Sports Biomechanics in Action: BTEC National - Sport & Exercise Sciences - Book 1

in action
Introduction
6
Sports biomechanics
Biomechanics is the study of the mechanics of life forms – in this case, the
human athlete. Over the last few decades, biomechanics has concentrated on
the role of forces within the athletic body and their influence on performance.
Typical investigations may have centred on how a hammer thrower releases the
hammer. More recently, there has been a move towards sports biomechanics.
Sports biomechanics looks at an individual player’s and a team’s performance
through notational analysis. Therefore, sport biomechanics may consider the
shooting accuracy in football of the striker or team as a whole. Within this
unit you will explore the principles of sports biomechanics through a variety
of sporting activities. You will be able to develop meaningful explanations
in relation to the sports that interest you. In the future, you may wish to use
the experience gained in this unit in careers ranging from coaching to fitness
training.
After completing this unit you should be able to achieve the following
outcomes:
Be able to perform notational analysis for sport.
Be able to compare a numerical model to sporting performance.
Be able to compare a technical model to sporting performance.
Be able to provide feedback on performance to an athlete or team.
[102] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

6.1
Think it over
Over the last few years,
professional sports tea
especially international ms,
teams, have employed
sports biomechanists
to help them improve
performance and ultim their
ately become success
You should discuss the ful.
importance and
advantage to a team of
knowing that:
• as an opposition cri
cket player, you are po
playing the hook shot or at
and have been caught
five times recently pla out
ying this shot
• as the opposing tea
m, you conceded a hig
number of goals in foo h
tball in the last ten
minutes of a match
• as the opposing rug
by team, you threw the
the third player in the ball to
lineout 80 per cent of
time. the
These examples shou

ld demonstrate the im
to performance of sport portance
s biomechanics in actio
Hockey, as with other tea n.
m sports, involves
a number of important
performance criteria, for
example cleanly striking
the ball.
In groups, use the pictur
e as a starting point to
draw up a list of the po
ssible performance cri
a sports biomechanist teria
might be interested in
analysing the performan when
ce of a hockey player.
Hopefully you will have
produced a list that
contains some importa
nt performance criteria.
may have included criter You
ia such as passing an
accuracy. d shot
6: Sports biomechanics in action [103]

6.1 Be able to perform notational analysis for sport
Within this learning outcome you will consider the

performance criteria of a sport of your own choice. Taking it further
Performance criteria, put simply, are the separate parts In small groups, perform some basic research into
of the performance which, if performed well, should lead the uses of notational analysis. Therefore, try to look
to success for the athlete or team. For example, if you for information which looks at the sports that use
are interested in netball you may analyse the passing, notational analysis and how they use this information.
interception rates and shooting accuracy (these being Once you have your research, discuss your findings
three examples of performance criteria) of a particular with the rest of the group.
player or team. Part of this analysis will centre on data
evaluation, for which you will need to use statistics, for
example calculation of the mean. Finally, you will be
expected to display this data accordingly, for example by
using a pie chart.
Performance criteria
Each sport, whether individual or team based, will have
In the past, coaches have observed their athletes’
a different performance criteria profile. Criteria is simply
performances and have tried to draw valid conclusions.
a list of the factors (e.g. shot accuracy, saves, headers,
However, it has been found that these observations have
dribbling) that are key for the sporting performance.
been unreliable and also inaccurate. This is because the
Some sports, if simple in nature such as snooker, may
coach cannot view all of the relevant information and
have only a few performance criteria such as safety
makes mistakes when recalling the information. This is
success. In comparison, more technical sports such as
where notational analysis can help.
hockey will have a more exhaustive list, to include factors
such as tackle success.
Key Terms
Notational analysis A method used by sports
biomechanists to analyse the performance of an Remember!
individual or team. It is an emerging method used in
professional sports to gain a competitive advantage Even within a team sport such as rugby union a
over opponents. specific position, for example hooker, will possess a
different performance criteria profile in comparison
to a winger because of the demands placed on the
Performance is analysed by recording data from teams player.
and players by looking at tactics and techniques. This
data or information can then be used in following
matches to improve performance or gain an advantage The performance criteria of a squash player are:
over the opposition. For example, by monitoring a
winner
game of football, the notational analyst can obtain data
error
showing how much distance has been covered by each
stroke
player, how much of this distance involves sprinting,
let.
jogging or walking, and even how many tackles, jumps,
headers and correct passes they have made. Therefore,
they can identify strengths and areas for improvement.

6.1
Unforced errors
Remember!
If an athlete, for example a squash player, can reduce the
number of unforced errors they make in a match, then In tennis, as a sporting example, the great players
this should increase the chances of success in the match. like Roger Federer make their opponents play many
Put simply, an unforced error is an error that comes from forced errors as well as outright winners. This
your own actions and not as a direct consequence of what makes them successful.
an opponent does.
The only issue you will face when analysing unforced and
forced errors is on some occasions determining which one
Activity it is. Therefore, if you are interested in tennis, you should
record a match so that you can watch specific points again
1 In pairs, produce a list of sports where a player
to clarify which category the shot falls into.
or team would need to minimise the number of
unforced errors.
2 Try to identify the reasons as to why unforced
errors occur, for example loss of concentration.
These reasons may not be purely from a sports
Remember!
biomechanics perspective, therefore, you should
consider other subjects from sport and exercise The difference between unforced and forced errors is
science. that unforced errors are caused by yourself, whereas
forced errors are brought on by your opponent.
In terms of analysing unforced errors in relation to

sporting performance, you can simply count the number Shot success/failure
made during a match. You should aim to repeat this
over a number of performances to see if there is a trend There is a wide range of individual and team sports that
forming. However, you may wish to dig deeper into this rely on shot success to determine the match outcome. If
performance criteria by categorising the unforced errors. you consider football as an example, many teams in the
For example, in squash you may consider whether the past have had plenty of goal scoring opportunities but
unforced errors are on the serve or from backhand lost the match. This is because they cannot convert their
shots, etc. chances, whereas the opposition may convert their only
chance in the game. If you are interested in shot success
as a performance criteria, you may consider splitting the
Forced errors
criteria up into other areas. For example in football you may
analyse:
In comparison to the previous performance criteria,
each striker individually
forced errors are as a direct result of the actions of your
every player in the team
opponent. If we consider tennis, a player is likely to make
left footed shots
many forced errors because the other player is more
right footed shots
powerful in their shots or is using uncontrollable spin on
shots inside the box
the ball. By being able to influence your opponent into
shots outside the box.
making many forced errors, you are more likely to win
the match. From an individual sport perspective you can also split this
criteria down. For example, in snooker you may analyse:

long pots
short pots
pots to a specific pocket
Remember!
pots where positional play is required
other pots such as colour, etc. To avoid producing too much data in relation to
crosses you should either look at the defensive or
attacking aspect.
Taking it further
Choose a sport that requires an element of shot
success and research into the technique required for
success. You should try to describe the key coaching Catches/interception rates
points. For example in football you should look at the
goal not the ball. This research may help you later In terms of cricket you may have heard the phrase that
when you are considering the feedback that you give ‘catches win matches’, however, this is also important
to the athlete or players.
for many other team sports such as netball, rugby and
basketball.
One form of analysis that you may use in conjunction
Shot accuracy with catching is consideration of field or court position
where ball possession was lost or gained. Field
On face value, you might think it would be easy to assess position can be used with other performance criteria
shot accuracy because you could just look at shots on such as passing. If you look at the following diagram
and off target. However, in some team sports a shot on that represents a netball court, you can see that we
target can be saved, whereas a shot off target can take a
deflection and go in.
Crosses
G L L L
A cross in team-based sports such as football or hockey G L
is another key performance criterion. Crossing is quite G
a unique performance criterion in the sense that you
can analyse it either from a defensive or attacking G GL
perspective. Therefore, you should decide before you start L
G L
your analysis which aspect of crossing you are interested G
in. If you want to analyse defending crosses, then you will L G
need to look at issues beyond simply clearing the cross. L
This is because the defender (in hockey) may clear the GL LL
cross initially but this may lead to:
another cross G L
a shot on target L L GG
a goal
a penalty G G
other negative outcomes for the defending teams.
Therefore, for your analysis, it is suggested that you first
look at the number of crosses cleared but then also look at This type of analysis will allow the coach to identify areas of
the overall outcome (as demonstrated in the above list). strength and areas for improvement

6.1
6.1
have identified where possession was lost or gained

(interception rates) through catching.
Remember!
From the diagram we can see where the possession was
gained (G) and lost (L). Therefore, we can consider the
When considering performance criteria such as
position on the court and the number of times possession passing, catching, etc. you should consider looking
was gained or lost. To take this analysis further, we may at the outcome because the pass or catch should
add another code, for example WA, to show that the wing be productive to the team.
attack was involved in a particular incident.
Saves
Remember!
As with catches, you may wish to consider using an
By using the outline of a pitch or court you can add outline (of a goal) to represent and collect your raw data.
another dimension to your analysis, namely position. Although there is some merit in simply counting the
It also provides a useful aid for visual feedback. number of shots saved and missed (e.g. in hockey), a
coach may need more detailed information than this. If
you look at this diagram of a hockey goal, we can capture
more information.
Passing
One of the key elements that is central to a team’s

performance is its ability to pass. Here is a list of the key
sports that you may be interested in analysing in relation
to passing:
football
rugby
hockey
basketball
netball Data generated using this approach could lead to
water polo. flexibility or agility training for the keeper
Within the performance criteria of passing there is a wide
range of types you may want to analyse, these being: By dividing the hockey goal into different segments, you
short passing can identify in which part of the goal the keeper fails to
long passing save shots (marked x on the diagram) on a regular basis.
backwards Therefore, the coach would be able to concentrate on
forwards coaching a specific skill, for example saving shots in the
square bottom right-hand corner.
consecutive
passing between particular players (e.g. goal shooter Tackles
and goal attack in netball).
As you have probably realised, there is a number of
performance criteria you may consider using in relation
to team sports, tackling being another.

