 t g> S0xl@xNT _ go) aa? 176 ‘Therefore, 50 ram x 10 mm bare copper bar is selected , ’ Example 2: For the earth bar solely lo be used only by the 22kV high veltage switchgear with short time ' fault current of 25kA for 3 seconds as showa in Figure 9.6(b}. 234ystenst 0 Switchgea ra - ‘Barth Bar Fiiarth Cable] Sate Sie Figure 9.6(b) Barth bar for ITigh Voltage Switehgear 25x 10x V3 i 8> 176 246 mm" “Therefore 30 ram x 10 tm tare copper bar is selected Example 3: For the main carth bar of a 400V main switchboard receiving electricity supply from a JMVA 22kV/LY. transformer with Zr = 6.25%, determine the appropriate size of bare | Copper earth bar to be able to withstand the maximum earth fault current for 3 seconds, Assuming that the eartiing system is TN-S system. Solution: 3MVA_ 2 _3MVA . genaya phi I. is For a 2-phase fautt, the maximum fault evel is 7. = 6.9625 pu ; _ —48MVA =. Maximum shot eirevit eurtent Le SFE jggy = 59.000 gh may be as high as 3-phase short citcuit, ©. With k = 176 for bare copper earth bar, the required cross sectional aren to withstand this . For TN-S system, the phase to earth fault current near to the secondary of the transformer cunrent for 3 seconds is, — > CXS = 600mm? ‘Therefore, 60mm x LOmm_ bare copper bar is selected. 9.7 EARTHING FOR HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER 9.7.1 Coordination Of H.V. And L.¥. Earthing For Distribution System me Karthing as shown in Figure 9.7.I{a) and (b) for the 22KV’/ L.V. distribution transformer has to ensure that: 235rtbing fe Tix con f ceennation CS me con sist CG Forine Sse Nova dy sCTestomer iacane Erol diecor HY. Ssshgeor Pas of ak aie Ane kiana : Tame ff SS0 Ie i Iain sewn ff Easing ie ieee Nn a Bar SEB. sedetgan" Figme 9.7.1(a) Neutral conductor of the L.¥, system comiected {o the earthing electrode of the exposed conductive pasts of the transformer dete: fe quit at A en puny (7 x yprosme apan at cae Su Ee lg, 8 ig Snow ‘Teivinatton Tw cae fob (Golde Sheath &Anneut te “Trragle ia ‘ieceeeats co enatie i Seated Percetans at sights aca meee Stee rots one “seems CEE ae : meee F IN Sah ornate Syren HPV. Md Figure 9.7.1(b) Neutral conduciokof “tie “EM systera earthed via ant clectrically independent earth electrode , art fi tefarthing for High Vallage System {a} The phase to earth fault ewent on FLY. side will rewrn to the carthing system of the HY, electricity supply source via earth cable or cable sheath / armouring to mintorize voltage tise caused by the return via carth electrode system (b) The phase to earth fault current on L.¥. side will return to the star point of this transformer via earth cable and main earth terminal, ih (©) The neutral terminal of the distribution transformer is solidly earthed to the main terminal for return of phase to eacth fault ewrrent to star poiat of transformer. ‘The size of the PVC main earth cable is determined by the following formula: K’s'>f orn s> let where § =C.S.Aof the PVC insulated main earth cable 1 = maximum phase to earth fault current t= duration of the fault current K. = thermal constant for the earth conductor eg. for PVC insulaied copper main earth cable, K = 143 98 EARTHING SYSTEM FOR EXTRA-HIGH VOLTAGE (EHV) SUBSTATION For EHY system above 33KV, 66KV, it is necessary to note that a significant proportion of the earth fault current will Row via the earth eleciréde to a remote supply source. “The earth electrode system therefore has to be designed with the consideration of the following: parameters:- {a} Maximum earth fault current that has (o return to remote sources. (b) Minimum size of electrode required to transfer fault current into the ground, (e) Resistance of these minfmmum size individual electrodes, (2) Consequent overall station earth resistance. (©). Proportion of current that retuins to source via the ground (f) Resultant rise of earth potential. (g) If the sise of earth potential is unacceptable, the size of individual earth electrodes is increased and the calculations repeated (h) If the rise of earth potential cannot economically be recused to an acceptable level, other nieasures to protect personnel and plant must be considered. Size Of Electrode System Conductor Before electrode sizing can be started, the soil resistivity at each proposed location must be established using the Wenner four-electrade test. The first step in sizing an elecizode is calculate the minimum surface area that is required (0 dissipate the current into the ground ‘without undue heating and drying out of the soil local to the electrode. For these calculations it is considered prudent to ignore all EHY cable sheaths, and to assume that all earth fault current returns to the remote neutrals via the eleettocle adjacent to the faulted plant. Whilst this may appear conservative, in reality the electrode size is normally diclated by its resistance (since this governs the cise of earth potential) and not by ils current carrying capability. At this stage the cross-sectional area of te electrode itself should be checked to 237Farthing for High V' censure that it is capable of carrying fhe anticipated faull carrent, Such calculatios tuke into account the estimated loss of metal duc (0 corvosion during. the station lit, system Percentage Of Earth Fault Current Flowing Info Ground Via Electrode Having established the minimum size of electrode required o carry the faulf curreat, the nest step is to calonlate the resisiance of the station earth system and assess whether the rise of earth potential is acceptable. The firsl step in this process is to ealeulate the resistance of each individual electcode, ‘The overall station resistance is then caleulaied for all electrodes in paralle| ignoring the impedence of interconnecting cables, ‘This greaily simplifies the calculations and experience has shown that this also compensates for ignoring fortuitous eovth paths such as pipes and base slab concrete which cannot be tendily identified calculated. This rise of earth potential will be the product of the station earth electrade resistance and the current flowing through i. As already stated, the earth fault curren! will return to remote neuals via the ground end any overhead line aerial earths or cable sheaths that may exist The current division will be dependent on the relative impedunces of cach route, Since the electrode design is dictated by the allowable rise of earth poteutial, it would be grossly uneconotnic to base (hese calculations on the assumption that all current Mews in the ground Therefore, the division of current between the various paths must be assessed. Earth Potential Rise Tf the calculated rise of earth potential exceeds the 650V lint, the size of the electrodes should be increased and their resistances and the potential rises recalculated. %, Potential at ground surface“? PS. srreanersto remote out sqm Laser step potential a ven gran ne Electrode {cusrd rings bondod ‘so earth quoctrode itioat guarding | __With guard ing Pita guard rin ‘Guard nings buried tincreasing dap 12 control ground potential gadiene Figure 9.8(a)_ Typical guard ring arrangement 238In some cases it may not be economically or tachnivally possible to provide an electrode system that will limit earth potential to 650V, {In such eases the potentiat vise should be reduced to an economic minimum ond additions! precautions taken to safeguard agains! transferred, step and touch potentials. Such meastires against transferred potentials woutl include isolation transformers on incoming telephone and pilot cables, and possibly isolated gections in pipelines or railway tracks entering the site, In addition, step and touch potentials would have to be assessed using the type af techniclaes given in IEEE Standard 80. If step or touch potentials are found to be excessive then adld:ticnal provisions such as guard sings will be necessary. Guard rings consist of a number of ground conductors, connected to the main clectrode, and buried at increasing depths around it so that the ground surface potential is modified. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 9.8(2) Attributes Of Horizontal Grid Conductors And Driven Rods In a rectangular grid, with uniformly spaced conductors, the touch potentials ave highest in the meshes in each comer and lowest in the meshes in the centre of the grid. With the development of modern software, capable of calculating the equipotentials for non-unilerm arrangements of buried conductor, it became relatively easy t0 plot equipetentials ‘Advantage is taken of this facility to aptimise the spacing of the grid conductors to achieve a near constant value for mesh voltage (touch potential) in every mesh, This is achieved by putting additional conductors at the comers of the grid and incteasing conductor spacing in the centre of the grid, Conductors around the periphery are also close: together, If the earth is a to leyer sizata with the upper layer of a higher resistivity than the lower most of the current flow to remote earth will be horizontal from the conductors at or near the atid periphery, To take advantage of the lower resistance lower strata, it is normal practice to drive vertical rods down into the lower strata, To be effective in reducing Ground Potential Rise (G.P.R.}, rods should be positioned on the perimeter of the grid. Horizontal conductors in the centre of a grid contribute little to the reduction of ground resistance, but are significant in obtaining pertaissible touch and step potentials ‘As the impedance of a grid inoreases with frequency it is good practice to earth every surge turester with 2 driven rod normally bonded to the buried grid. Connections from the surge acrester to the rod should be as short and direct as possible. Effect of Grounding on Communication Circuits Figure 9.8(b) depicts two high voltage substations, each grounded to its own earth grid, with a two-wire comnvunication circuit strung in porallel with the 3-phase transmission tine. Such parallel circuits are subject to interference, since, during faulé conditions, they will see an induced voltage equal to the difference in ground potential rise (GPR) at the two stations. The communication circuits are therefoze typically connected to the station earth grid through protector blocks, which provide protection for voltages up to about 300 Volis. For more details on communication circuit protection (which depends mainly on grounding) please refer to IEEE/ANSI Standard 487, “Recommended Practice for the Protection of Wire-Line Communication Facilities Serving Electric Power Stations”. 239Far TO Trmmmision __Reoeiving ae ee Sustadion Figure 9.8(5) Voltages induced on a communication chreni 0.9 LIMITATION OF TOUCH AND STEP VOLTAGES p voltage as a result Figure 9.9(u) illustrate how 9 person could receive touch voltage and s of the flow of a phase to earth fault cmvrent, The toleable limits for touch and sicp potential are derived fram IEC 479-1 current‘maximum disconnection time curves. ERB, 80 — 2000 has finthes developed them into the following formula: Limit of Eqyp = (1000 + 6 C9.) 