Taking it further
In small groups, prepare and present a presentation
based on the performance criteria of tackling. In your
presentation you should cover:
• the sports where tackling is important
• the correct technique of tackling
• the importance of tackling to performance levels
• the method of recording tackles in a match
• a possible method of displaying your raw data
• the data analysis you may use to analyse your raw
data.
Headers
Often overlooked as a key performance criteria, heading

in football is an important factor to consider. As with
crosses, heading can be subdivided into defensive and
attacking categories. Although there may be some value
in considering the number of headers won in defensive
or attacking situations, you need to analyse the outcome
of the header. Possible outcomes are:
another header
keep possession
lose possession Dribbling the ball in basketball is often a risky play
foul the opposition because the player may lose control of the ball and give it
header off target to the opposition
header on target When dribbling the ball it is important that the end
goal product of the dribble is a positive one. This means that it
corner kick. leads to:
a shot at the target
Dribbling successfully passing the ball to a team member
drawing a foul from the opposition
Dribbling is a key component in a number of team-based gaining field advantage.
sports, for example hockey, football and basketball. For example, you may record that a basketball player
Dribbling involves a player trying to take the ball around made 34 dribbles in the match. However, only 17 led to
an opposition player or players with the aim of gaining an end product. Therefore, you can calculate that:
an advantage. 17 successes
× 100
34 dribbles
= 50% success rate

6.1
6.1
Assessment practice
1 For an individual or team-based sport, work
in pairs to produce a list or a flow chart that
represents the performance criteria that is key Think it over
for sporting success. p
1
2 Describe five relevant performance criteria (e.g. Most of the discussion has centred on team-based
unforced errors, catching, passing, shooting, sports (although you can analyse the performance
breaking of laws). You may include criteria, of one individual). Discuss within your group the
which is not covered in this unit if you feel it performance criteria for an individual sport such as
is important. For example, in snooker you may judo, snooker, golf, etc.
consider safety play as being relevant. p
1
feedback after the performance because you can upload

Notational analysis the information on to a computer.
Movement
Activity
To recap, notational analysis can help a sports scientist,
coach or fitness instructor to achieve their aim of You are to investigate the work rate (heart rate) of
improving an athlete’s or team’s performance in most two squash players during a match. Use two heart
sports. So far, we have looked at a wide range of sports rate monitors, one per player, to collect your data.
in relation to many performance criteria such as passing If you prefer, you can use the traditional method of
or crossing. This section will concentrate on other key recording heart rate in beats per minute, recording
criteria, namely: for 15 seconds and multiplying by four. Record their
heart rate at one-minute intervals for 20 minutes in
work rate
total.
positional play
distance covered 1 Plot the heart rate for both players against time
movement patterns using a line graph.
breaking of rules/laws. 2 Describe the data on the line graph, looking for
similarities and differences between the players.
Work rate 3 Discuss whether the work rate corresponded to
From a biomechanical and physiological perspective, the performance of the players during the match.
assessing an athlete’s work rate is traditionally difficult to
perform because there are other key factors to consider.
For example, you need to consider the outcome of this
work – was it productive? Did the opposition have an
Positional play
influence on the work rate because of their style of play? A coach or manager of a team may be interested in
Therefore, it is not an easy performance criterion to one particular player in relation to their positional play
consider. within a match. For example, in football, a manager may
be interested in signing a new right back but wants to
However, you may consider using a heart rate monitor
know how much attacking the player performs during a
to calculate their work rate. The heart rate monitor
match. This is because the manager wants to make sure
(attached to the player) will give you a great deal of

that the player will fit into the team’s style of play. As the
sports biomechanist, you should be able to perform some Remember!
basic analysis to assist the manager.
When analysing positional play you should try to
record the player because it will be difficult to log all
the data at the time of play.
Case study
Champions League Final 1 In relation to the diagram, give a basic description
When analysing positional play you may want to use

of the positional play of the right back. p
the following approach, which logs the amount of runs 2 Describe how you could transfer this information
made, the distance and the direction using an arrow into numerical data. m
system. This diagram represents a ten-minute sample. 3 Explain how you could analyse this data. m
This ten-minute sample represents data taken from the
4 Describe the advantages and disadvantages of
Champions League Final between Barcelona and Arsenal
on 17 May 2006, which Barcelona won 2–1.
using this style of analysis. d
When working with elite performers, these types of movement would be tracked by sophisticated computer software
Penalty area
18-yard box
6-yard box
Centre circle
Goal
Centre spot Penalty spot
Half-way line

6.1
Distance covered including sprinting

In some sports, for example rugby union, it is important Activity
for a player to cover as much distance as possible.
However, this distance must be in a productive manner. In relation to a sport you are interested in, research
Therefore, in rugby union, you may log the distance and note the key rules or laws that could be used to
covered with the ball in metres for the number 8. This is form some data collection. In addition, you should
because if the player can make some big runs and break identify the key illegal moves or plays made by the
the gain line, then it can bring other players into the sports performer.
game and is a clear advantage. As a sports biomechanist,
you should record the distance covered with the ball and
also log the outcome of the carry, such as a try or pass.
As a follow on to the logging of illegal moves, you
Movement patterns may also consider the outcome of this infringement to
ascertain the seriousness of the act. A break of the rules
In many respects the basics of movement patterns
may lead to:
are similar to positional play, which has already been
nothing, as the opposition fails to take advantage
discussed. However, a movement pattern is a series
booking
of movements made by an athlete, therefore you are
sending off
looking at a sequence of movements. If you are interested
suspension
in basketball, you may be interested in the movement
the sin bin
patterns of players. Through observation of a recording
goal/score/points for the opposition
of the match in the feedback session you may note that
loss of field advantage
when attacking as a team most of your attacks come
the breakdown of own team’s play
down the left side of the court. Therefore, this may be
other outcomes specific to your sport, e.g. in snooker
viewed as being as a weakness. This is because the coach
conceding the frame or match.
wants variety in the attacking plays by attacking the left,
central and right areas.
Performance criteria
Breaking of rules/laws You should recall that a central part of notational analysis
is selecting the performance criteria, which you are using
When playing sports it is inevitable that the athletes will
to assess the sporting performance (such as passing). For
break the rules or make an illegal move, for example
a full review of the key performance criteria see pages
punching below the belt in boxing. This rule breaking
XX–XX.
may be unintentional, for example in football you
may foul an opponent through a miss-timed tackle. In
comparison, an athlete may break a rule on purpose with
Statistics
the aim of gaining an advantage over the opposition. For
example, a hockey player may touch the ball with their
Although most may feel comfortable about using
foot on purpose to concede a foul. This will then allow
mathematics, some of you will find it quite daunting.
their team to regain their position when trying to defend.
However, unfortunately, a central component of sports
From an analysis point of view it is important that you
biomechanics is based around using statistics. The
record the number of times an athlete breaks the rules
statistics that you may have to use are fairly simple in
because, generally speaking, this has a negative influence
nature and hopefully you will have used them before at
on the athlete’s or team’s performance.
school or college, such as median or mean. This section
will give you the understanding of the key statistical
measures you may have to use with the data you have
collected.

a data set where scores are very close in value to the
mean; a smaller range. A data set with a larger standard
Remember! deviation has scores with more variance; a larger range.
For example, if the average score on a test was 80 and
Using statistics allows us to interpret the raw data, the standard deviation was 2, the scores would be more
understand the results, make comparisons and clustered around the mean than if the standard deviation
draw valid conclusions. was 10.
Mode
Mean The mode represents the most the popular reoccurring
value in your set of data and is another measure of
The mean is also known as the average (although there
average. Consider the following scores given to a gymnast
are other statistical techniques which are different types
by the judges after a floor routine:
of averages) and is often used by sports and exercise
scientists when trying to analyse raw data. The mean 9.8 9.7 9.8 9.6 9.8 9.7
is the sum of a series of measurements divided by the The mode in this set of data would be 9.8 because it
number of those measurements. appears three times. However, you should note that it
is possible to have more than one mode if two scores
Standard deviation appear the same number of times. You may use the mode
The standard deviation is the most frequently calculated in target sports such as archery to determine the most
measure of variability. The standard deviation value popular score obtained by the archer to compare with
represents the average distance of a set of scores from another archer or past performances of the same archer.
the mean. Knowing the standard deviation helps create The major drawback of the mode is that it changes
a more accurate picture of the distribution along the very quickly. Look at the following example taken from
normal curve. A smaller standard deviation represents cricket.
Case study
Blackpool Bullets versus Preston Pirates
Game Blackpool Bullets Preston
Look at this example taken from netball (points scored number Pirates
per game in a tournament).
1 65 56
1 Calculate the mean points for the Preston 2 43 55
Pirates. p 3 56 43
2 Comment on the usefulness of the
4 32 58
information in this table. m
5 56 40
3 Explain what other performance criteria
from the tournament the coach may want to 6 65 39
analyse and why. m 7 44 62
4 Through your own understanding and research, Total = 361 ÷ 7 = 51.57 points
comment on the advantages and disadvantages
of using the mean when analysing data. d

6.1
Runs scored by the opening batsman for Lancashire Range

Second X1 team: Another method of analysing your data is to calculate
1, 1, 16, 23, 45 and 100 the range. To calculate the range, take the lowest value
away from the highest value. For example you may be
The mode = 1 (Therefore representing a poor run of
interested in the driving distances of two local golfers in
form.)
relation to their driving woods. You have recorded the
If we change a 1 to a 100: following.
1, 16, 23, 45, 100 and 100
Golfer A (yards) Golfer B (yards)
The mode = 100 (Therefore representing a good run of
form.) 179 222
This shows that a change in one value can have a 201 213
dramatic influence on the mode average. 194 179
Median 200 201
If you have a set of values and wish to obtain a value 213 217
that represents the central point, then you should use 178 192
the median. To obtain the median (another average) 203 211
you need to arrange the values in order (lowest to
highest), which can be seen in the second set of values
below. The values are a snooker player’s breaks in a local
competition.
Activity
Raw data: 60, 55, 48, 56, 73, 120 and 63
Lowest to highest: 48, 55, 56, 60, 63, 73 and 120 1 Calculate the range of both golfers and comment
The median = 60 on your results.
To find the median becomes a little more difficult if there 2 Calculate the mean of both golfers and comment
are an even set of values. Where this is the case, we now on your results.
take the two central values and find the point between 3 Using ICT, calculate the standard deviation and
these two values. See the example. comment on your results.
Raw data: 60, 55, 48, 56, 73, 66, 120 and 63 4 Explain briefly how using these statistics may
Lowest to highest: 48, 55, 56, 60, 63, 66, 73 and 120 inform the golfer of their performance?
The media = 61.5 6 If you were analysing the golfers’ driving

performance, what other information may you
When working with your raw data you will need to need to take into account?
consider the amount of information you had. To calculate
the median with a hundred or so sets of values would be
very time consuming. On the positive side, the median is
less influenced by extreme values such as the 120 points Percentages
in the example. However, in comparison, the mean for You may wish to express your results as a percentage
the second example for the snooker player would be depending on the data you have. For example, in tennis
67.63 points. This is larger than six of the values and it you may be interested in the percentage split of the shots
clearly distorts the data because of the inclusion of the played by the tennis player.
120 points. It is fair to say that a median of 61.5 gives a
true representation of the data.

Case study
Arthur Glenn a rally and were neither winning nor losing shots. This is
the same for the other shots.
Let’s look at the following raw data obtained for the
under 17s Scottish Champion Arthur Glenn in his If we were interested in calculating the percentage of
quarterfinal match. winning volleys, we would calculate:
Shot Shots Points won Points lost 8 winning volleys

23 shots played
× 100
played
Serve 98 5 (Ace) 12* = 35% (rounded up)
Lob 8 3 3 1 Calculate the percentages for each shot played
Volley 23 8 9 (you need the information from the second
Smash 6 5 0
column only). p
2 Calculate Arthur’s most successful and
Backhand drive 143 21 7
unsuccessful shot in terms of the percentages. p
Forehand drive 124 25 13 3 What concerns for a performance analysis
Chip 5 1 1 perspective do you have with the results you
Drive volley 2 2 0
have generated? m
4 How would you represent this percentage
Note that * represents that the point was lost directly data in graphical form and why? m
after a serve was made (return of serve). Also, if you 5 As a coach, how could you use this data to
take the data from the volley it does not add up to 23 (8
and 9) because the other six shots were in the middle of
aid the player in the future? d
organise and examine the collected data

present the information using narrative linked to
Data analysis charts, graphs and tables
process the relevant information and draw
A central component for sports biomechanics is that it conclusions.
includes a level of mathematics through consideration
of data analysis. Therefore, once you have collected your Correlation test
data you will be expected to perform some data analysis. Correlation is a statistical technique that can show
The reason for this is that data analysis allows us to: whether pairs of variables (sets of data) are related and,
if so, how strongly. For example, height and success at
the high jump are related with taller people tending to
be better than shorter people. However there is never
Remember! a golden rule that covers every athlete. Some smaller
athletes will be very good at the long jump, however, the
Data analysis is an important tool for the sports general rule considers that taller athletes will have an
biomechanist as it allows him/her to analyse advantage.
the data in a scientific manner and draw valid
conclusions.