0.157) 4% for a body weight of 70kg. Limit of Eyey = (3000 * 6 C9.) 0.1367 NE for a body weight of S0kg. where the potential Sbrillating curveat Tp = 0.157 Vi or ly = 0.116 1G for body weight of 7Okg and S0kg respectively. The IEEE 80 formula taking into account of the influence of a layer of stone chipping or crash rock gravel as surface insulating layer for the switchyard where the reduction factor Cs js given asi- 9 (1-pfds) 2h, + 0.09 where p= resistivity of the soil eavering the earth grid conductor, value may range from 5Q-m to 500Q-m esistivity of the gravel of the surface insulating layer, typical value at 250082-m c D. hh, = thickuess of the gravel layer (range from 0.15m to Lm} 2 giawionam exposwe fim 10 be taken into touch and step voltage (Typieally 05 second) 0ue + m of or Cs | Farthing for High Voltage System Poult Stop eoock, Coreen Contact Contact Eectte grass Contact Bapedance jwivereR, = handhto-eet ody vesitance ody resistance Ry = Soll resistance of each Foor to remate eatth, ‘Mowutal resistance Dyerrscon fest Jy mbody current Figure 9.9 Limit of Exp = (1000 + 6 xp) 0.157 Vie Linnit of Erouen * (1000 + 1.5 C,p.) 0.157 / vu Tor a body weight af 70kg. Limit of Emp (1000 -+ 6 Cops) O.116/ Yi Limit of Buen * (1000 + 1.5 Cp.) 0.116 / vis for abody weight of S0kg. For exainple, for a SOkg personnel, 2500S2-m crushed rock surface and 0.5 second maximum exposure time may give rise to allowable touch voltage and step voltages at 867V and 2800V respectively (assuming soil resistivity at $0Q-m). Computation Of Torch And Step Voltages During the desiga of the earth grid system for H.V. and E.H.V. substation, the touch and step voltages must be computed and then compared with the finnit or maximum allowable values 2s mentioned above. A sample computer ouiput is illustrated in Figure 9.9(b}. Here, an 8 x 8 mesh earth grid is being evaluated. The GPR line represents the raaximum ground potential rise on a grounded sirachure connected to the grid, and corresponds to the worst case fault condition for the substation, 24tigh Vallage System Earth Grid 7 Yauch, x A w Voltage Surface step. 2 Voltage XB 4 : Distance Along Line Al - A2 Figure 9.9(b) Touch and step voltages in the vieinity an earth grid 910 PHASE TO EARTH FAULT CURRENT ON BV. AND E.ILY. INSTALLATION To be able to design an carthing system for H.V. and E.HLY. Installation, it is necessary 10 ' understand the cathing amangement in the power supply company’s transmission and : distribution networks as shown in Figure 9.10. Figine 9.10 Earthing system in the utibty For the 230k system, it is a solidly earthed system, the system is implemented at the generating station through 12.2kV/30kV generator step up transformers. The various 230KV/66k¥ transmission stations, the earthing is implemented through the 19,5Q, neatral ground resistor (NGR). The comection of the NGR will lirnt the phase fo carta fault current ig within 20004, 1, = (66RV V3) 7 19.5 © 20008 2421 he us ral sat ‘Al the various 66KV/22KV distibation stations, the earthing is implemented through the 6,502 neutral ground resistor (NGR), the phase to carth foult current is limited 10 Jy = (22kV £¥3)/ 6.5 = 2000A 911 EARTH GRID CONDUCTORS High voltage and extra high voltage substations are often a voltage transformation point, since the earthing system is common to different voltage level, it is necessary 10 take the highest fault level for earth arid cafculation. The standard short circuit fault duration (1 or 3 seconds) is taken for conductor sizing calculations, the conductor size nmust not be less thaa:- S (anon?) = LE Com") k t= operating time of fault disconnecting device or standard short circuit duration k= thermal constant, k= 159 for bare copper conductor For example: At {SkA, f second duration will require S = [(15000 VI) # 159} = 95mm’. AtJ5kA, | second duration, it will require S = ((25000 Vi) /159] = 185mm’, At3SkA, | second duration, it will require $ = (35000 VT) 159] =240mm’ Some k factor values for different types of earth conductors are shown in Table 9.11 Typeefearti conductors | Initial Temperature | Maximum Temperature (Bare copper conductors: 30°C 150°C 30°C. 200°C Gi) XLPE Insulated copper conductors single core multi-core {ii Bare Steel Electrode Table 91f Various k factors used for calculation of earth grid conductor 912 DETERMINATION OF GROUND OR EARTH ELECTRODE RESISTANCE AND GROUND POTENTIAL RISE, Estimation of the total resistance to remote earth is one of the first steps in determining the size and basic layout of a grounding wreathing, system. The resistance depends primarily on the area to be ocenpied by the grounding or earthing system, which is usually known in the carly design stage. 243“Av a first appcoximatian, @ miniomm value of the substation carting 6 ‘uniform soil can be estimated by means: ofa circular metal plate al zero: depth, ith hore Ry = earth resistance or ground resistance in obi p. ~ soil resistivity in Sm ‘A = area occupied by ground grid iam? em resi R= Next an upper limit of the substation enrth or ground resistance can he ebiained by acing 9 second term (0 the above formals, ole P ANA‘Ly where Lr total buried length of conductor in r Ry Tn the case of grid rod combination in uniform soil, a combined length of horizontal conductors and ground wreath, rods will yield a slighty conservative estimates of Lx, because: round of earth rods usually are more effective on a per unit Fength basis, “The second term recognises the fnet that the resistance of any actual grounding system thet consists of @ number of condsetors is higher than that of a solid metallic plate, the above: Seomula is further expanded to tai into account of the effeet of grid deprb, b in TELE 80- 2000, (etna 2 =pthaL Re el Goa UF where Total length of buried conductor, Lr Le + Le Total length of horizontal conductor is Le Total length of vertical rod conductor is Le. ‘Therefore, the calculated ground or earth potential rise, G.P.R, = fy x Re ‘Allemetively, the commonly used formula for ground electrode and grid horizontal conductors used by other reference are as follows: For vertical rod: Rios = (D £2,721.) [ogre ( 4000L / AY], from CP1G where L is the length, d is the diameter of the red and For horizontal conductor Revip= (p #2. 72E) [logo (2000L? / W t)], from CPIG where L is the length, W is the width of the strip or ewiee the diameter of the circular conductor and tis the dept in metre, 244 D ? yd potermi A aypice suirroutit access £ jocatior asthe wid #8 ome Me an Keathe 9.13 DETERMINATION OF M PARTICULAR DESIGN SIE VOLTAGH. AND STEP VOLTAGE Determination Of Mesh Voltage A typical design as shown in Figure 7.6 may often be encountered with 2 conductor loop surrounding the entire grounded area, with adequate cross conductors to provide convenient acess for equipment grounds, ete. The initial estimates of conductor spacing and ground rod ications should be based on [, ad the area being grounded. ‘As the mesh votiage values are obtained &s 2 product of the geometrical factor, km, the grid is often provided with ground rods along the perimeters and grotnd rods in the grid comers as shown ia Figure 9.13. — Gtk conten tat Figure 9.13 Rectangular grid with cross conductors and ground rod Mesh voltage, En =p [(Km Ki Io) / Lai} and spacing factor, Ko *1/ 2m flog, ((D?/ | 6hd) +(D +2h)? / 8Dd — (2 /4d)] + 1 / 2m [Ki / Ky loge (8/22 x0 “TD > Soil resistivity Spacing between parallel conductor (mm) Diameter of grid conductor (ra) Depth of ground grid conductors (1m) = correcting weighing factor for the effects of inner conductors on the comer and parameters, ki = 1 if ground rods are provided along parameters and comers Ky = ¥E-F(h/ hg), where hy ~ Im (grid reference depth and Kr is the comective weighing factor that emphasis the effects of grid dept Arege bona 245ground rods (m} ho NR fy X Ne we Geometric and de * AXLE Lp. where Le Ly Total fength of grid conductor am peripheral length of the pric and ay * 1 for square gti ae = 1 for square and rectangular grids ng = | for square, rectangular and L-shaped grids ape Vopr where Ly peripheral length of grid conductor and A = Area of gfid Determination Of Step Voltage The step voltage, Ey is obtained as a product of the geumetvicaf factor K,, the corrective factor Ks, the soil resistivity p, and the average cutvent per unit of buried length of grounding, system conductor (Ig / Ls) Step Voltage, Ex=(@ Ks Ki lo / Ly) = (@ Ks Ki lg) / (0.75Le + ORSL2) ffective buried conductor O.75 Le 0.85 Le (metre) Le =Total Length of grid conductor (metre) Ly = Total Length of ground rod (metre) where L, The maximum step voltage is assumed to occur over a distance of Im, begimiing at and extending outside of the perimeter conductor at the angle bisecting the most extreme corner of the grid For the usual burial depth of 0.25n1 TLS Le is the total fength of the conductor in the horizontal grid in m Ly is the peripheral length of the grid in m A isthe area of the grid in m” Lx is the maximam length of the grid. in the x direction in m, Ly is the maximum length of the geid in the y direction in m. 247vtining for, Mo ce nau Da is the maximum distance hetween any two poials on the grid 30m 1” is the spicing between parallel conductors iam his the depth of ground grid conductor in m 4. isthe diameter of the grid conductor in m “The jrregalarity factor K;, used in conjunetion with the above defined nis Ky = 0.6444 0.148 is with only a few ground rods scattered throughout the the rid, the effective buried For grids with no ground rods, of grid arid, bat rtone located in the comers or along the perimeter o} Tengih, Lay 38 Lele by where Lg is the total length of al ground rods in. m For grids with ground rods in the comers, as well as along the perimeter and throughout the grid, the effective buried length, Lar is Las Let} 155 41.22} ee uy potcefas 1g where Leis the length of exch ground rod ia an 9.14 SOUL RESISTIVITY, p electrode is influenced by the resistivity of surrounding The resistivity (o earth of an earth and its moisture content and can vary soil. The resistivity depends upon the natare of the soi enormously fiom as low 9s 5m to a few thousand G-m. Parameter Soil ‘Sand And Sandy ‘Sand And | Soil And ‘Texture Gravel Loam Clay Clay Resistivity (Qn) 2000 800 200 28.0 Grid area 15159 939 18849 61479 Buried lenath (F) 3120 9500 iis 3000 Re (calculated 2) 351 agi 2.55 casured 2 39.0 3.65 Table 9.14(a) Soil resistivity and earth electrode resistance Because it is inspossible to forecast the resistivity of the sod with any degree of accuracy, it icoften advantageous to roake a preliminary survey of the soil resistivity of the surrounding She before sinking of the electrodes, This will enable decisions to be made on the best position for the elecirode(s), the number of electrodes required, and te decide whether any Aivantage can be gained by driving rods to a greater depth, Such @ survey may’ produce considerable savings in elecirode and installation costs incurred trying to achieve & required resistance, 248 is awe dine the vei shi ma wt «& i.t t i __Earthing tor [igh Voltage System: Soil Treatment To Lower Resistivity Lis sometimes impossible to achieve the desired reduction in ground resistance by adding more grid conductors or earth rods. An alternative soketion is to effectively increase the ‘tiameter of the electiode by modifying the soil surrounding the electrode. The inner shell of the soil closest to the electrode naturally comprises the bulk of the clectyode grannd resisiance to remote earth, ‘This phenomenon is often utilized to an advantage by the use of ground cnhancement materiats as follows {a) Use of salt, magnesium and copper sulphate or calcium chloride. However, power supply authorities may not permit the use of this method because of possible leaching to surrounding areas, {h) Use of bentonite, a natural clay containing the mineral montnorithonite which was formed by volcanic action. It is non-corrosive, and has a resistivity of 2,5Q-m at 300% moisture. Concrete-Encased Electrodes Concrete, being hygroscopic, attracts moisture. A conorete block buried in soil behaves as a semi-conducting medium with a resistivity 30 to 900-m, This is of patticular interest and beneficial in medium and high resistivity soils, because a metallic rod encased in concrete has lower resistance than a similar electrode buried directly in earth. The encasement reduces the resistivity of the most critical portion of material surrounding the metsl clement. Site Measnrement tivity ‘The 4-pin Wenner Method The 4-pin Wenner method is shown in Figure 9.14(b), Four electrodes (pins) ate inserted into the ground. at fixed spacing of a. Electric current is applied by the outer two electrodes (Current Electrodes, Cl & C2), and voltage is measured by the inner two electrodes (Potential Electrodes, P] & P2). The 4-pin Barth resistivity tester read the value of earth resistance, Figure 9.14(b) Soil Resistivity Measurement 249Spacing ‘Apparent Resistivity «m) | + Fraching Pan save Conductor . Phas) * ae Treg Boe fre Comat BPs) : nselaine : Figure 13.2(b) Tracking form by dust or chemical particles (©) Atmospheric Pollution In the environment close to industrial plant and consituction site, almospheric pollutants such as building material partictes and cements and industrial products such as four powder from flour mill, salts, smoke, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide fom factosies, ef. can form conductive path on the insulator of high voltage switehgears, (@) Vermin and Fungus Insects, lizards, rodents and even snakes often like she ask and warm envizonment of high voltage switchroom, especially the high voltage switchgear compartment, and they often get through into the switchgear through the small opening, cable entries, ete. and cause & high voltage flashover. Care must be teken to ensure all openings and cable entries are properly sealed. High humidity and moisture contents can also lead to growth of fungus on the insulators of switehgears which cause high voltage failure. (©) Overheating As most switchgear conductors and insulators are designed for a specific temperature rise fimit, the heat generated at the contacts and joints must dissipate efficiently through convection to the surrounding atmosphere, In the focal climate, with high ambient temperature, the thermal gradient needed for good heat dissipation is small especially for areas where the surrounding air is heated by fully loaded conductors. ‘The accumulation of heating effect can increase the contact resistance of conductors and cause degradation of insulation 378Maintenance of High Voltage Switchgears ngapore aad Malaysia are manufactured ¢n countries ave no significant inllaenee on the © problems can arise High voltage switchgears used where ambient temperate and huiidity level h performance ef high vollage switchgears. However, mainte from the effects of environment and climate conditions in toeal environment Ageing of high voltage switchgenr is the degradation of insufator and conduct: materials due principally to the absorption of moisture and the long term iifluence of heat entrapped in switchgese compartments. Ageing occurs to insolation materials, rubber gaskels. are quenching device, nylon gears and insolation oi Majority of the problems eacounterod here are not associated swith the most complex part of the switchgear, Le. ils inlerrupier, but rather to the relatively simple supporting swilehgear components like busbar bushings, contact arms, rubber paskets and relays, ete. Maintenance of high voltage switehgeurs are therefore not hmited tn overhaubag and servicing of cireuit breakers and swilchgear mechanism but the switchgeers as a whole including cheoking and servicing and testing on the following:- Busbars (Air Insulated Busbar) Busbar supports and insulators Switchgear and switchgear conta Potential transformers Current transformers Cable terminations Protection. systems Maintenance programme should include: (i) Regular inspection on HLY. swvitehgears (including the auxiliary supply and D.C battery system) Gi) Regular predictive maintenance such as partial discharge test and Safta-red scanning, (#i) Regular preventive maintenance, servicing and overhaul on HLY, switchgears (including the auxiliary supply and D.C. batlery system). 13.3 USE OF SPACE HEATERS AND DEHUMIDIFIERS 13.3.1 Space Heaters To lower the level of humidity in the switchgear compartment, space healers can be an effective solution. Tt is often a practice for the switchgear mannfacturers to provide « space eater in the busbar compartment and another space heater in the cable compartment. However, by using the space beater to heat up the space in the compartment, the overall heat generated in the compartment including the heat released from the 379Maintenance of High Voltas sca, . ence ten ‘current carrying conductors rmust he taken info account without causing Overheating fe the switchgear insulators and other insutating material of The ousting ong protection wirings. < ormally sufficient to maintain a temperature of few degC above the sunny Tike heater should normally nt exceed $0 sets per Mt temperature andl the watiage | compartment 13.3.2. Dehuratdifiers Another alder approach in reducing humidity problem in H.W. swiichroom is the installation of dehumidifiers. Unfortunately, dehumidifiers as like air-conditioners usually require regular servicing to ensure theit continual operation and eflicteney in the humidity control and therefore often become another smuree of maintenance problems. SWITCHG 334 MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME ON HIGH VOLTAG! A comprehensive maintenance programme an high vellage swvitchgears comprises the following: Ca) Regular inspection of the equipment and montioring of the operating conditions (including the battery system). ing and monitoring of performance (including on-oad partial (by Regular predictive te discharge test). {e) Shutdown for complete examination, servicing, overhauting and vesting of the vais bie termination components of the switchgeats (including the circuit breskers, bbusbars, ci and protection systema). 135 REGULAR INSPECTION snonthly or qrittetly Inspection on high voltage switchboerd may be carried out.on a weekly, ist age of te basis depending on the reliabibty requirement of Uie installation end the switchboard. Inspection on H.Y. switchgears should include: {@) Visual inspection on general conditions of switehboards and environmental conitions al ELY. switehroom. (b) Checking on switchroom ceiling aad walls free from water seepage, cable trenches I from water. aud (©) Checking to ensore that the switehroom jes no: been sed as stare for goods materials. ee 380. © wes Nets the sa aise owe eq car def Deg qd eoao 38 al a8 re of nee of High Vollage Switchgewry (d) Substation or switchroom dang single-ine diagcams, installation li r sign, hard-hat sign, rubber mal, fire extinguishers, ave available. (c) Checking on switchroom door property locked, pani door handle cen be operate! (0) Checking on any vibration and listening te any abnormal noise o bissing sound. (g) Checking on ammeter, valtneler residing for abnormal load condition or any abjtormal voltage reading. (h) Checking on battery working conditions, any minor servicing on battery, such as topping up bailery water and checking on charging condition of battery. 6) Checking on = SF Gas Indicator = Vacuum Indicator - Oil level Indicator of the HLY. switchgears (i) Visual checking on settings of protection system not being unduly tarupered with Detection Of Gradual Or Partial Disebarge ‘The common defects that can be detected during routine inspection are the corona discharge, surface tracking and obvious cases of contact overheating. The tell-tale signs of corona discharge and tracking are hissing noise and unusual smell of ozone Qs, and that of overheating is decolourisation of paint. These defects warrant an immediate shutdown of the ‘equipment for a closer examination, and, in most cases, a follow-up servicing is necessary. It can be said thet such problems will be considerably reduced if the common switchroom Gefeets Like water accumulation in trenches and leakage through ceiling are remedied. Detection Of Leakage Of Insulant During the inspection, one should also check for Teakage of insulant, like insulation off or SF circuit breakers, @ halogen gas detector can be handy tool for this purpose. Although installation of a pressure gauge on the SEs gas reservoir gives immediate indication of any leakage, the geuge is often the weakest pact of the switchgear where leakage would most likely cour, For vacuum circuit breakers, the status of the vacuum can only be accessed by using a portable Vacuum Checker. Safety In High Voltage Switchrooms During the inspection, it is necessary to take extreme safety precautions not to go near any exposed ‘live? parts such as the ur-enclosed cry type transformers and terminals of open- bushing transformers. It is also nevessary to avoid entering the narvow space of the switchroom where the safety clearance from the switchboards or H.V, equipment are not sufficient ~ 381hh Voltage S) lution or any Care also has to be Gken to avoid any accidental touching t0 sripping protection system which may cause the accidental tripping of the cine Importance Of Effeetive Juspection ‘The importance of effective inspection is most prominently demonsiraled by the early discovery and detection of tell-tale signs of failure and the timely attendance (0 these defects toavoid the inspact of the eventual failure which may be too costly to pity. 13.6 PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCIIGEARS “The objectives of predictive maintenance are: {a} to predict possible problems that may arises (b) to reetily defects in order to prevent equipment from further detericration; (©) to follow-up with a most favourable servicing programmic For the equipment, “The methods of predictive maintenance includes.