6.1
Data representation
Remember!
The purpose of putting results of your investigations
The most common correlation test is called the into graphs, charts and tables is two-fold. First, it is a
Pearson or product-moment correlation test. visual way to look at the data and see what happened
and make interpretations. Second, it is usually the best
way to show the data to others. Reading lots of numbers
The Pearson correlation test will produce a value that in the text puts people to sleep and does little to convey
ranges from –1 to 1. A negative value means there is a information. The following section will highlight the key
negative relationship between the two sets of data. Table issues relating to data representation.
6.1 will help you with a positive value.
Databases
Value Correlation A database defines a structure for storing information.
0–0.20 None to weak Databases are typically organised into tables that are
collections of related items. You can think of a table as a
0.21–0.40 Weak to moderate
grid of columns and rows. A column defines one piece
0.41–0.60 Moderate to good of data stored in all rows of the table. A row contains one
0.61–0.80 Good to strong item from each column in the table.
0.81–1 Strong to perfect For example, a table might contain the football player’s
name, position, tackles made and other performance
TABLE 6.1 Positive correlation criteria (see example below). Each row, called a data
record, corresponds to one player.
Like all statistical techniques, correlation is only
appropriate for certain kinds of data. Correlation works Player’s Position Tackles Completed Completed Shots
for data in which numbers are meaningful, usually name made short long on
quantities of some sort. passes passes target
R. Gray R Midfield 12 23 4 2
Player Hours of practice per Conversion rate in

Activity week on kicking matches (%)
1 6 87
1 Using a spreadsheet (fx-key in Microsoft Excel®),
calculate the Pearson’s correlation value from the 2 2 77
following data. Table 6.2 represents the hours 3 1 65
of practice performed by penalty kickers in rugby
league and the conversion rate in Super League 4 5 80
matches. 5 5 69
2 Using your value, interpret the correlation 6 3 78
between the two sets of scores.
7 3 74
3 What other factors would you need to consider
8 2 71
when analysing the data in terms of assessing
performance?
TABLE 6.3 Hours of practice and conversion rate

by letters – A, B, C, and so on. The cell is a combination
Key Terms of a letter and a number to identify a particular location
within the spreadsheet, for example A3 (see example).
Database A collection of related information stored
To manoeuvre around the spreadsheet you use the mouse
in a structured format.
or tab key. When the contents of one cell are changed, any
other affected cell is automatically recalculated according
The benefits of using an electronic database are as to the formulas in use. Formulas are the calculations
follows: to be performed on the data. Formulas can be simple,
can store large amounts of data such as sum or average, or they can be very complex. To
easily stored and retrieved use simple formulas like the sum or average (mean) in
easy to update Microsoft Excel® you will need to use the fx button.
can generate tables and graphs using stored data.
Tables
Spreadsheets Within your data representation the use of a table will
A spreadsheet, also known as a worksheet, contains be key to displaying the raw data. It is important to
rows and columns and is used to record and compare understand that you may not display all of your raw data.
numerical biomechanical data. Originally, spreadsheets However, the key data should be displayed in a table
only existed in paper format, but now they are most likely that makes the data easy to view and understand. In
created and maintained through a software program that basic terms, the data table will include a number of rows
displays the numerical information in rows and columns. (horizontal) and columns (vertical).
Computerised spreadsheets are similar to a paper
Tally charts
spreadsheet. The advantage of using computerised
spreadsheets is their ability to update data and perform A tally chart is a great way of recording your raw data,
mathematical calculations extremely quickly. On a when trying to count certain performance criteria in a
computerised spreadsheet, the intersection of a row and real-life sporting performance. A simple tally chart will
a column is called a cell. Rows are generally identified by look like the one below and represents the types of shots
numbers – 1, 2, 3, and so on – and columns are identified played by a tennis player.
Activity
This table gives the highest breaks obtained by a
(1) 71 (9) 53 (17) 4 snooker player (frame numbers in brackets).
(2) 59 (10) 23 (18) 41 1 Calculate the sum, mean and standard deviation
using a spreadsheet for the above data.
(3) 112 (11) 78 (19) 23
2 Produce a tally chart using the information from
(4) 34 (12) 25 (20) 64 the table and put the data into appropriate
categories.
(5) 7 (13) 13 (21) 36
3 Produce a bar chart using the information you
(6) 4 (14) 13 (22) 34 have gathered from your tally chart.
4 Write an interpretation of the calculations and
(7) 77 (15) 98 (23) 13
charts you have made in relation to snooker.
(8) 109 (16) 41 (24) 10 Therefore you are answering the question – what
have we discovered?

6.1
Shot Tally Total Tally success/failure

Backhand drive 16 Graphical representation
Drop shot 3
As you should have gathered by now, when working
Smash 6 with athletes and analysing their performance you will
Lob 2 gather lots of data. This data needs to be represented in
graphical form. You may need to produce a:
pie chart
bar chart
Remember! line graph.
It is important to turn your data into either a chart
When collecting data of a live performance, it is or a graph because it makes the information more
vital that you have your data collection sheets ready manageable and easier to analyse. It is important that you
before the start of data collection, so that you can represent the data in the correct style of chart or graph.
easily record the information. Your choice depends on the data you generate. This
section will help you in producing the appropriate chart
or graph.
Activity Pie charts

A common method used by sports biomechanists to
1 Devise a tally chart that includes five display data is through the use of a pie chart. A pie chart
performance criteria for the sport or activity of is used to display data that is based on percentages. The
your choice. pie chart allows you to look at the various parts and
2 Watch a live performance (on television is fine) make comparisons in relation to size. For example, the
and fill in your tally chart. You can use the tally following data from a boxing match is displayed as a pie
chart on either the team or one individual. chart in relation to the types of punches thrown.
3 Produce a pie chart to show your raw data in
graphical form.
4 Briefly discuss your findings with members of
A pie chart is ideal for showing proportions and can easily
your group. be understood by the athlete
Body shot Hook

10% 16%
Right cross Upper cut

10% 23%
Miss Jab
7% 34%

Bar charts can be displayed horizontally or vertically
and they are usually drawn with a gap between the bars
Activity (rectangles), whereas the bars of a histogram are drawn
immediately next to each other.
1 Produce a pie chart to represent the following
data for Boxer B in round 1: hook 6 percent;
Line graphs
upper cut 13 per cent; jab 35 per cent; miss 17
per cent; right cross 19 per cent; and body shot The most common type of line graph that you may
10 per cent. generate using your raw data will be based on data
in relation to time. A line graph allows you to study
2 Why might a trainer need this type of information
when training a boxer?
information over a specific time period. Therefore you
are able to look for trends (either positive or negative) or
3 From a technical perspective, what performance
specific points of interest (extreme high or low values).
criteria might you be interested in?
This line graph below represents the finishing place in the
4 Which other sport may lend itself to producing constructors’ championship for the UK Racing team in
data that can be displayed in a pie chart? Formula One over the last ten years.
Bar charts Taking it further

A bar chart is a way of summarising a set of categorical 1 Study the line graph below. Describe the trend
data (e.g. a backhand in tennis would be classed as a shown over the last five years.
category). It is often used in data analysis to illustrate 2 Offer suggestions for any high or low points as
the major features of the distribution of the data in a shown by the line graph.
convenient form. It displays the data using a number of
3 Explain in your own words how you think the team
rectangles of the same width, each of which represents a
will do over the next three years based on the
particular category. The length (and hence area) of each information you have been given.
rectangle is proportional to the number of cases in the
4 What factors in your opinion may have influenced
category it represents.
these results over the last ten years in relation to
Formula One racing?
You can identify

short-term or long- 1
term trends using
2
line graphs
3
4
Finishing place
10
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year

6.2
Assessment practice
1 Carry out a case study in which you perform two – represent your data, which could include a
notational analyses on your chosen sport. Within series of tally charts that are then used to
the case study you will need to: produce a number of pie charts.
– clearly show that you have performed two Analyse three components of the sporting
separate analyses on the same athlete or team performance, for example success and failure
on two separate occasions. For example, you rates, for catching, shooting and intercepting for
could analyse the goal shooter in one netball the goal shooter in netball. p 2
team that is playing against the Stockport 2 Extend the work within your case study to show
Sabres this week and against the Sale Snakes that you have compared the performances. The
next week. comparison can be based on looking at the data and
– include your raw data, for example a data representation of the performances. m 1
handwritten table of passes made 3 Evaluate your findings in the case study, commenting
– show evidence of statistical work, for example on their influence on performance within the chosen
you may calculate the percentage of shot sport. d1
success against shots in the match
6.2 Be able to compare a numerical model to sporting

performance
Through this second learning outcome you will be
expected to perform some research into the production
of a numerical model (numerical meaning the inclusion
Key Terms
of numbers), such as the velocity of a sprinter needing Numerical model Involves a number of key
to be above nine metres per second. This model will performance criteria and has quantifiable
either come from literature, an elite-level athlete, or a information, for example speed of 6.5 m/s–1.
specific athlete you have access to. Within the model, if
interested in the shot putter, you will need to consider
three components. For example, velocity of release, In the past, another word used to describe the term
height of release and angle of release. Once you have ‘numerical’ would have been ‘quantitative’ (meaning
designed your model, you will then assess a real-life something quantity). If we can produce a model, then
sporting performance and compare it to your model. This when we assess our sports performer we have something
comparison should allow you to identify strengths and solid to compare against and make valid conclusions.
areas for improvement for the athlete and provide them Here is an example of a basic numerical model (using
with relevant feedback. three performance criteria representing what you need to
do in your assessment).

scientific journals (e.g. The Journal of Sport and
Performance Value Source Reference
Exercise Science).
criteria
magazine articles
Run-up speed 8 m.s–1 Journal Smith and Carter coaching manuals
(2004) fact sheets
Take-off angle 22º Internet www…. newspapers.
Stride length 1.40m Book Jones (2007)
From this example we can identify some golden rules. Think it over
1 You do not have to cover all the performance criteria
of a sport. It is important that the information you use is valid,
2 Only cover the ones that you think are important and reliable and up to date. Working in small groups,
can justify using them. list the advantages and disadvantages of using the
above information sources. Once you have completed
3 Using a combination approach is fine (journal,
this list, discuss the points within the group.
internet and book, etc.)
4 Reference your sources because other sources may
say something else.
Elite-level athlete based
Numerical model Part of your model may come from an elite-level athlete.
For example if you are interested in golf, you may
production use Tiger Woods’ swing as a model for performance.
However, there are many elite golfers who have a different
To produce a model that you can use to assess against the swing to Tiger Woods but they are still successful.
sporting performance of your athlete or team, you will Therefore, you are not trying to find the ‘perfect’ swing,
need to carry out some research. The model should come just a successful swing. Meaning that there are a number
from: of good swings you may consider using.
the literature available to you
an elite-level athlete
a specific athlete (e.g. previous performances) Specific-athlete based
a combination of all these approaches.
The following section will briefly outline these Another option would be to use a previous performance
approaches. from the athlete who you are analysing as the model. This
is a possibility because they may have been successful in
the past but have had a number of poor performances
Literature based recently. Therefore, by using the previous model, you can
assess as to why the performances are now different. For
As sport and exercise science has now become an example, it may be something simple like a tennis player
established area for scientific study, there is a lot of who is not tossing the ball as high as they used to during
research that has taken place in the context of the sports the serve. Therefore, they need to return to their previous
performance. You will be able to find information within technique.
the following:
key textbooks.
internet.

6.2
Combination approach
Key Terms
The final option open to you is to use a combination Linear motion Also known as translation, linear
approach. Therefore, you may select some information motion is where the athlete or object (sports
from a textbook and link this together with the equipment) moves the same distance in the same
performance of an elite-level athlete. time in the same direction, for example a 100m
sprinter.
Remember! In terms of analysing linear motion as a sports

biomechanist, you may be interested in calculating
displacement, speed, linear velocity and linear
A numerical model can be generated through using
acceleration. These will now be discussed.
different approaches.
Taking it further
Some sporting motion is said to rectilinear and
Numerical component curvilinear in nature.
As you have hopefully already noticed, mathematical 1 Through your research, define, explain and provide
principles are fairly integral to sports biomechanics. This sporting examples of these types of movements.
mathematical or numerical component is also contained 2 Describe the difference between the two types of
with specific performance criteria. We have previously motion.
mentioned fairly general performance criteria, such as
crossing or tackling. However, the following performance
criteria are based around numerical principles and can be
used to analyse the sporting performance. Linear displacement
When an object (e.g. a snooker ball) changes its
Linear motion position, regardless of the direction of movement, linear
displacement has taken place.
All sporting movement is classed as being based on As you can see from the diagram on page 00, the ball
linear, angular (involves rotational movement, for has moved from position A to position B and, therefore,
example during a somersault), or a combination of these has been displaced from its original position. Linear
two. Linear motion, also known as translation, is motion displacement such as the 100m sprinter is measured in
where the athlete or object (sports equipment) moves the metres.
same distance in the same time in the same direction.
There are very few types of movement in sport that are
Speed
purely based on linear motion. An athlete sprinting 100m In everyday language we use the terms speed and velocity
is said to be in linear motion (sprinting in a straight line). interchangeably because we believe them to be the same
Although, from your experience, you will realise that you thing. However, from a biomechanical point of view
do not run in a purely linear motion, as you tend to move they are different. Speed is the rate of change of distance
side to side when sprinting down the track. with respect to time and is measured in m/s–1 (metres

True linear motion is difficult to
ascertain due to external factors
B such as swerve
Linear motion
Taking it further
1 Find the current world records
for the 100, 200, 400 and
800m (both men and women) in
A athletics.
2 Calculate the speed of the
athletes.
3 Write a brief discussion on
your findings in terms of
the differences between the
distances and genders.
per second is classed as an SI unit). The formula for We can say that the average speed was 8.86 m/s–1,
calculating speed is: however, this does not give us much information. This is
d because the athlete at the start will be going slower due to
t starting from a stationary position.
where: Although the information calculated for the speed
d = distance in metres of an athlete is rather basic, this may be a numerical
t = time in seconds performance criterion that you consider using for your
Therefore, if a sprinter ran the 100m in 11.29 seconds, we assessment.
would need the following calculation:
Linear velocity
100
11.29 In contrast to speed, linear velocity is the rate of
change of displacement (in metres) with respect to a
= 8.85 m/s–1
specific time period (measured in seconds). The unit of
measurement for linear velocity is also m/s–1. We have
already mentioned the key disadvantage with calculating
Remember! the average speed. However, there is some merit in
calculating the linear velocity at a specific time period.
Numerical components of performance, for example Here is the formula to use:
speed, are given a specific SI unit such as m/s–1. change in displacement (m)
An SI unit is internationally recognised as being the
specific time period (s)
correct unit to use for a specific measurement.

6.2
Let’s look at the following example. A 100m sprinter was Linear acceleration
at the 50 metre-point after 5.78 seconds and then at 60m Once you know the linear velocity of an athlete or object,
after 7.12 seconds. Therefore: then you can calculate the linear acceleration.
10
1.34
= 7.46 m/s–1
Key Terms
Linear acceleration The rate of change of velocity
with respect to time and is measured in m/s–2
Remember! (metres per second).
When reporting figures you should look to report

to two decimal places, as this is good scientific
practice. Therefore, if the athlete’s velocity is increasing, they
will have a positive acceleration value. In comparison,
an athlete who is slowing down will have a negative
In relation to the example above, hopefully you can acceleration value. If we consider the 100m sprinter
see that this provides more useful information because again, we can show how to calculate the linear
we can look at the velocity at different stages of the acceleration of the athlete:
performance. We should be able to identify areas for Velocity at 20m = 3.45 m/s–1
improvement for the athlete. We may discover that the Velocity at 30m = 4.56 m/s–1
sprinter’s linear velocity decreases dramatically after 70m. Therefore, the change in velocity between 20 and 30m
This finding should alert the coach who should then was 1.11 m/s–2 (this being linear acceleration).
concentrate on training the sprinter to maintain their
To pull this together, if you were interested in producing
power during the full performance, not just the first 70m.
a numerical model for the 100m sprinter, you may
Case study Displacement (m) Time (s)

0 0
Investigation into 100m linear sprint velocities 10 1.78
The following displacement data was taken from a 100m sprinter at the 20 3.23
county under-13s trials.
30 4.54
1 Calculate the linear velocities for each 10m interval, for example 40 5.84
between 20 and 30m. p 50 7.02
2 Using graph paper, produce a velocity time curve showing
displacement on the x axis and velocity on the y axis. You will need 60 8.22
to display a line of best fit for your curve.p 70 9.56
3 Based on your curve, interpret the line of best fit in context of the 80 11.00
velocities and the 100m sprinter. m 90 12.60
4 Describe how a coach could use this information for future coaching
100 14.55
sessions. d

consider calculating the velocity and acceleration of the
sprinter coupled with the knee angle joint in degrees
(measurements of joint angles will be discussed later).
Key Terms
Angular motion Rotation that takes place when a
body moves along a circular path.
Angular motion
We have already stated that true linear motion is fairly We can also witness angular motion when watching a
rare within sport and exercise science. In comparison, gymnast who performs a somersault. The gymnast is
angular motion is present in all athletic movements. rotating around an imaginary axis of rotation.
Angular motion can be expressed within the human The calculations for angular motion are more
body as the body segment, for example the arm moving complex than those of linear motion. The following
around a joint (shoulder), thereby rotation is taking section will highlight the key concepts relating to angular
place as with the cricket bowler. motion.
Angular displacement
Angular displacement is the angle that a rotating
body goes through. For example, if a skater skates
in a circle around the centre of the rink, stopping
and starting at the same place, his or her angular
displacement would be 360 degrees. The direction
of the rotation is important. If the skater makes
a counter-clockwise circle, it is a positive 360-
degree displacement. However, if the skater makes
a clockwise circle, it is a negative 360-degree
displacement. Thus, if a skater were to switch
directions and skate half a circle counter-clockwise,
turn around and skate back clockwise, he or
she has displaced positive 180 degrees and then
negative 180 degrees for a total displacement of
zero. Angular displacement is measured in radians
(SI units) or degrees. One radian is equal to 57.3
degrees with 30 degrees being 0.5236 radians.
Angular velocity
Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular
displacement and can be described as the speed
of rotation. The units of angular velocity are most
conveniently given in radians/sec, but can also be
expressed in degrees/sec. This formula is used to
calculate angular velocity.
angle in radians turned through
time taken
Rotation, thereby angular motion, is taking place at

the shoulder joint as the cricketer bowls the ball

6.2
Activity
1 The following raw data has been taken from a 2 Using the data you have calculated in the
gymnast performing a somersault. Using the table above, calculate the angular velocity
examples in the table, fill in the missing raw and average time at each segment in the
data that you will need to calculate the angular table below.
velocity.
Segment of Angular Average time
Angle in Time on the Elapsed Angle in Time for tumbleº velocity/rs–1 at segment/s
degrees film (s) time radians previous
0–30 2.618 0.100
30º or
0.5236r 30–60 2.618 0.300
0 25.70 0.00 60–90
30 25.90 0.20 90–120
60 26.10 0.40 0.5236 0.20 120–150
90 26.20 1.0572 0.20 150–180
120 26.25 180–210
150 26.30 210–240
180 26.35 240–270
210 26.40 270–300
240 26.50 300–330
270 26.60 330–360
300 26.70
330 26.90
360
Angular acceleration Projectile motion

Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular
velocity and is measured in radians/sec/sec, but can also Human athletes such as high jumpers or sports
be expressed in degrees/sec/sec. To calculate the angular equipment such as javelins that are launched into the air
acceleration, you need the following formula: are called projectiles.
v
t
where: Key Terms
v = change in angular velocity Projectiles Subject only to the forces of gravity and
t = time taken air resistance.

Height of release
Activity If the angle and velocity of release are the same for two
shot putters, the athlete who has a greater height of
In groups, identify a list of 20 sports that involve release (see diagram of the shot putter) will have a longer
projectile motion. flight time and, therefore, record a greater distance.
Based on this principle, taller athletes will generally have
an advantage over shorter athletes (although technique,
As a sports biomechanist, it is important that you power, etc. play an important role in performance also).
understand the mechanical principles that are involved
in the flight path or trajectory of the projectile. For some
projectile objects, such as a shot putt, air resistance and Key Terms
lift effects are very limited. However, in comparison,
aerodynamic forces (air resistance and lift effects) play an Height of release The distance from the ground (in
important role in the performance of the discus. Within metres) that the implement leaves the thrower.
this section we will concentrate on objects that are not
affected by aerodynamic forces. The three key parameters
that you need to be aware of are: Velocity of release
angle of release The velocity of release is recorded at the instance of
height of release release (e.g. when the longer jumper leaves the take-off
velocity of release. board). During the flight phase, the projectile will show
constant horizontal velocity (excluding air resistance as
Angle of release discussed).
The angle of release is defined as the angle between
the projectile’s velocity vector and the horizontal at
the instant of release or take off (see diagram above).
Different sports require different angles of release. Sports Remember!
that require maximum horizontal distance, such as the
long jump, have smaller angles. In comparison, sports
In throwing events distance depends on a variety of
like the high jump where height is key, then the angle is factors. The angle at which the athlete can achieve
larger. the optimal acceleration to his/her arm. The release
height, release velocity and release angle.
Taking it further B
Through your research you should answer the

following questions. These will extend your knowledge 2m
of the projectile motion.
1 What is the optimum angle of release for the shot
putt and the long jump?
2 Name three ways in which an athlete can improve
A Time 0.2 secs (A to B)
their performance during the long jump. ∴ 2m
———
3 What does the term ‘parabolic shape of flight’ 0.2 secs = 10m/s–1
mean?
To calculate the velocity of release, you should measure
4 Draw a parabolic shape and explain the the displacement over a given time (see the example on
relationship with gravity. the diagram)

6.2
Angle of attack
The angle of attack is the difference between the path of Activity
flight of the javelin’s (for example) centre of mass, and the
actual position of the centre point of the javelin during Using your research, complete the following table.
flight (see diagram). You can refer to this table in the future to ensure you
are using the correct measurement of movement.
A Performance criteria Unit of measurement

B Linear displacement
Center of mass
Linear velocity
Angular displacement
Angular velocity
Angle of release
Angle of attack
Height of release
The lift, which is caused by the angle of attack is a Velocity of release
projectile motion variable along with gravity and air
resistance
The smaller this difference, the better, because a large

angle of attack means the javelin will stall in the air. Range of movement
Studies have shown that javelins are launched at about Successful technique and, therefore, performance is
30° to the horizontal with an ‘angle of attack’ of about 7° based on the athlete performing the correct movements
– in other words, the javelin is tilted 7° more steeply than at specific joints, for example flexion and extension. As
the direction traced by its centre of mass, to maximise a sports biomechanist, you can analyse the range (in
performance. The angle of attack influences both the degrees) of the movement during the performance, for
javelin’s ‘lift’, which acts perpendicularly to its direction of example you may consider:
motion, and the drag, which acts parallel to it. elbow extension during the shot putt
knee extension during a shot in football
hip rotation during the golf swing.
Remember! Centre of gravity
The centre of gravity is an imaginary point at which the
The angle of attack is the difference between the
weight of an object (e.g. the athlete) can be considered to
path of flight of the centre of mass and the angle of
act.
the javelin to the ground.
Key Terms
Measurement of movement
Centre of gravity The ‘balance point’ of any object
When we measure the athlete’s or equipment’s movement and is the point in the object about which its weight
is evenly distributed, as you can see with the picture
it is important to use the correct measurements of
of the athlete.
movement, for example linear velocity is measured in
metres/second.