~ {a) Infira-red thermal scanning; (b) Partial Discharge Locator or Transient Earth Voltage (FEV) measurement; (¢} Ultrasound measurement 13.6.1 Unfra-Red Seanning Jnfia-red thermal scammers give a measure of the temperature of electrical components and can identify hot spots in equipment and installations. This gives an indication of the condition of equipmeat, and in particular of terminations that might be loose or about to fail ‘The particular advantage of such thermal scanners is that equipment can be quite safely scanned with the thermat scanner without disconnecting the supply. 13.6.2 Partial Discharge Locator Partial discharge in high voltage equipment can eventually lead to flashover and complete failure of the equipment and plant, partial discharge locator provides the means Zor detection and location of the damaging discharges without the need to shutdown the plant and equipment. The partial discharge locator uses the transient earth voltage (TEV) measurement technique to measure the momentary rise in earth potential on the earthed metalwork to detect partial discharge signals from: 382t ' intenance of (a) Switchgear busbar compartments (b) Cable terminations (6) Cireuit breakers Figure 13.6.2(a) shows the partial discharge Jocalor and transien! earth voltage detector which are used to detect the Jacalion of partial discharge on bigh voltae equipment: Methods of Predictive Maintenance Figure 13.6.2¢6) Partial discharge locator using transient earth voltage measurement technique Tf a partial discharge occurs from the phase to earth of the earthed metalelad switchgear or a cable termination box, a small quantity of clestical charge is transferred capacitively from the high voltage conductor system fo the earthed metal body. This transfer of charges occurs very rapidly (in a few tens of nano-secoads) and thus resulis in the potential rise of the earthed metalwork momentarily and the partial discharge measures this externally detectable TEV, resulting from the partial discharge. ‘The measurement involves:- (a) Taking the environmental signal level by placing the probe at any non- aBo BOL leuance of High Voltage Switehgeays — - inspection and checking of main and secondary connections to see thal all connections are tight, The oil in high voltage oil-filled current transformers should be checked for correct level and clectrical condition. Insulation bushing, should be cleaned and exarnined shoronghly for any damage such as cracks, track marks, ete (e) Voltage Transformer A voltage trensformer should be made DEAD and isolated, with particular care (aken to prevent it fiom being made LIVE due to a feed-back via the secondary side, before it is examined. An insulation resistance and contimuity lest of ssindings should be carried out, ‘The isolating contacts of withdrawable voltage transformers should be cleaned, examined, reconditioned if necessary and re lubricated. Protective fuses and cusrent limiting resistances, if provided. should be checked for continuity. MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME FOR SULPHUR-HEXAFLUORIDE (SFs) SWITCHGEAR General In general, the recommendations for ait-blast switchgear should be broadly followed for the maintenance of SF switchgears. It is also recommended that every automatic circuit breaker should be tripped and closed regularly to ensure that it is capable of operating when required. While working on equipment containing SFs gas, the following additional precautions should be taken: {a) Exhaust the gas into the atmosshere away from the building. Forced ventilation may be used (0 ensure thet there is no collection of gas at low points. (b) If gas is to be recovered for use, storage in receivers should be effected by means of gas recovery equipment observing the following rule: «The weight of SF (expressed in kg) shall be less than 69% of the volume of the receiver (expressed in litres), (c) Fill the compartment with compressed air and release to atmosphere. Repeat 2 oF 3 times for efficient removal of any entrapped ges. In the compartment where ne electtic arcing has taken place previously G.e. containing pure SF) forced -vemnilation of the compartment is sufficient, (@) Open the compartment, use vacusm cleaner to remove the powdery residues of gas decomposition. Goggles, protective clothings and respirators (if necessary) should be worn in this operation, (e) Before entering the corapartment, check for gas-free condition by one of the evo methods listed: 396tenance of High Voltage Switehgears (By means of an approved g detector, (i) Drain gas from lowest point of compartment inti # glass jae. Insert a han wing flame into the jar. Hf gas is present, the Mame will be extinguished. Whilst work proceeds inside the compariment, standby help must be available atall Ges. Ropes and lifling fackle may be required fer this purpose. (O) Special filters are fitted into certain equipment to absorb gaseous breakdown products, Belore attempting fo remove such fillers, the operator should fheiliarize himself with the manufacturer's instiuctions For doing this together with instruction for the treatment and disposal af used filer material, cleaning the conlainer and recharging it with a new material, Cn no account should untreated fiker material, removed from the cireuit breaker after service, be heated. deve, (9) Before work involving access to any part of the equipment whieh is, oF be in contact with $f ar associated compounds is commenced, the circuit breaker must be isolated fram all sources of supply of yas hy locking close any gas inlet vaives, the gas removed and the circuit breaker brought 1o atmospheric. pressure, he interior musi then be cleaned (purged) of any dust or breakdown products taking cognizance of the precautions proviously mentioned. The gas wouts normally be removed with ges servicing equipment. ‘The purging would normally od be carried out with a vacuum cleaner with a disposable bag and disposable cloths ic or tissues. These materiats should be treated before disposal strictly in “of accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations, * {h) Before work is commenced, it is essential that all power-closing deviews are rendered inoperative. 1, 13.9.2 Recommended Maintenance Programme For SFs Switchgear ns ‘The following recommendations for maintenance work should be read in conjunction with the manuficterec’s operation and maintenance instuetions as shown in Tabte , 13.9.2, of of 13.10 MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME FOR VACUUM SWITCHGEAR or no 13.40. General ed In general, the recommendations for gir-break switchgear should be broadly followed for the maintenance of vacuum switchgears. of yy Before work is commenced, it is essential that all power-closing devices are sendered inoperative. xo In order to be reasonably sure that it is capable of operating when required, every antomatic cireuit breaker should be tripped sud closed regularly 397[im Ne Operations Remarks ‘Clean and remove loose external ditt, Check gas sysiem. ‘Verify that the gas system is operating at the required pressure and, on duiat- pressure equipment, that the selationshin boiween high and low pressure is covroct ‘The oi level in the compressor should be verified, iFapplicable, Filters or desiccants should bc replaced at periodic intervals and always after the gas system has been opened to atmosphere, Check SF; gas, Verify its condensation temperature and purity content ‘Check Tocad air rece’ vessels. The SF, gas should be sampled and tested. in accordance with the requirements of ‘Check local control Kiosk, The correct operition of healers should be verified. Cheek pressure gauges and Switches. To verify the current operation of pressure gauges and pressure switches. Itshould be noted that in some cases, tho pressure switches on SF circuit breakers ere teniperature compensated so that their characteristics follow a ‘constant density curve. Where relevant, the switeh should be calibsated to this curve. Insulation resistance tests are 398 7 | Check and clean insulation. recommended. Bushings and insulators should be inspected Zor ges Jesks. 3 | Clean and examine interrupters. = 9 [ Cheek, clean and relubricate smecbanjsm - 10 __| Check interpole linkages. = 11” | Check for corect fanctioning of anniliary switches, indicating devices | = and interiocks. 12 [Clean and examine isolating contacts. | 13 | Check busber connection, clean Fo be cattied ont only if these bushings, busbars, jumpers and orifices. | components are accessible. 14 | Gheckand clean cable terminations, | 5 “Maintenance of protective apparatus. = 16 | Maintenance of ancillary equipment. | — 17 | Final check for comrect operation and ensure that all fastenings are tight and good contact is maintained, Figure 13.9.2, Recommended Meintenance Programme__ Maintenance of High Vol ue Swylichgears 13.10.2, Recommended Maintenance Programme For VOB ‘The [ollowing tecommendations for maintenance showkd be read in conjunction with dhe manutaeturce’s aperation and maintenanes mstractions as shown in Fable 13.102. Operations Remarks Clean and remove loose extemal di I Chock and efean insudation, Trysulation resistance sis are recammended, Check vaewur interrepters, |, 20 intemal maintenance can be earried out. Te contact erosion should he measused and contact farce verified. | The integrity of the vacxum ean be j verilied by a high voltage breakdow 1 fest. However, the maniulacturer should be consulted for suitable test voltage ovels, as precautions may be necessary to ensure that the levels of possible emitted X-radiation ducing these tests are within safe limits ‘erty thi eivelips are corvectly seated and split pins opened, Surface of trip and close mechanisin should be free from dried-ap hubricam. Tis very important that the damping of vacuum circuit breakers is correet to ensure that bounce on elosing is prevented and that bounce on opening is rot excessive a ct Renetioning of Auxiliary | switches, indicating devices and. aterlocks. | Clean and examine isolating contacts. ‘Geek busbar connections, clean bashings, busbars, jumpers and orifices, ‘Check and clean cable terminations. ‘Maiaienance of protective apparatus. ‘Maintenance of ancillary equipment Final verification. Figure 13.102 Recommended maintenance programme 13.11 TESTING ON HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEARS Other essential tests on high voltage switchgears must be carried out include: 396Maintenance of High Voltage Switehgears (a) A.C. Pressure Fest After a major repair work, AC high voltage test is recommended to be carricd out on the circuit breakers and busbars, the test voltage shall be as follows: Full Voltage Site Reduced Voltage Site Duration Test 15.24V Tin, 4G RV Omi TBE kV. Juin Table 13.1 Ifa) (b) Insulation Resistanee Test Before and after the A.C. pressure test on the circuit breakers and the busbars, insulation test (D.C) shail be carried out, the test voltage shall be as showa in Table 13.11(b), the insulation reading before and after the A.C. test shall be approximately the same fa show that the insulation remains good after the A.C, pressure test. 3-phase Voitage Rating Of Primary Tested Voltage Recommended For Tusulation Of Switchgear Insulation Resistance Test ky, Uptt Above 1 [03.6 Above 3.6 io 22 Table 13.11(b) Test voltage recommended for insulation resistance test (c) Maintenance of contacts Examine contacts for bwning or other damage. Recondition / Replace as necessary. ‘When contacts are replaced, Test for ~ Comtact pressure - Alignment = Contact wipe = Operation test Circuit Breaker Contact Resistance Test The purpose of Circuit Breaker Contact Resistance Test is to ensure that the cantact resistance is below the maximam permissible value. This is important because high contact resistance may result in over-heating and subsequent explosion of circuit breaker 400 ._ ance of High Voltage Switehyenrs, when carrying high Iyad current. The testing circuit is very simple [Figure 13.1 1(e)) Curent is injected to the citeuit brecker ftom PF set and the caresponding voltage is measnred across the breaker contact, Figure £3.11(¢) Circuit Breaker Contact Resistance Test (@) Test on Protective Relays “The satisfactory operation of relays depends very much on proper maintenariee, Records should be kept on:+ ~ Test results (commissioning and routine) - Relay settings Relay mainieriance generally consists of: (a) Removal of foreign matters. it is important that dust be wipe from relay covers before these are removed. The covers must be replaced securely so as to exclude: dust (0) Inspectian and burnishing of contacts. (6) Adjustments checking. {a) Scxews checked for tightness (¢) Injeotion testing. Primary injection and secondary injection testing should be done wherever possible in preference io secondary injection. The connections should be made good after testing. Dangerous voltage may result if the secondary cireuits of ‘ourrent transformers are left opened. (f) Breakers tripped by manual contact closing.Questions — Chapter 13 6. ce Of High Voltage Switehgears Explain briefly what are the causes of the di deterioration of high voltage swvitebgears “Explain briefly why regular inspection of high vollage switchgeays is important. In the inspection of high voltage switchgears, what are (he tell-tale signs which indicates the presence of partial or gradual discharge? explain briefly the seasons of using space heaters in high voltage switchgear compartments and dehumidifiers in the high voltage switchroom, Explain what js weant by GIS switchgears and what nre their advantages? Briefly exptain the sieps to be taken in maintenance and overhauling of (a) Oi! switchgears (0) SF switchgears (c) Vacuum swritchgears (d) GIS switchgears ‘What is ‘partial discharge"? What are the techniques available in the detection af partial hatge? Explain their principles. diCHAPTER 14 MAINTENANCE OF HIGHE VOLTAGE T ORMERS fa FRODUCTIC Maintenance The successfull operation of high voltage transformers is elependent on proper installalion, loading and ullimately proper maintenance. Maintenance is essential due (o the foltowing factors: (a) The aumber of aged power transformers is increasing. (b) The large influence duc to the breakdown of transformer Ventilation Adequate ventilation is essential Zor the proper cooling of transformers. Clean, diy air is desirable. When the transformers are installed in restricted spaces, sufficient ventilation should be provided to hold the air temperature within established limits. This usually will require a minimum of 100 CEM or 100 cubic ft ay of air per minute per kilowatt (kW) of transformer loss. TO) 2 ens somes sealed, silicone Uignid fled distribution transformer Figure 14. | (a) Self-cooled transformer For self-cooled transformers as shown in Figure 14.1(a), the required effective area of ventilating openings should be at least 1 ft? each of inlet and outlet per 100 kVA of rated transformer capacity, after deduction of the areas occupied by screens, gratings or louvers 403Maintenance Of High Voltage Tr: Dry Type Transformer Ventilated dry type transformer as shown in Figme 14,1(b) should be installed in locations: fee from unostal dust-producing mediums or chemical fumes. Distance and clearance from the walls, adjacent transformers or other obstructions must be sufficient 10 allow free circulation of ar through and around each vnit. ‘Also accessibility for maintenance should be taken into account in locating a transformer - WY. Wining geste pote * discrete 1X. Permit | PLY. wAnting tranadeowee pacers Monona, sire cee C souettoe Frame oraal Lak Strip HY Tapyinas Figure 14.1(b) Dry type wansformer 142 MAINTENANCE OF TRANSFORMERS The maintenance programme for the transformers should include:- (a) Regular inspection (b) Predictive maintenance (c) Preventive maintenance Regular inspections provide the opportunity to detect abuormel conditions such 2s oil Teak, high winding temperature, igh top oi temperature, cic. Predictive maintenance needs monitoring techniques or diagnostic techuiques such as:- (2) Infia-red scanning for hot spots. (b) Partial discharge test to locate partial discharge in transformers and cable terminations 404__ Maintenance Ot High Valiage Transformers Preven the operating ive maintenance and regular servicing and averbauling af fixed intervals. enbance iability of the iransfarmers, CTIONS 14.3 REGULAR F 143.1 Frequeney OF Inspections Transformers: may be inspected on monthly, quarterly, haif-ycarly or yearly basis depending on: (a) The ambient temperature (b) The loading and the operating time fe) The environmental conditions 14.3.2, What To Inspeci? Routing inspection should include the followings:~ (a) Temperature Of Transformer Oil Since ihe temperature of insulating oil is specified to be less than 100°C at 40°C! ambient temperature, first make certain of if being fess than the limited valve. Second, calculate the anticipated temperature rise of the ail on the actual loading, seferring 10 supplier's test report. Third, compare the actual rise with the calculated rise of the oil, it must be confirmed whether the Cemperature is proper ‘or not, {b) Inspection OF Ofl Level Check whether the oil level is in the proper position. (©) Noise Jn order to Find out faults at their early stage pay attention to any abnormal noises having generally high frequency during the daily inspection. These noises ace likely to be produced as a result of faults in the transformer, (a) Looseness Ou Locking Or Binding Points In case any looseness is found on various binding bolts along the outside surface, tighten it again directly. If shutdown of transformer is necessary, it has to be. reported to the responsible engineer. {e) Oil Leakage Any oil leakage may leed to the deterioration of off and will spoil the insulation of the transformer very muck, Check carefully the parts which gaskets are applied for any possible breakage. 405Maintenance Of High Voltage Transformers. @® Pressure Relief Device Daily inspection should be made (o see if the pointer of the compound gauge does change according to the temperature of transformer inside. If it does nol change from zeso point or in the vicinity at all time, there may be gas leakage in somewhere especially in pressure relief devies. (g) Ventilation Check to ensure that the transformer room is properly ventilated. Where ventilated fans and ductings are provided, ensure that the fans and ductings are functioning efficiently. (h) Earthing Check to ensure that the earth cables are not damaged and properly lightened at the metal body and the cabic terminal dividing box, etc. @ Cable Terminals Check fo ensure that the cable terminals are properly supported and not under tension. Check to ensure that the temperature at the cable dividing boxes are not abnormal. @® Tap-Changer Check to ensure that the transformer (ap-changer position is correct and not unduly tempered with by unauthorized person. Figure 14.3(2) to (n) show the various aspects of the routine inspections on power transformers. 14.4 PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE OF TRANSFORMERS Predictive maintenance of power transformers include:~ (2) Dicleetric test on oil (by Partial discharge test Predictive maintenance may be carried out on quarterly, half yearly or yearly basis depending cn the reliability requitement of the installation, the loading conditions of the transformers, etc 14.4.1 Dielectric Test On Oil “406 The liguids used in oil type transformers are minesal ail and synthetic liguiel such 28 siticon oil. These liquids are subject to deterioration, and the main contaminants are ais, moisture and beat.Mainteny r Moisture in the transformer Raids tends so lower the diclecvie sirength of the Mud, which combined with sludge, will lower the fash aver value of insulators. aid terminals inside the transformer tank. “The samples of insulating liquid should be taken for cetemination of its dielecitic strength. The oil samples are taken from the valve af the bottom: of the tank and the following tests on the oil samples are carried ext in the lahoratory:- (a) Judgement of deterioration of insulating oil: Jt must be determined according to such procedures as below: (i) Measurement of dielectri¢ strengtt il) Measurement of oxidized degrees Gif), Measurement of tan-delta (b) Standard judgement of deterioration of insulating off: Based upon the results of measurement as cleseribed in the above paragraph, the standard values for judgement of deterioration will be determined in order to use them as the yardstick of maintenance, @)— Dieleetie strength must be 30 KV ¢ 2.5 mm or more. (ii) Acid value. Standard acid value for oi] will be tabulated as follows. [Acie value (ug KOT | Standard treatment fo be applied 0.02 Gresko) 02 or less Regeneration is desirable @2 05 Regeneration or replacement H cireurastanee allows GS or more Regeneration 51 replacement is required uigentt } Table 14.4.1(2) (ili) Dielectric power factor (tan-delta}: The values given in the following table are based upon the condition : Temperature 1 at20°c Applied voltage ‘1,000 Frequency > S0Hz, 60 Hz These values will serve to indicate the deterioration of the oil, jeasured value of tan-delta | Judgment of deterforation of insulating off. 0.5% of fess Permissible, 0.5% - 2.0% 2.0% or more (Close examination is necessary ‘Table 14.4.1(5) 407Maintenance Of High Voltage Transforme 14.4.2 Partial Discharge Test Partial discharge tests are carried opt on the FLY. cable terminations of the transformers by the use of Transient Earth Voltage (TEV) technique and the result may be as shown in Figure 14.4.2(a), SCHARGE REPORT FO) FORMER Customer : Dates Time 795/200 Lacation : Weather : Sunpy ob : Vea instrument: PDLI, EA Technolony..... Partial Discharge Measurement for 22KV/LV, 22KV/6.6kV & 6.6kV/LV Transformers Transfasmer ~~ KN Th _! | Location of | tenstonner | Admin Block | | Humanities | Make ABB ‘Type Oi) Immersed Oil Immersed Gaiety (avay 1s ‘6 SINo, 9787501 9737602. Year 1997 1997 Voltage | 22000415 22000/415¥ Le b Cable ‘Termination Dry Dy Cable Box Temp. CC} 367 HT HT BT Cable Box Cable Box Cable Box Cable Box. 23/1911 9B 4/717 dB dB a3 ‘Transformer Environment Readin; Air: 0. dB Metabwor 2. 6B Temp: 34.0 °C Remarks: transformer next to Admin, has PD readings more then 104B above the equipment jeading. Recommend to take a close inspection of the HV. cable terminafion box during uext scheduled maintenance, ‘Tested by: Date: 17/05/2000 Figure 14.4.2) 408‘Frausformers a Maintenance OF High Example of partial discharge detected at the fLV, cable termination of transformers is shown in Figwe 14.4.2(). PD Signals On Transfarmer's Termination * Partial discharge detected + Intermediate stage * Cause the inner part of the termination box to rust Figure 144.24) 145 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF POWER TRANSFORMERS ‘The periodic maintenance of transformers should be carried out on yearly or once in 2 years depending on the reliability requirements of the instafiation and the loading conditions of the transformers. Figure 14.5 shows the mains features of a preventive maintenance progremme on the wansformer, ‘fransformer Maintenance Dielectric test on oi) Clean cable termination ‘Cheek control wire for loose connections Perform insulation resistance test on winding and power cable Apply new coat of paint on transformer Check functionality of all gauges and relaysMaintenance Of High Voltage’ 145.1 Perlodic Maintenance Of Transfé 14.5.2 Alo ansformers: ‘Transformers ave to be shutdown and isotated from clectricity supply from both cads: and the following maintenance are to be carried owt (a) External Maintenance All painted surfaces should be checked annually and refurbished as necessary. External elements, such as rain, sun, pollutants will cause harm to the ttansformer’s external surfaces over time. (b) Auxiliary Equipment Transformers equipped with ausiliery equipment such as fans, contro! deviees and gauges should be inspected periodically ( ensute accurate and continuous operation. Faifure of one of these deviees could cause unnecessary damage to the transformer (¢) Transformer Insulation Insulation is one of the most important parts of a transformer. Insulation failure of the transformer is disastrous. Transformer maintenance should iavolve the inspection of the insulating medium and its auxiliary devices. Insulation resistance test ‘The measured value obtained by use of megger tester does not always indicate that the insulator is damaged or that it is moist and dirty, but it indicates only a condition of the insulation. The values vary widely with the temperature and the following (able shows a {entative minimum vakie for operation. “Temperature °C 20 30 50 60 Insulation resistance MQ. 800 400 100 50 Table 14.5.1(a) (@) Visual inspection A visual inspection is @ very elemental procedure that is so often overlooked. Often it may reveal either present or potential problems that may be picked up by testing. Examples may include deteriorating gaskets, low oi! level or chipped bushing skirts. Maintenance Of Oil-Filled Transformers In geneval, transformers require Iess care and ettention than most other kinds of electrical power apparatus. This, however, ig no reason for neglecting them, If transformer is equipped with a on-losd tap changer, the tap changer will require the most attention.formers, Maintenance OF High Voltage tr (a) Oil test Oil test is normally conducted annually during the inspection period. The insulating liquid must be reconditioned or replaced when a test of its diclectiie strength reaches the minimum value or when chemical analysis or acidity tess indice such action, Minimum dielectie strength for oil is at 30k per 2.5mm or more, (h) Acidity test New oil has a neutralization number of 0.03 mg meximum, If-at any time the acidity renches 0.2 mg of KOH to neutralize one gram of oi, the oil must be observed closely. If it reaches 0.35 mg, the oif should be replaced. (c) Internal inspection Hoi test results are satisfactory, the transformer should net be opened for internal inspection except symptoms Such as abnormal noises, low oil levels, muptare pressure relicf devices or increased temperatures at normal operating loads are detected. This operation is recommended to be performed in a workshop, preferably by the manufacturer. (a) Other tests or inspections Ratio, Polarity, Insulation resistance measurement or Gas analysis may be conducted. Ratio and Polarity are checked if there is reason to suspect internal trouble or the transformer have been relocated to another substation, Op load tap changer inspection need only be carried out on an annual basis. Control wiring should be inspected and check for tightness. Extemal inspection to be conducted on all accessories for its fimetionality. Paint work should be refurnished if necessary. 14.5.3 Dry Type Transformer {a) Frequency Of Inspection Frequeney of inspection depend upon the electrical operating and environmental conditions. An annual inspection is sufficient for wansformers operated within their electrical ratings and in clean, dry locations. An appcopriate inspection interval caa be usually determined after the first few inspections, if electrical and environmental conditions do not change. 41ance Of High Voltage T (b) Dirt Accumnlation Dirt is the largest single factor causing maintenance problems. Dirt avcumufates in the case ventilating openings, aus res . Wirt may dso collect in the windings, further restricting air flow, and also settles on the insulating surfaces, thereby reducing insulation levels ée) Insulation Resistance Mensurement ‘Testing is confined to insulation resistence measurement Figure 14.5.3 shows the failure of a dry type transformer at the H.V. Cecminal, Figure 14.5.3 Failure of dry type wansformer at the H.V. terminal AdQuestions - Chapter 14 c¢ OF High Voltage | pena What are ihe (ypical ventilation required for the cooling pf power (rinsformers and hows these requirements can be m ns to be taken fn the installation of ‘Dry (ype transformer What are the precanti Explain briefly what ave the steps to be taken in the routine inspection of distribution transformers. With a proper sketch, design a mechanical ventilation system (i.c., fan and ducting) for cooling of a 1.SMVA 22kY / L.V. distribution transformer with one lourve door and 3 other sides caclosed Explain briefly what are the predictive maintenance programme which ace applicable to distribution transformers. ribution Discuss and explain the necessary steps of preventive maintenance of dis ‘ransformers. 41315.1 1541 CHAPTER 15 ELECTRICAL SAFETY ELECTRICAL HAZARDS. Introduction Electrical accidents can cause injuries, fires and explosions. A person :nust not carry out any electrical work unless he possesses the necessary tecbnical knowledge or expertise or is under the appropriate supervision to prevent danger or injury. Injuries can arise due to: Electric shock Electric burn Fire of electrical origin Electric arcing Explosion by the use of electricity Electrically caused fires and explosions are also dangerous occurrences, invoiving property damage and injuries to persons near to the explosion. A safety message appropriate for the education of all personne] involved in the operation of electrical installation is shown, in Figure 15.1.1 I WORKED FOR 30 YEARS AND ONLY HAD ONE ACCIDENT, Figure 15.1.1 Safely Message 15.1.2 Electric Shock An electric shock is, perkaps, best defined as a unpleasant sensation produced by the convulsive nervous response to the passage of an electric cumreut (ough a part of thea __ ._eetrical Safety Hlvetro-putholoyical effects on the hunian body ace produced by the current passing through the body and the supply voltage is immitterial except an ils ability to feree that current to flow through the body. Body weight and the path of the current are also important; current fowing through the beat is potestially lethal TEC 479-1 (1984) “The effects of carrent passing through the human body’ provides the hest available guidance on the effects of shock currents o the hunran body for use in the establishment of electrical safety requirements. The nervous system of the human body is an electrical nctwork with a eurvent of 4 micro-ampere fo 2 milli-ampere. Exposure (0 «an external current upsets this system and produces serious effects, ‘The damage depends on the following: * Value of the shock current * Duwation of current = Path of the current few The effects of an alternating current are roughly as follows: = G.2mA ~SmA Tingling sensation = SmA-J2mA Painful * 13mA-[SmA — Let-go current. Afler this the involuntary muscle contraction makes it impossible to release the hand grasp. 20mA ~50mA Severe pain and loss of consciousness. SOmA=1$A Ventricular fibrillation which destroys the heart pumping action. When the blood circulation stops for 2 min ~ 6 min, death occurs. The current that wil! canse ventricular fibrillation is 1 ms vt where t is the shock duration ‘This gives a current of SOmA for 2 seconds and 500mA for 0.2 second. During venteiculer Gbrillation, the heset quivers rather than beat and blood citcufation ceases. To get the heart to beat again, it is necessary te apply a counter-shock either ‘by CPR (cardiac pulmonary resuscitation) or an electric resuscitator. It is interesting to note that death is less probable for very short duration high currents. This is because ventricular fibrillation tends not to occur unless the shock current Rows during the vulnerable period in the “T” phase of the cardiac eycle which only occupies approximately 10% to 20% of the total cardiac cycle as shown in Figure 15.1.2, 4sFigure 15.1.2 Typical human heart eycle 15.1.3 Fire Of Electrical Origin 15.4 18. 