Limb angles and goniometry draw the lines of the two relevant bones. You should then
Direct measurement of joint angles can be made using be able to record the angle using a protractor.
a goniometer, which is normally plastic or metal and
comes in different sizes depending on the joint which
requires assessment. The goniometer can measure the Methodology
range of motion at a joint. The centre of the goniometer When you have decided which performance criteria
is placed at the axis of rotation of the joint. The arms of you are interested in assessing, you may have to record
the goniometer (similar to a basic ruler) are lined up with the image(s). This will allow you to take the data from
the long axis of the specified bones. After the athlete has the recording after the performance. This is important
made the movement, the change in position is recorded because, as the tester, you will not always be able to
by measuring the angle in degrees on the goniometer. record all the data at once because sport is dynamic and
Although this method can provide a precise reading in fast moving.
terms of degrees, it is difficult for the tester to determine If you are using a digital camera or a camera that takes
the axis of rotation or joint centre. still photographs, there are some basic fundamentals to
You may want to use this type of measuring when you filming that you must be aware of. These are discussed
are looking at specific joint angles for technical activities below.
such as:
knee joint during the golf swing
shoulder joint during the tennis serve Recording
elbow joint when playing a snooker shot.
Another method to measure a joint angle (although this Two dimensional (2D)
is not as accurate) is to record the image and then take It is more than likely that you will be recording your
the reading off the display. The angle, in basic terms, can athlete using two-dimensional filming in your school
be gained through using an acetate and marker pen to or college in comparison to three-dimensional filming
Remember!
It is important you consider
issues relating to recording
images such as scaling
because failure to do so
will cause you to generate
inaccurate data.
Most sports are dynamic and fast

and need recording so you can
generate the raw data after the
performance

6.2
because it: technology. Within sports biomechanics, if you are

is quicker to record the images recording an athlete’s performance, you are likely to be
is faster to extract the relevant data from the images producing digital images by using either a digital camera
requires less sophisticated software or digital camcorder.
requires less technical and mathematical knowledge.
Two-dimensional filming allows you to film the athlete
with consideration of the width and height of the image Key Terms
but not the depth.
Digital image A picture made up of pixels and
To get the most accurate and valid images, it is important
recorded as data.
that you consider issues such as scaling your image (see
page XX). First, here is a checklist to help you with the
filming.
Measuring
Book your camera with the appropriate person in Horizontal scaling

college/school well in advance of needing it.
Before you start filming it is vital that you scale the field
Make sure you have a fully-charged battery, spare of view. The field of view is the area that will be filmed
battery (if possible) or external power supply that contains the sporting action.
(if you can access a power socket), and the
In the case of a long jumper, we are simply interested
instruction booklet for the camera.
in the run up. Before you film you will need to record
Check that you have all the fittings to attach your a tester holding a one-metre rule in the field of view to
camera to the tripod.
scale the image.
Be sure that you will not erase anybody else’s film
from the tape.
Remember the label on your film cassette so you
can find it later. Remember!
Set the shutter speed to at least 1/1000 s.
Don’t forget to film your scaling in the same plane
Use auto focus with the subject in the plane of as the movement after you have switched to manual
movement and then switch to manual focus so focus.
that it doesn’t change during the movement.
Be sure that your camera is firmly on the tripod
and doesn’t move at all during filming or between
filming and calibrating. Once you have scaled your image do not move the
camera or use the manual focus as the scaling will be
Switch off the camera when not in use to save
incorrect and will lead to invalid data. The scaling will
batteries.
allow you to take measurements off the playback and
Make sure you view your film to make sure it is convert them to real-life measurements. For example, if
there before packing up. we are interested in the stride length of the long jumper,
we can calculate that:
1m (real life) = 2 cm on screen – therefore we have
Digital images recorded that the stride length on screen is 2.5 cm. Using
Over the last five years there has been a significant the scaling process means the real-life stride length was
change in technology with the introduction of digital 1.25 metres.

Vertical reference As you can see in the diagram above, we would need to
The principle of the vertical reference is the same as the film the athlete going through all the points at ten-metre
horizontal scaling. However, this is in the vertical plane intervals. However, for example at the 80m point the
and may be useful in activities based around vertical camera is not in a direct line with the athlete. Therefore,
movement, for example the high jump. it is very difficult to say exactly when the athlete reaches
the 80m point. In this case, it is hard to resolve the
Perspective error problem unless you have more sophisticated equipment
When filming your athlete there is always a chance that (an automated mobile camera that runs alongside the
your recording may have an element of perspective error sprinter). Therefore, it is important that you keep the
because you are filming a dynamic action. This is best dynamic action in your field of view and only take a
explained through consideration of the 100m sprinter. sample of the performance.
We may be interested in recording the time at ten-metre
intervals, with the camera positioned at the 50m point.
The wrong position when filming
will produce invalid data meaning
10m 20m 30m 40m 50m 60m 70m 80m 90m it is worthless
S F
T I
A r N
er ro I
R
c tive S
T
rspe
Pe H
100m sprint Camera at 50m = cone
Assessment practice
The local coach who works with the county shot • Raw data results.
putter has asked you to analyse the performance • Comparison of performance with evidence from
of the shot putter as there has been a decrease in the literature.
performance recently. The coach wants you to analyse
the following performance criteria: You will need to use either a local shot
putter for data collection or another group
• height of release member. p3
• angle of release 2 To expand your knowledge, include the following
• angle of joint (elbow) on release. section within the report:
1 You are to produce a small report that includes • An explanation and justification of the
the following sections: methodology you used to collect the data from
• Evidence from the literature that details the the shot putter.
optimum height of release, angle of release Therefore you will need to consider issues such
and elbow joint angle. as horizontal scaling. m2
• Outline of basic methodology to collect raw
data.

6.3
6.3 Be able to compare a technical model to sporting

performance
There are clear similarities between this learning
outcome, which looks at technical modelling, and the
previous numerical-based learning outcome in terms of Remember!
the way you gather your raw data. As with the previous
learning outcome, you will need to produce a model,
As with previous criteria within this unit, we will
however, this will be from a technical perspective. look at the technical performance criteria using a
Although there will be some numerical elements within variety of sports. It is important to remember that
this learning outcome, the central element is based principles highlighted in this section can be used for
around the technique of the performance. a number of sports.
You will need to produce a four-component technical
model. For example, if your sport is cricket, you may
look at the technical aspects of balance, grip, stance, and Specific athlete (e.g. past performances).
striking of the ball if your specialist area is batting. As Combination approach.
before, you will need to identify strengths and areas for For a review of these terms, see page XX.
improvement for athletes and provide them with relevant Within your assessment you will need to produce and use
feedback. a technical component using four performance criteria,
for example in boxing:
balance
Technical model stance
coordination
production body position.
The key concepts of model production from a technical

perspective are the same as numerical modelling. Qualitative biomechanics
However, the key difference is the type of information
you are seeking to discover. You are looking at the Within your research you are likely to come across the
technique used by the athlete and, in most cases, do term ‘qualitative’. This term is used in conjunction with
not consider numerical aspects. For example, you may the technical aspects of the performance. The following
investigate components such as: are examples of qualitative statements in relation to sport.
balance When taking the shot the golfer used too much
footwork rotation around the trunk causing the ball to hook.
stance. In the flight phase of the long jump there was too
To recap, you will need to produce a model for your much forward rotation, which reduced the distance
assessment and can generate evidence from the following jumped.
sources of information. When serving in tennis the player is striking the ball
Literature. cleanly at the sweet spot of the racket.
Elite-level athlete.

their head down when shooting. Although there is no
Key Terms statistical data to support this, the coach has years of
experience, which can provide valid information. As a
Qualitative biomechanics This term is descriptive sports biomechanist, the more you analyse performance
in nature and is generally not based on numerical
the easier you will find it to make subjective comments.
information.
Descriptive Technical component

The following section will now highlight key
When you are analysing the sports performance within performance criteria you may use when producing your
the technical perspective you will need to describe the technical model.
sporting performance based on either strengths or areas
for improvement.
Body position
Activity One of the most important aspects from a technical

perspective is the body position of the athlete. If you
Using your research, provide a description of five consider the golf swing, which is highly technical at every
key technical aspects of performance for one of the stage, it is paramount that every stage is coordinated and
following movements: executed in the correct manner.
• tennis serve
• golf shot
• catching technique in cricket Theory into practice
• shooting technique in netball.
In small groups, design a leaflet that demonstrates
the correct body position of a sporting movement of
your choice. You should look to:
• include relevant diagrams
Subjective
• use technical language
When assessing performance based on the athlete’s • break the sporting movement down into smaller
technique you will be, in most cases, giving your logical movements
subjective opinion. • use your anatomy knowledge to describe the key
body parts used in the movement.
Key Terms
Subjective Within this context, subjective means
Footwork
that the analysis is based on opinions rather than
numerical information.
The way a player moves on the court determines how
successful he/she can be as a tennis player. Tennis
This is same approach that a coach may use to comment performance depends upon quick bursts of speed
on the performance of an athlete. For example, a football interspersed with variations of fast lateral and side-to-
coach may inform a player that they should keep side movements. It also depends on the player’s ability to

6.3
make necessary adjustments as he/she gets to the ball so Grip

as to maintain balance throughout the stroke. Statistics
have shown that 70 per cent of missed or poorly hit shots
In some sports, one important technical aspect that may
are due to poor footwork. In tennis it’s not necessarily
influence the performance of the athlete is the grip. The
how fast you are it’s how fast you are relative to the ball.
grip is important for the golfer and the javelin thrower.
The following components are important for footwork in
tennis and can be analysed using descriptive terms: The importance of placing the hands in the correct
position on the golf club cannot be over exaggerated.
starting position when ball is struck
There is no such thing as the perfect grip, but there are
acceleration to the ball
certain factors when holding the club in an orthodox
agility
way that have proved to be successful for the majority of
balance
players.
stride length
stride frequency. It is important that a V is formed on the right hand by
the thumb and lower section of the forefinger, pointing
For a discussion on stride length and frequency see page
between the chin and the right shoulder and only two
XX.
knuckles are visible on the left hand to the player.
Balance
Balance is one of the key basic skills needed in practically Activity

every sport and exercise activity. From football to
cricket, changing your centre of gravity to match your In groups, identify six other sports where grip is an
moves is the key to shot/move execution. Balance is very important performance criterion. Explain why.
important for another component of fitness, namely
agility. Agility is what allows us to move gracefully and
maintain the correct body shape, wasting little energy.
It allows our joints to move through the full range of
motion smoothly. There are two types of balance that Taking it further
we may be interested in – static balance and dynamic
One of the sports you may have identified may have
balance. been tennis. Within tennis there are different types of
grips. Through research, describe the similarities and
differences between the following grips:
Key Terms • full eastern backhand
Static balance When the athlete is still, for • eastern backhand
example during the hold stage of the handstand.
• continental
Dynamic balance Required for all movements
• semi-western forehand
within sport and, for example, stops a rugby player
falling over when they side step the opposition. • western forehand.
In respect of assessing the balance of the performer you

should look to carry out an observational assessment. Stance
If assessing a tennis player, you should look at their
coordination and balance when making difficult shots In martial arts, such as Judo, and combat sports, such as
such as the smash or volley. boxing, the stance (position of the body, particularly the

feet) of the athlete is paramount. These types of sports 9 Elbows should be tucked in comfortably to offer
require good balance and coordination, combined with protection to the ribs.
the optimal stance. Failure to do so will result in a loss of 10 The chin is dropped towards the chest; the opponent
balance, which will give the opponent a big advantage. should be watched through the eyebrows.
Within boxing, the most important factor when
considering the stance is perfect balance, enabling the
boxer to move quickly and smoothly, to shift the weight Passing
constantly from one leg to another and, thus, punch
effectively. Although passing is a general technical term, each
The stance recommended is flexible and allows a boxer to sport will use a different action to complete a pass. For
attack or defend, move in or out, lead or counter punch. example, a pass in football is very different to one in
The key elements are as follows. rugby.
1 The left foot is flat on the floor and
turned inwards slightly.
2 Both legs are bent slightly the left
Activity
is relatively straight, but the knee is
To support your own knowledge within the sport of
not locked.
your choice, research the passing technique. Look
3 The right foot should be offset to to support your research notes with simple diagrams
the right of the midline of the body that will aid you in the future. Make sure you have
to afford a firm base. the technical points included in your research.
4 The right heel is raised with the
right knee bent and weight taken on
the ball of the foot.
6 The left side of the body forms an Kicking
approximate straight line with the
left leg. Trunk should be kept as The following six key stages detail a kicking action, which
upright as possible to allow the hips is general in nature to football, rugby league and union,
and shoulders to pivot plus many others. Within each sport, a variety of kicking
when punching. As the boxer tires, you
can see changes in the styles has evolved to suit different ball types, game rules
6 The body weight is technique, which will be and the part that kicking plays in the game. We can break
evenly distributed detrimental to performance the kick action into six stages:
between both feet and the approach
acts through an imaginary line running through the planting of standing foot
centre of the trunk, which acts as the pivot. start of movement (kicking foot)
7 The left hand is carried, loosely clenched about hip flexion and knee extension (kicking foot)
shoulder height in front of the body, the distance foot contact with ball
from the body is entirely personal, and the elbow is follow-through.
tucked in comfortably.
8 The right hand is carried with the palm open
towards the opponent at shoulder height, directly in
front of the right shoulder.

6.3
Move your arms as little as possible when you release

the ball.
Theory into practice End your shot standing on tiptoes with your arms
following through towards the ring.
Within your group you are going to produce an
information booklet on kicking technique that a
coach could use in a coaching session. The book is
Throwing
to be six pages long, with each page representing
one of the six stages of the kick. Divide into pairs,
Throwing is a central component for many sports such
with each pair producing one page. Within your
stage you should have the following pieces of as cricket, American football, football, etc. Due to the
information: differences in the ball being thrown, in addition to
the reason for throwing, there are different techniques
• diagram of the stage
required for the varying sports. Within cricket, throwing
• body part: for example, trunk is a key aspect of fielding and leads to run outs and can
• action: for example, flexion also save runs for the fielding side.
• muscles used: for example, hamstrings
• technical information: for example, head over
ball.
Shooting
Unlike other sports, in netball only two players are

allowed to shoot at the basket. Therefore, it is a very
specialist position that requires a good level of technical When assessing throwing technique you should also
consider the accuracy and speed of the throw
ability to shoot. The key technical points are as follows.
Keep your balance, find your aim and use your whole The technical basics for throwing the ball in cricket are as
body to make the shot. follows.
Stay focused: do not let the crowd or opposition put
Once the ball is in your throwing hand, stand
you off.
sideways to the wickets.
Have a clear view of the ring.
Pull the throwing hand so it is behind your head.
Stand with your feet shoulder width apart and keep
Aim your non-throwing hand at the wickets.
your body straight.
Push the throwing arm through, keeping the elbow
Balance the ball on the fingertips (similar to
joint at a similar height as the shoulder joint.
basketball) of one hand and use your other hand to
Turn the chest to the target and release the ball from
steady it.
a firm standing position.
Bend your knees.
Keep your back straight and your head up. As you
prepare to release the ball, drop your hands back Catching
behind your head.
Try and focus on a point at the back rather than the Catching a ball can often be a difficult task due to a
front of the ring, and let the ball go at the same time variety of factors.
as you straighten your legs.

Fielding
Think it over
Within cricket, fielding is as important as batting and
In your group, try to produce a list of the factors that bowling. In the field it is important that you attack the
make catching a ball difficult. ball. By ‘attacking’ the ball you come towards the ball if
it is hit to you, rather than standing still and waiting for
it. If you can do this, it puts more doubt in the batsman’s
You have hopefully produced a list that has a variety mind. As the bowler is running in about to bowl, you
of factors, ranging from lack of experience to weather as the fielder should start walking in from a few steps
conditions. However, if you have the correct technique, behind your original fielding position. When the bowler
regardless of these factors, you will increase your chance releases the ball, a good idea is to stop and ‘spring’ with
of success. One of the most difficult balls to catch in sport your knees. This allows you to transfer your weight off
is the high kick in rugby. It is still an important skill every either foot, enabling you to react to the left or the right.
rugby player should learn. The main technique used to stop balls along the ground
As it is likely that the opposition will be surrounding you, is called the ‘long barrier’. This occurs when your body
you will need to catch the ball in the air. Before you leave forms a ‘barrier’ behind the ball, giving the fieldsman the
the ground you should take a look at the surrounding best chance of stopping the ball. Make sure you keep your
area so that you are aware of what is going on. You should eye on the ball right up until the point it reaches you, as it
bear in mind the following technical points. could be costly. The long barrier is demonstrated below.
Call for the ball so that another player from your
team does not jump for it.
Get into a direct line with the ball’s path (this will be
difficult when the wind is blowing).
Start to reach out your arms towards the direction of
the ball.
Bend your elbows slightly – to ready yourself for the
impact of the ball.
Make sure you are side on – to soften the blow from
an oncoming tackle.
Catch the ball at or above eye level then bring the ball
into your hands, then your body – so that it is less
likely to be knocked from your body (when back on
the ground).
Remember!
The key element in catching any ball is to keep your
eyes on the ball at all times. Often overlooked, fielding is just as important as batting
and bowling in determining success or failure

6.3
Batting Activity
In cricket there are many shots that require a high level Working in pairs, design an A3 poster that illustrates
of technical ability, for example a forward defensive four cricket shots. Explain in basic terms the correct
shot. The aim of this shot is to put the bat in front of technique (as per the forward defensive shot already
the wicket, so as to stop the ball from hitting the wicket. discussed). This poster could be displayed in your
This shot has no strength behind it, usually played with a sports hall to help beginners with their technique for
light or soft bottom-hand grip and merely stops the ball either indoor or outdoor cricket.
moving towards the wicket. The basic technical points are
as follows.
The head and front shoulder should lean into the line
of the ball. Striking
The front leg should stride towards the pitch of the
ball, bending to take the weight. The term ‘striking’ tends to relate to sports such as
The back leg remains straight. rounders or baseball. This is because the player strikes the
ball (usually as far as possible, however, sometimes it is to
a specific area of the field of play to gain an advantage).
Striking the ball with a bat requires good hand-eye
coordination.
Taking it further
In small groups, carry out some research to answer
the following.
1 Describe the correct technique for striking a ball in
rounders or baseball.
2 Identify other sports that require good hand-eye
coordination.
3 Describe how an athlete can improve their hand-
eye coordination.
4 Explain how your hand-eye coordination decreases
with age.
As with many sporting activities, the head position in Dribbling

batting is a vital technical component
As previously mentioned in relation to dribbling, there
The bat should swing down and make contact with must be an end product, for example a shot at the goal
the ball beneath the eyes. or basket depending on the sport. From a technical
The face of the bat should be angled towards the perspective, the key elements for dribbling in basketball
ground. are as follows.
Spread your fingers evenly and cup your hand over
the basketball (it’s almost like you are trying to palm

the basketball, however, your palm does not touch
the basketball).
The only parts of your hand that touch the basketball
Case study
are the bases and seams of the fingers.
As you dribble the basketball, keep your upper body Relationship between stride length and stride
fairly steady while moving your forearm up and frequency with athletic performance
down as you push the basketball to the floor Millie aged 19 has recently been selected to join
with a wrist snap. a national squad for athletics in her discipline of
Dribble the basketball by 100m. As part of the whole training package, a sports
pushing it down to the floor, biomechanist working with a coach has calculated her
then lower your hand to speed. The results are as follows:
receive the basketball (suck stride length × stride frequency = average speed
it off the floor). 1.45 × 6 = 8.70 metres per second
When the basketball
touches your hand, raise
1 Calculate Millie’s total time for the 100m. p
your forearm slightly 2 Based on her coach’s instructions, Millie now
to absorb the dribbling sprints the 100m using a stride length of 1.25m
pressure. Release but her stride frequency is 7. Calculate Millie’s
the basketball as you new average speed. p
push it down again. 3 How has this changed Millie’s overall time? m
Move forward
on the balls 4 What are the possible problems of changing
of your feet Millie’s technique in terms of stride length? m
and bend your 6 Based on your knowledge of sport and
knees to maintain exercise science, what other areas could Millie’s
your balance. coach consider in trying to improve
As with other high-technical skills,
Keeping your you should always consider the her performance? d
body over the outcome of the dribble such as a
ball will help to completed pass
shield it from your
opponents.
Theory into practice

Stride length and frequency
In groups, use a video or digital camera at your
As previously mentioned in relation to the sprinting college or school to calculate the stride length and
technique, two key elements are the stride length and frequency of six 100m athletes. You should look to
stride frequency. These will now be discussed. Stride calculate their average speed and total time (this can
length is defined as the distance the athlete covers with be done separately by using a stopwatch). Based on
each stride (measured in metres). In comparison, stride your data, does there seem to be an optimal stride
frequency is the number of strides made in a specific length or stride frequency for performance? Discuss
time (one second). The following case study should help your findings within your group.
you understand these key elements.