5 Elcetricity can cause fire in the following manners: (a) Overhesting due (o overloads or short-citcuits. (b) Current leakage due to poor insulation (©) Overheating of fammable materials which are too close to equipment with surface terperature, (e) Ignition of flammable materials os a result of arcing or scattering of hot particles, which is caused by an electrical fault. {¢) Injuries duc to fires are usually bums but may be as a result of inhalation of smoke or toxie byproducts. Tlectrie Areing ‘An are occurs when a current flows throngit the air. The path of the current becomes conductive due to ionisation of the air. The resistance of the are path is reduced by the presence of conductive materials removed from the conductor itself by the heat of are, Since arcs are normally associated with faults, the currents level and its heating effect are usually great. The result is usually very severe and are often fatal The are will also emit very lange quantity of ultra-violet energy. Skin exposed to such radiation becomes “son’murn” and tbe eyes may suffer severe pain (this is the same as “are eye” sometimes exporienced by arc welders). Explosion ‘A fault produces very farge amount of heat and electromagnetic forces. A fault current of 1000 times the equipment ratings produces 1,000,000 times the normal force. The heat and force may cause severe damage and explosion, Other explosions may be caused by the ignition of flammable vapours, liquids or dust due to en electrical fault or the high suface temperature of a piece of electrical equipment._Blectrical Safety 15.2 PROTECTION EQUIPMENT An employer mast provide protective equipment to employees. Such equipment must satisty a oumber of criteria: = Suitable For Use The employer must analyse the task which will need safety tools, whieh items are to be provided andl how such eviews are to be used. AM safety equipments must be macle to an interaational standaril. * Properly Maintained Safety tools must be checked regularly and before use. A proper system of inspection and testing of safety equipment is a basic requirement for any well-managed organisation. The results mast be recorded. This wilt apply to ali equipment vsed such 9s rubber gloves, rubber mats, test equipments and fools. Test equipments must aiso be calibrated andl the records maintained + Properly Used The employer must see to it that all equipment are properly used. This includes proger training and supervision to ensure employees follow safe working procedures Checking for phase matching ‘Two-pole phase testers for indoor use Figure 15.2(a) Live line tester —To check if circuit is alive or phasing of two circuits 40Electrica Figure £5.2(b) “TIC™ tracer proximity voltage detector for use on civeuits up 19 35,000V 15.3 FIRST AID Exery electrical worker must be thoroughly femiliar with CPR techniques. Voluntary organisations such as Red Cross and St, Johns’ Ambulance are only too keen to teach first aid techniques using a dummy. It is also very important to follow up with practical examinations and refresher courses. The next life saved may be yours. ‘Without going into details of CPR, it may be woithwhile to remeber the ABC of anificial respiration. A Majntaia en open Airway. B Breath for the victim by inflating the Jung. C — Civentate the blood by compressing the chest. Remember: The heart action is easily upset. NEVER ATTEMPT OR CONTINUE WiTH CHEST COMPRESSION IF THE HEART IS BEATING, EVEN FAINTLY. 153.1 Treatment for Electric Shock 15.3,1,1 Free From Contact Switch off current immediately or send someone 10 do $0. Do not atterapt to remove a person fiom contact with high voliage unless suitable articles insulaled for the system voltage are used for this purpose. When attempting to free a person fiom contact with low or medium voltage use rubber gloves, bolts o7 mat, or insulated stick, but if these are not available use-a loop of rope, cap or coat to drag the person free, Whatever is used should be dry and non-conducting, 15.3.1.2 After Release Do not waste time moving him. Lay the patient down on someting dry, if possible, and if no sign of breathing can be observed, IMMEDIATELY proceed (0 promote artificial zespirarion and send sameone else for a doctor and ambulance. 4i8‘ectrival Safety ‘The most effective method of artificial respiration is the mouth to mouth (out to nose} respiration as it can be used by almost all age groups and in almost all circumstances excepl.~ (a) When there is sevore injury to the face and mouth. (b) When the casusity is pinned in the face down position. (©) if vomiting interferes with respiratory resuscitation. 15.3.1.3 Artificial Respiration: Mouth-To-Mouth Method (Remove any foreign material — false teeth, vomit, ete which may cause blockage of the air passages [see Fignre 15.3.1 3(a)] : (i) To open the air passage tilt the paticnt’s head backward as far as possible by supporting the nape of the neck with one hand and pressing the top of the head with the other (see Figure 15.3.1.3(b)}. Figure 15.3.1.3¢a) Figure 15.3.1.3(6) Gi) Teke a deep breath, place your mouth over the patient's mouth and blow. Seat the patient's nose by pinching it with the fingers [see Figure 15.3.1.3(c)]. Gv) Give 4 quick blows and then contiaue to inflate the chest about 12 times per minute [see Figure 15.3.1.3(4)]. Watch the chest during inflation — it should tise. No movement indicates a blocked airway. If so, check mouth and throat ace clear and tilt the bead further backwards. Figure 15.3.1.3¢c} Figure 15.3.1.3(d) 419If the heart has stopped beating, external heart compression should be stirted at once (to check for heart beat, feel she pulse in the neck and at the wrist) {a) Place casualty on a firm surface. (b) Strike his chest smarlly to the left of the Jower part of the breast-bone with the edge of the hand [see Figure 15.3.1 4(a)]; this may re-starl the heart heating, (¢) fof, commence external heart compression immediately: (i) Knecl to one side of the casualty. (ii) Locate the lower half of this breastbone [see Figure 35.3.1 4(a)]). Gili) Place the heel of your hand on lower half of breasthene and place the other hand on top, keeping the fingers off the chest [see Figure 15.3.1.4(b)]. Figure 15.3.1.4(4) Figure 15.3.1.4(b) Gv) Keep arms straight and rock forward to depress chest about 4 cm (14 inches} (see Figure 15.3.1.4(¢)]. Figure 15.3.1 4{e) Even if you have not been tained in mouth to mouth inflation, do have @ go Remember hospitals can treat broken bones or skin but can de nothing for a corpse. 4201532 15.4 15.4.1 15.4.2 Electrical Sately Other Injuries ‘Aller breathing, priority: should be given to controlling bleeding, This is achieved by firm pressure on the wound, (i) Cover with a clean dressing and bandage firmly in place. (ii) If bleeding continues add further dressings on top of the first and inerease the pressure by dandaging fiumly in place. Burns should be covered with a clean, sterile dressing to exclude air. ‘The dressing should be bandaged ligitly in position Unless it is dangerous to leave the casualty at the site of the accident expert assistance should be sought before other injuries are treated, IF it ig necessary to move the sasually, de so with the utmost gentleness carefully supporting any injured parts. SAFE WORKING SYSTEM Procedure It is preferred that work should be carried out on a dead system. ‘To ensure safety, it must never be assumed that a circuit is dead until it is proved to be so. A safe working system requires the following: {a) Switching off the supply (b) Isolating (c} Posting waming signs (4) Locking off (s) Testing to prove that the circuit is dead (f) Earthing (g) Issuing a permit-to-work. Isolation and Locking off It is foolish for any one to assume that just he has switched off a circuit, then that circuit is dead and safe to work on. ‘The person must ensure safety by isolating in the following manner: (a) Ensure @ definite break and physical isolation from the ‘live’ cireuit eg. by withdrawing a CB as shown in Figure 15.4.2(a). (©) Prevent inadvertent reclosing by using a safety lock to prevent accidental operation of ali electrical switches and mechanical push-button. (0) Lock off all operating mechanismns, shutters, doors, ete. using 2 safety lock as shown in Figure 15.4.2(b) and Figure 15.4.2(c), Another additional step possible is to remove the operating handle but this is not too reliable sometime, 421ai Figure 15.4.2(2) Isolated Position Figures 15.4.2(2) Typical application of locks, tags, and multiple-leck devices on the switch and isolator to prevent accidental switching on. Shortern lose postion Figure 15.426) Typical application of padlocks on the busbar and cabie-end shutters which enclose the ‘live’ terminals te prevent accidental contact with “ive? parts 422safely from a standard lock used to Jock off all switches. The safety lock must diffe The keys shall be kept in a key safe the pecrait-to-work, in the possession of the person who issies 184.3 Warning Notices ‘There are two forms of uotic * Caution notices fixed an opened isolating switches to war that they must nol be closed. On the other hand, they are ased fo wara against opening closed earthing switches. © Danger notices on adjacent ‘live’ equipment fo demarcate the area within which work may be catried out. Typical warning notices used by the electrical industy is shown in Figure 13.4.3 ‘Warning Natices OP Figure 15.4.3 Typical Waming Notices In addition, barricades, tapes and danger notices may be used to warn others that they must stay out of the working area, A lookout staff should be placed at strategic locations ducing high voltage testing or during the initial energising. 423afe until it has been proved to be sa. ystems and ‘live’ ineicators for H4.¥, No cirenit mist ever be assumed to be dead and This will require the use of a voltmeter for IV. systems, All such test equipnient must be checked before and after use, Reliance solely on a negative fest without checking the positive integrity of the (est equipment can lead to disastrous consequences. Figure 15.4.4 “TIC™ tracer proximity voltage detector for use cn circuits up to 35,000¥. Voltage Sensing Device: The Tie Tracer Features: © Provides a visual as weil as audio signal » Cperates on the principle detecting an a.¢, electrostatic field. «Detects HV range from 1.5KV to 122kV and a low range from 20 to LSkV. Limitations: * DC voltage will not be detected at any voltage level by the Tic Tester or Voltege Detector. + Shielded cables will have no electrostatic field penetrating the shield, aud voltage presence caunot be detected, Note: Always verify testers with a known source of supply. 15.4.5 Karthing ‘A circuit which has been switched off may become charged due to any of the following: + Residual charge in capacitor or long cable. a— _ Electrical Safety + Wrong operation, because of inadequate + Lighting stake To ensure safe working, the circuit must be peopesly earthed. This can be either by an integral earthing switch or a portable earthing set of adequate capacity. The earth lead of the earthing set mmst always be connected lo earth first before connecting the phase lends. The reverse opsration takes place daring discomicction, After earthing, a cantion notice must be placed next to the earthed point, An earthing switch must be padlocked with a safety ar non-standard lock and the key kept by the authorized person. Where a CB is used for earthing, the open push-butten must also be similarly locked. 