6.3
Run up
Remember!
Within track and field there is a number of jumping
events such as long, triple, high jump and the pole vault Although some events like the high jump are
technical in nature, when evaluating them they can
where there are five clear phases to the performance.
also contain numerical information, for example run
These stages are as follows:
up speed.
run up
take off
flight phase
landing phase Due to the scope of this unit, the discussion will only
recovery phase. centre on the long jump in relation to the five phases
identified previously. However, you should be aware that
To make the performance successful the athlete must
key elements described in conjunction to the long jump
execute all five phases correctly with a good level of
are also applicable to the other events named, for example
transition between the stages. Therefore, these events are
body position at take off. The key aim for the long jump is
described as being highly technical – meaning that from
to obtain the greatest horizontal distance possible without
a biomechanical perspective the athlete may have poor
making a foul jump. This section will now discuss the key
technique in one phase, which may have a knock-on
technical aspects (highlighting numerical factors where
effect with the other stages.
possible).
The five phases of the high jump can also be used in In terms of the run up, it would be fair to say that the
conjunction with the triple jump athlete with the greatest sprinting speed would have
a huge advantage. Yet, this is
not always the case because
the run up depends on other
factors, although, as the sports
biomechanist, you may consider
the run up speed (refer back
to page XX explaining how to
calculate this).
From a technical perspective you
should look for:
stride consistency during the
sprinting stage (excluding the
last three to four strides)
a trunk which is brought
upright (or close to upright)
during these last three to four
strides
a lowered centre of gravity in
the final few strides (see the
discussion for centre of gravity
on page XX)
increased stride length of
the second to last stride
(numerical)

When assessing body position, you should
consider the different joint angles
a decreased stride on the last stride (numerical) 7 Finish – dip for the line at the appropriate point.
accuracy at tale-off (numerical). Within the seven phases there are key technical features,
as you can see from the examples.
Taking it further
1 In small groups, research the run up requirements
for a triple jumper by identifying the key elements. Activity
2 After the research, present your findings to the
1 Within small groups, use your research to
rest of the group. Try to draw on any similarities or
produce a checklist based on technique for each
differences with the long jump technique.
phase (each phase should have a least four
performance criteria).
2 Record a 100m sprinter and compare their
performance with your checklist. Once you have
Sprinting the comparison, produce a list of strengths and
areas of weakness and provide feedback to the
Sprinting is a key aspect of many team sports, for athlete.
example as with the football winger who sprints after the
ball to make a cross. However, the technique for sprinting
in athletics (100m, 200m, etc.) is completely different and
requires special consideration. The sprinting technique
can be split into seven separate phases: Take off
1 Pre-race start – block position.
2 On your marks – fingers behind the line. In respect of the take off, the athlete wants to gain vertical
3 Set position – eyes focused on the track. lift while retaining as much as possible the vertical speed
4 Go – driving of the arms. he or she has generated during the run up stage. When
6 Acceleration – face and neck muscles relaxed. looking to assess the performance you should look for
6 Drive – on the balls of your feet. the following points at the take off stage.

6.3
Should be a heel strike (for the take off foot) – for

most athletes.
The take off leg should show some flexion at the hip,
Activity
knee and ankle joints for cushioning the high impact.
Design an A3 poster to be displayed at your local
Centre of gravity should move from behind to over
athletics club. Using pictures and simple text,
the take-off point.
demonstrate the differences between the three flight
Lead leg, coupled with the arms at take off, should techniques. In your poster you should try to identify
drive in an explosive upward motion. the key biomechanical performance criteria that you
Height of take off (numerical). may be interested in assessing.
Angle of take off (numerical).
Speed at take off (numerical).
Landing
Release phase and flight
As in most sports, the difference between winning and
During this key phase it is vital that the athlete maintains losing is very small and, in this case, centimetres make
the optimum body position. Due to the take off or release the difference. A few centimetres can be gained or lost
phase (released from the take off board) the athlete, due to the landing phase. When considering the landing
to some extent, will be fighting forward rotation. The phase you should look for the following.
forward rotation will have the effect of bringing the legs In the last stages of the flight phase the athlete should
back underneath the athlete and therefore, when landing, lean forward as this raises the legs.
will reduce the horizontal distance. Knee flexion at the landing point for shock
absorption.
After landing the athlete should push their head
forward to aid forward rotation (so they do not fall
backwards into the pit).
Recovery phase
Although a small phase in terms of importance in

comparison to the other four phases, it is important
the athlete is aware of the importance of the recovery
process. After landing has taken place the athlete should
leave the pit without making a mark (before the landing
mark). The rules state that if the athlete fell back into the
pit towards the take off board, then the mark made would
Due to a lack of coordination and technique, beginner be recorded as the final distance.
athletes will often over-rotate when jumping
As with other track and field events, there are different Motion of centre of gravity
techniques that the athlete may use to maximise
performance during the flight phase. These being the sail, To recap, objects with a low centre of gravity seem to
hitch kick and the hang. have better balance and are more difficult to tip over. In
sports, a low centre of gravity will help an athlete to stay
upright.

The ‘balance point’ of any object is its centre of gravity.
The centre of gravity is the point in the object about Taking it further
which its weight is evenly distributed.
Using your knowledge, combined with your research,
answer the following questions.
1 Explain why Formula One cars are designed to
have a low centre of gravity.
2 Explain why rugby wingers benefit from having a
lower centre of gravity when opponents are trying
to tackle them.
3 Explain why 100m sprinters should try to minimise
the vertical motion of their centre of gravity.
Centre of
gravity
Assessment practice
You are to produce an A3 poster that shows the
correct techniques required for netball.
1 On the poster, include the performance criteria
of passing, shooting, catching and balance. The
poster will need to include both diagrams and
supporting text. You should then film a netball
player and compare their technical performance
with your poster. You should include your findings
Mathematically, it is difficult to calculate the centre of
gravity, however, you can estimate its position
on your poster. p4
2 On the back of the poster, to expand your
knowledge, you may wish to include an explanation
When studying the motion of any object, we can assume
and justification of the methodology you used to
that it acts as if all its weight were concentrated at its
collect the data from the netball. Therefore, you will
centre of gravity. need to consider issues such as horizontal scaling
and the choice of performance criteria. m2

6.4
6.4 Be able to provide feedback on performance to an

athlete or team
This last learning outcome aims to pull together all the From the following diagram you can see the role of
key components of the unit. The focus is centred on the feedback in the whole coaching or training process.
feedback you provide to the athlete and addresses issues This section will now discuss the key elements to the
such as confidentiality and clarity of information. To process of preparing and delivering feedback.
complete the analysis with the athlete or team, which
you have performed in the other learning outcomes,
you will consider the future action required to improve
performance. Within this future action you will need to Feedback
set goals and consider specific training techniques. The feedback that you provide to the athlete or coach can
Regardless of the quality of the biomechanical testing or take a number of forms, these being:
notational analysis you have carried out, it is the quality verbal
of the feedback that you provide that will determine the written
usefulness of your investigations. text based
numerical
tabular
graphical or chart based
linked to supporting literature.
Remember!
It is also paramount to understand that some feedback
The feedback is the most important aspect to
may be presented immediately after the performance and
the coach or athlete, as it allows them to set some at the next training session.
appropriate goals for the future.
Confidentiality
Aims and objectives
of traing/performance Those involved in collecting data have a duty of
confidentiality to their athletes. They should ensure
any personal information such as test results are stored
in a secure place. This information, for example mean
Change Training programme
calculation of shot success, should remain confidential
and should not be discussed with other athletes. It
is also recommended that when working in a sports
Evaluation
process biomechanics environment, data collectors should have
a policy on confidentiality included in their contract of
Feedback and results Performance employment.
Many athletes never improve their performance because they do

Biomechanical analysis not complete the evaluation process

areas for improvement (weaknesses). When identifying
the strengths you must always consider:
Activity
past performances: look for a pattern or profile
the influences on performance such as motivation
As the data collector, you will hold a great deal of
client information such as home phone number, separating the individual’s strengths from the team’s
which must be kept safe and confidential. strengths
the ability of the athlete and competition.
In small groups, produce a list of the types of
information you must keep confidential.
Areas for improvement
Under the Data Protection Act 1998 your athlete has As with the strengths, you need to consider the above
a right to have inaccurate data corrected, destroyed, points for the areas for improvement. However, you may
blocked or erased, and may seek compensation for any consider prioritising them. You will need to consider
damage or distress caused by you by such inaccuracy. which ones need to be addressed first because they have
Inaccurate data means information that is incorrect or the biggest influence in performance.
misleading about any matter of fact.
Positive and negative feedback

The Act also governs the way in which you may use the
personal information given to you, and your athlete has
the right to require you to stop, or not to begin, using
An integral part of providing feedback is that there will
their personal information for direct marketing purposes.
be positive and negative elements. When providing
verbal positive and negative feedback you should
Appropriate language consider the following golden rules.
When you are providing feedback to the athlete, whether Positive feedback
written or verbal, it is important you use appropriate Give it straight away whenever possible – to
feedback. maximise the effect.
Be specific – for example, don’t say you did well;
say that your shot accuracy improved on the
Remember! previous performance.
Follow it up with written feedback adding more
Don’t baffle the client with science or technical detail to the feedback.
jargon – unless he or she understands these terms
Negative feedback
– as this is likely to confuse the issue. For example,
say ‘most popular’ rather than ‘mode’. Find a private place so that the discussion is
not made public.
Once again, make it specific to cover actual
For further guidance on providing feedback please performance criteria.
review pages XX–XX. You create an immediate barrier when you
criticise the person. Focus instead on what you
want to change. Focus on their performance.
Strengths
Follow it up with written feedback, which
includes an action plan so the athlete feels they
When providing the feedback to the athlete or coach you can move forward.
will need to make a distinction between the strengths and

6.4
Don’t baffle the client with science or technical jargon

Clarity of information – unless he or she understands these terms – as this
is likely to confuse the issue. For example, say ‘most
Within your analysis you will be producing a great deal popular’ rather than ‘mode’.
of information, which you will need to pass on to the Remember to link the results of your data collection
athlete or coach. It is important that the information you to any factors that may have influenced them, for
produce is clear. You should avoid using large amounts of example time of day.
text because the key features will not be clear. You should If the athlete is part of a team, it is important that you
look to use: not only discuss the results based on the individual,
tables graphs but also mention the links to team performance.
charts diagrams If the results are poor, be ready to suggest other ways
bullets points headings. of improving performance. For example, suggest
possible coaching points they may want to consider.
Written
Written feedback to athletes can be produced in a

number of formats. However, as with verbal feedback, Assessment practice
it must remain simple and easy to understand and be
applicable to the specific athlete or team. You can show Based on the results you have obtained previously,
a comparison of the athlete’s data against other athlete deliver feedback verbally to a fellow member of
data (if permission has been given), either in a graph your group taking into account the above guidance
or a table. Graphs and tables can be generated through points. The person receiving the feedback should
a computer programme, which will then provide a write down some strengths and weaknesses to aid
results profile for the athlete/team to show strengths and both of you in the future.
5
p
weaknesses.
Evidence based
Remember!
When you have analysed your results either using
When providing written feedback that include quantitative methods (statistics) or qualitative methods
statistics it is important you describe what the
(description of performance) you will need to make
statistics mean to the athlete. Numbers alone can
your conclusions evidence based. It is important that
mean nothing without interpretation.
to support the athlete in their future coaching sessions
or performances you base your information on valid
information. Your job is to link the results to relevant
Verbal evidence that may come from:
scientific journals
The information you have gained from the data collection biomechanical/coaching textbooks
should be given to the athlete as either verbal or written valid internet sites
feedback. There are a few basic guidelines to follow when previous performances from your athlete
giving verbal feedback. data from elite-level athletes.
Ensure the feedback is given in a quiet environment
with no distractions, as some information may be
confidential and personal.