15.5 PERMIT-TO-WORK SYSTEM The permnit-to-work (PTW) system is a woll-tried safety measure which is extensively used where dangers may atise when working on clecttical sysiems. Its basis is to make each person more careful of his aotions. ‘The rules make it clear that no work can siart until the person in charge possesses a PTW. The permit must be issued by a suitably qualified person who holds the authority to issue such permits, That person has the responsibility to ensure that the work can be safely carried ‘out. That permit is issued to the person in charge of that job and contains the following details: Issue Names of person issuing and receiving the PTW. Wature of work Location of equipment Points of isolation Points where safety earth is connected Date and time of issue Receipt * Date and time of receipt Clearance * Declaration that all work have stopped and ell the men have been warmed * Declaration that al! tools and additional earths have been removed. [t is recommended to have space to identify exact location of such earths. = Date and time of clearance Cancellation * Date and time of cancellation 425PERMIT-TO-WORK. 1051 ON FLYJLY. * CABLES AND EQUIPMENT Date Permit Nor 1. ISSUE OF PERMIT: ‘This is w vevtify tat the following cable f equipment at. ‘ate the exact Ineation and/or substi HAS BEEN ISOLATED at _ AND EARTHED) — {tate act point or postion of isolation and enniting} AND 18 NOW SAFE TO WORK ON The details have been recorded in the Substation Record Book. ‘Time of issue of permit _. sa _— Date of issue, ‘The workmen have boca instructed to commence work. Name and Signature of Authorised Porson INSTRUCTION TO WORK: Lhave received instructions to commence work on the above eablesequipiaent. Time: Dates Peron in charge of work CLEARANCE: The work bes been completed, all labour and tools have been withdrawn, and Ge ren in ny charge have been watned that itis NO LONGER SAFE te work on tiie above cable/equipmens Time: Date: Person in change of work 4. CANCELLATION OF PERMIT Tae above Permit No. dated is not cancelled and wihdrawn, No further work is to be performed on the above cable/equipment with another PERMIT- TO-WORK. ‘The work done ras been recorded in the Substation Record Bock. ‘Time of cancellation Date of cancellation: Fame and Signature of Authorised Person «Delete where applicable, Figure 15.5(a) Sample of A Permit-To-Work For Electrical Systemfety. ‘or safety, details of carths applied by both parties should be recorded. There have been cases where a party forgets f remove an earth in the rush to notmalise supply with sometimes fatal results, Should an unfortunate accident occurs, it will be possible to determine who was at funk, The object of the system is not to apportion blame affer an accident but is to set up a practical system fo ensure that everyone is being clearly accountable for his actions and will lake greater cave lo follow the rules precisely. The sample of a permit-to-work for H.V. and L..V. electrical work is shown in Figure 15.5(a) The somple ofa notice issued on the electrical equipment or cables which has been isolated, earthed and issued with permit-te-work is shown in Figure 15.5(b). AN DANGER ‘This cata botwean f equipmentat has been isolated and earthed ard SHOULD NOT BE INTERFERED WITH without the consent of the authorised high ‘voltage evitching engineer (AHVSE) who has issued a PERMIT-TO.WORK Ne on (Date / te} Signature of AHVSE: Nome: Contact No: Tal Figure 15.5(b) Danger notice on equipment or cable which has been isolated, earthed and ‘issued with permit-to-work (P.T.W) 15.6 OPERATING HIGH VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR General Deseription In this style of gear, the circuit breeker rolls into the switchgear on wheels or on a sliding type of racking mechanism. The opening and closing of the breaker is performed electrically by sriggering of the ON/OFF button in the front of the switchgear. ‘The breaker connects to the bus and the tine via 2 diseonnector or isolator. When the breaker is open, it can be moved toward the front of the cubicles so it disconnects from the bus and Une. This action is referred to as racking the breaker. The breaker may be completely removed from the switchgear, or it may be put info two or more auxiliary positions. Racking 427Low Vokage conpartural {hstruentaion& Pectecon) : Ro Pretertic celys : : Q Boor-mounted meters Orv wc Raber Mat Front Figmre 15,6(4) Operation of High Voltage Switchgear (@ Operating Position (or service position) Jj (YT (ii) Testing Position i) Isolated Position Figure 15.6(b) The 3 positions of circuit breakers 428ce a ce ical Safety Mast switchgeus have (wo anxilia’y positions: the fest position as shown im & 15.6¢b)(¢i) and the diseomiceted (or isaleded) position ae shown in Fignre [S.6(bIGii). In the test position, the breaker is disconneeted fren the by ~ jis control power is still applied through a set of secondary disconnects, This allows engineers 1 operate the breaker for maintenance purposes In the disconnected position, the breaker is completely disconnected or isolated trom the ‘live’ busbar or cable-end terminals. Foy many types of switchgear, the froat panel provides worker protection fom shock, are, atid biast, This means that the switchgear is designed to contain are and blast as long as the door is properly closed and latched ‘The back of the switchgear must have sufficient clearance and working space al the back to ensure safety. Another picture which shows the clearance and working space require for the high voltage switchgears as recommended by the manufacturer is shown in Figure 15.6(c). “Ave for zenoval ofeheuithreaker | na Figure 15.6(c) Working space required for operation of H.V. switchgears 15.7 CASE STUDIES OF HIGH VOLTAGE ACCIDENTS These case studies are adopted to illustrate the importance of strict adherence to high voliage safety rules in the operation and maintenance of high voltage systems,‘This (atal accident occurred in a high voltage switchroom, on the night of the accident, the high vollage switchboard was de-energized for maintenance work and the circuit brealvers wore all switch-off and withdrawn at ‘isolated’ position, However, the incoming cable ends of the two high voltage incomings were not de-cnergized from the remote end, The shuiters which enclose the “Live” terminals of the H.V, cable-ends were only locked by loose wires and not proper padlocks. One of the workers went to loosen out the wires which were used to lock the shutter and get in contact with the ‘Live’ terminals. Lesson to learn: Proper padlocks must be used for lockiag of shutter te prevent accidental contact with ‘Live’ parts. Case Study 2: Earthing To ‘Live’ High Voltage Terminals ‘A double “busbar” high voltage switchgear has 2 ‘tive’ high voltage busbars supplied from the remote end by incoming cables One of the busbar ‘A’ and associated outgoing circuits and transformers were shutdown for maintenance, while the other busbar “B’ and associated outgoing are still ‘live’ to continve to provide electricity Without the use of high voltage detector to confirm that the busbar js ‘live? or ‘dead’, the maintenance technician went fo the wrong busbar “B" and took the earth wire to carry out electrical discharge on the ‘Jive’ busbar, and an explosion occurred and he was injured. Lesson to learn: Proper isolation must be completed and high voltage detector must be used fo ascertain whether the electrical system is ‘de-energized” and ‘dead’ before earthing is carried ont. Cave Study 3: Earthing To ‘Live’ Cable End Of The IL.V. Ring Main Unit Ring main units ars often provided with integral earthing switch on cable end, and sometime, additional earthing switch on the busbar, The engineer has switched off the incoming H.V. cable to the ring main unit at the locat oil switch of this RMU, however, he failed to realize that the high voltage cable end is still ‘Live’ from the remote end, ‘The engineer applied the earthing switch onto the incoming cable end which is still ‘live’ and cause a high vokage ‘tipping at the remote ead and a severe ‘voltage dip’ on the power system. 430 Set_Flectrleal Safety must be familiar and conversant with the operation of TV. sand take carefil sleps to prevent accident Lesson (a learn: Case Study 4: Accidental Switching On Of LLY, Electricity Supply To Switchgear And Cable Which Have Already Been De-Energized, [solated From ‘Live? System A high voltage cable has been de-energized and the associated switchgear bas been withdrawn for isolation, pormil-fo-work has also been issued for cable jointing work, However, during the switching process, the engineer discovered some problems with the switebgear and decided to repair the switchgears ‘The HV. switchgear was accidentally pushed into service position and was accidentally close against onto the cables Lesson ta learn: Isolation must be properly completed without any allempt to jeopardize it, switchgear must be at isolated position and the shutter on ‘live’ terminal properly locked. Case Stady S:Incomplete Iselation Of Electricity Supply On A Distribution Transformer ‘A change of high voltage cable of a transformer was cacried out on a high voltage system. The H.V. isolator switchgear of the transformet was switched off by the engineer. However, the L-V. fuse and link on the L.V. side of the transformer were not removed, thus the isolation of the circuit was not complete. The engineer took an earth cable to carry out electrical discharge at the H.V. cable of the tcansformer at the switchgear spout, a flashover occurred, Lesson to Learn: Isolation of each high voltage feeder cr each transformer have to be completed at hoth ends. Incomplete isolation is dangerous as electricity supply can, feedback from the other end, 431nl RE NEE I TET EE Questions - Chapter 15 . ee. cctrival Safety 1, Deseribe the hazards of electricity and the necessary steps to be (aken fo prevent danger 2, Describe and explain the necessary steps for the proper isolation of (a) HLY. feeders (6) KV. nansfoumers 3. For the H.V. ving network as shown in the following diagram, what stops would you take to onsure safety if you have to carry out maintenance work on (a) ILV. Cable 3 (b} Transformer No 1 é a é & = X Withdronable cizeut breakers CD) tronstormers Figure Q3 High Voltage ring distribution system 4. When you have to put back a circuit breaker to service position after maintenance and sepair work has complezed, what are the precautions you must take before racking in the cirevit breaker 5. A technician uses a multimeter to measure the voltage between the Red Phase and Yellow Phase ‘live’ busbar ofa L.V. system, an explosion occurs, (a) Explain what is the reason for the explosion? (b) Ifyou are the technician, what would you have done? 432