Athlete/coach friendly Factors influencing per formance
When providing feedback to the athlete or coach it is
All athletes regardless of their level will have training
important that you make the information friendly and
or competition days when their performance levels will
easy to understand. Therefore, you should consider the
drop. There are a variety of factors that may influence
following points.
their performance and thereby your biomechanical
Consider the use of language – avoid using over- investigation. The following points will highlight
technical points unless the athlete and coach are used these possible factors and their role in influencing
to this level of technicality. biomechanical performance.
Provide the feedback in stages and break it down
– avoid too much information in one session.
Avoid excessive amounts of text and numbers – use
sparingly by using the key information only. Theory into practice
Avoid an over reliance on tables, charts, etc. as too
many can lead to confusion. In groups, produce a list of the possible factors that
Provide a report after verbal feedback to allow for may influence the performance of the athlete. Try
reflection at a later date. to explain briefly how these factors may affect the
biomechanical performance criteria.
limitations
Acknowledgement of biomechanical
As with other subjects within sport and exercise science, In respect of these factors, it is important that you
such as sports psychology and exercise physiology, sports consider them in relation to your evaluation of the test
biomechanics has limitations that you must be aware results and the feedback to the athlete or coach. This
of in respect of feedback given to athletes and coaches. section will now highlight the possible factors that may
In your feedback and consideration of the results, it is influence performance.
important you give real thought to these biomechanical
limitations. These limitations include:
Age
lack of scientific equipment and support Special consideration needs to be given in the case
lack of detailed biomechanical knowledge of children when testing them from a biomechanical
lack of time to consider all the performance criteria perspective. When working with children it is important
factors which influence biomechanical performance that you do not treat them like small adults because they
(these will be discussed below). are growing, their skeletal and muscular systems are
constantly changing. Due to this change brought on by
It is also important to understand that most of the issues
puberty, the teenage athlete may experience a dip in their
raised are outside of your control. This is because the
performance level.
school or college you attend will be unable to provide the
expensive scientific equipment and support. This type of
equipment is more available at a university. In respect of
the detailed biomechanical knowledge, this is because
the National in Sport and Exercise Science, which you
are studying, only requires you to study at a certain
level. Therefore, if you take biomechanics as an option at The teenage athlete can often be seen to be
university you will be learning more in-depth issues and uncoordinated. However, this can be due to biological
concepts. changes during puberty and should be taken into
account when analysing biomechanical data

6.4
From a biomechanical point of view, the change Diet

in their body will often lead to decreased balance There are numerous key dietary factors that you may
and coordination. An athlete may experience poor need to consider when assessing your results.
performance, especially in technical sports, for example
Eating too close to a performance can cause digestive
golf for a long period of time due to the biological
discomfort and lead to poor performance.
adaptations. However, after a while the body will adapt
Lack of specific carbohydrates can reduce glycogen
and performances should show an improvement.
stores and cause the onset of fatigue at an early stage.
Poor levels of sodium, potassium plus other
minerals can influence muscle contraction and force
production.
Remember! Lack of fluids can lead to dehydration, which can
influence temperature regulation (overheating)
An older athlete due to the aging process is likely during exercise and events requiring aerobic
to show a reduction in their coordination, balance, endurance.
power, mobility, plus other key components to When considering the role of diet on performance you
performance. Therefore, you must consider may want to consider using a diet sheet to highlight
these points when analysing their biomechanical possible issues.
performance.
Previous training
You will need to consider the previous training of the
Health athlete from two perspectives, these being short and long
The performance of an athlete can be highly influenced term. Specifically:
by either short-term conditions (e.g. a cold) or more in the short term: for example, training a day before
long-term conditions (e.g. shin splints). If we consider a the performance can cause fatigue and decrease the
football player who suffers from a mild form of asthma, performance
then this may influence their performance during a in the long term: increased training over six weeks,
match that you are performing notational analysis on. As for example in a specific skill or drill, will lead to an
the player may have a reduced aerobic capacity (due to increase in performance
the asthma) this may influence their: in the long term: decreased training over recent
work rate weeks, possibly due to an injury or lack of
positional play motivation, will reduce the performance potential.
tackling ability
position-specific performance criteria Motivation
One of the most powerful factors for influencing
performance is the athlete’s motivation. Regardless of the
Activity level of the athlete, any decrease in motivation will have
a detrimental effect on performance (and vice versa). As
Design an A3 poster based on a sport of your a sports biomechanist, you may or may not be aware of
choice that considers the importance of full health this change in motivation. However, you will certainly be
and fitness when competing. Identify four health aware of the decrease in biomechanical performance.
issues on the poster that may influence the sporting
performance (use the example of football player
and asthma as a guideline). It will be important to Key Terms
highlight which performance criteria may be affected
by the health issue. Motivation Drives us to play sport and makes us
perform in a certain way (positively or negatively).

little technical ability. Therefore, it is important you can
identify the basic skills that they need to improve on such
Case study as striking the ball to aid progression of performance.
When working with experienced athletes you will
The role of motivation in determining need to concentrate on the more technical aspects of
performance levels performance, which may be harder to identify. This is
You have been analysing Amy (aged 15), the captain of because the athletes will possess the technical ability and
the school hockey team, for her defensive duties in the can produce this on a regular basis.
team as she plays in the back line. You have recorded
that there has been a severe decrease in performance Group dynamics and group cohesion
over the last two matches. In conversation, Amy Part of your analysis may concentrate on a particular
comments that she can’t be bothered at the moment. team or group of players such as the hockey or cricket
1 Identify possible reasons for Amy’s decrease in team. Within the team there should be communication
motivation. p between players and they should, in theory, get on with
each other. In addition, within the team they should have
2 List three performance criteria that you may
accepted values that they are all working to within shared
assess Amy for. p objectives, for example win the league title. If the team
3 Apart from having a brief conversation, how else
has good cohesion and group dynamics, they should
could you gain more information from Amy? m perform their best and produce positive results. There are
4 What is the difference between intrinsic and two types cohesion.
extrinsic motivation? m
6 Describe the possible effect on the team in terms
of group cohesion due to Amy’s current behaviour Key Terms
state. d Task cohesion The degree to which all group
members work together to achieve agreed goals.
Social cohesion The degree to which group
members like each other and support each other.
Confidence
In many respects confidence is just as important to
performance as motivation. Self-confidence is based on
expectations an athlete has in terms of success or failure. There are a number of key factors that influence group
These expectations can change quickly within a game, cohesion, these being:
for example a football striker who has not scored for six time (increased time aids stability)
games then scores in a match and the team then goes size of the group (small groups tend to work better
on to score four goals in three games due to confidence. because all members can interact with each other)
Confidence can be influenced by a whole host of reasons, type of sport (if a player relies on others, as in
for example anxiety or stress. football, this will produce greater cohesion)
success (success for the team, for example winning
Ability level three matches in a row, will forge cohesion)
You are likely to be working with athletes who possess external factors – the threat of relegation may
differing ability levels. These may range from beginners increase cohesion to avoid relegation.
to experienced athletes who perform at a high level.
When working with beginners you will be able to identify
many areas for improvement because they will possess

6.4
Heart rate based tests (submaximal) show better

results in the morning.
Remember!
Positive group cohesion will improve performance
of the team and individuals. However, negative
feelings and poor cohesion will be detrimental to
Future action for strengths
performance.
and weaknesses
Therefore, when you are analysing the team’s To make sure the evaluation process is complete, it is
performance you should consider the group cohesion important that an action plan is put in place. This future
you observed because this may have influenced the action should be based on sound principles such as goal
results. This possible influence should be included in any setting and will normally be devised in conjunction with
feedback to the team or specific athlete. the coach who can provided specialist technical support.
This section will highlight some of the key issues for
Temperature planning for future action.
Due to the nature of some sports you may need to
consider the temperature in which the performance Goals
takes place. For example, the rugby league season is
played during the summer and is often played in hot
It is highly likely that the athlete will have a few areas of
temperatures. Either extreme hot or cold environments
improvement, however it is important to categorise them
can influence the athlete’s body. For example:
into short, medium and long-term goals. Examples of
Hot conditions in team sports, such as rugby league, these are shown below from netball.
may cause a reduction in distance covered (m) due to
the need to conserve energy. Short term
Cold conditions, such as a sprinter may experience Decrease number of fouls in the next match.
in winter as part of their training cycle, will affect
certain physiological factors. The sprinter will not Medium term
sprint as fast because the cold can affect the tension Increase catching success for entire team to 95 per cent
produced in the muscle fibres. within eight weeks.
Time of day Long term
One factor that you may not have considered that may Integrate new defensive system to reduce the number of
influence your results relates to the time of day when opposition goals at the start of next season.
the performance took place. The human body has a
daily biological clock that has clear circadian rhythms
(meaning about a day). The circadian clock regulates Targets
many aspects of metabolism, physiology and behaviour
in the athlete. Therefore, from a sports perspective, there When providing feedback to the athlete it is important
are certain times of day when it is better to perform that you set goals that are based on SMART targets.
certain exercises. The key terms are as follows. SMART means:
Balance activities, such as those required for
gymnastics, are suited to the morning. Specific
Flexibility, strength and power peak in the early They say exactly what you mean (to improve shooting
evening due to daily maximum of body temperature. success in netball by the goal shooter).

Measurable Team skills and drills
You can prove that you’ve reached them (increase shot Within this unit we have considered a variety of sports
success to 78 per cent from 56 per cent). and the key performance criteria that are crucial for
performance. Within these performance criteria there
Achievable are basic sports skills such as catching, passing, etc. As
You can reach them in the next few weeks (the increase a sports biomechanist, you may have identified how the
in shot success must be manageable – 100 per cent influence of these basic sports skills have affected team
success rate is not achievable). skills and drills, for example how to defend a corner
in football. Therefore, future action for the team may
Realistic concentrate on working on these team skills and drills.
They are about action you can take (you can practise and
improve this skill through coaching).
Time-bound Theory into practice

They have deadlines (to reach the target within six
weeks). In pairs, produce a four-page coaching booklet
to highlight the key skills and drills for a sport of
your choice. For example, you may choose to just
Recommendations concentrate on attacking plays within your sport. To
make the coaching booklet useful and interesting,
Part of the role of the sports biomechanist is to provide use diagrams to represent the team skills and drills.
possible recommendations to the athlete and coach in
terms of:
future coaching and training sessions
possible team skills and drills ndividual skills training
individual skills training Many sports require a number of very precise
fitness training movements, which require good coordination and
technique coaching specific. application of force. Consider the tennis serve; it involves
This section will outline some of the key principles for all of the body at some point in the movement. It is
your recommendations. important that an athlete’s training programme is specific
and involves movements that are similar or identical to
Priority of future coaching and the movements performed in competition. The concept
training of matching training to performance is known as
As part of the feedback process you will need to prioritise movement pattern specificity.
future coaching and training sessions. You must be Precise training for the tennis serve will train the player
realistic because you will not be able to coach or train for the speed, power, flexibility, coordination and
all the areas for improvement all at once. You must base balance required to make the serve effective. This type of
your decisions on: movement pattern training also trains the muscle groups
competition schedule that will be used in competition.
access to coaches and training facilities
current fitness status Fitness training for specific
identification of key performance criteria components of fitness
individual and team-based performance criteria. One key factor, which may help the athlete improve
their biomechanical performance, is to train a specific
component of fitness. Fitness can be divided into two

6.4
key parts, namely health-related fitness and skill-related There are various types of training you may recommend
fitness. to your athlete for each component of fitness. For
example, aerobic fitness can be improved through using
a) various training methods such as steady state, interval
Strength and Fartlek training.
Taking it further
Aerobic endurance Muscular endurance
In pairs, use your research to produce a list and brief
description of the different types of training you can
recommend to the athlete, taking into account both
health and skill-related fitness.
Health-related
fitness
Another important aspect to consider is metabolic
specificity. Metabolic specificity relates the principle of
specificity to the energy systems used by the athlete to
Body composition Flexibility
produce a particular movement. The training programme
should be matched to the energy system being used when
the athlete is in competition. For example, a rugby player
uses predominantly anaerobic energy to make repeated
b)
Power
sprints. Therefore, the training programme should centre
on exercises that use the anaerobic energy system, for
example hill sprints.
Speed and agility Balance Technique coaching specific to

movement
From a technical perspective a coach will be able to
improve the athlete’s performance. A coach who has
Skill-related specialist knowledge within the given sport should
fitness
provide this technical support. It is the role of the sports
biomechanist to work with the coach in identifying
strengths and areas for improvement. The sports
Reaction time Coordination
biomechanist should continue to work with the coach on
a regular basis providing specialist support to maximise
the athlete’s performance.
Health-related fitness and skill-related fitness

Assessment practice
1 Using the poster you produced on page XX, 2 Discuss a range of factors influencing
which analysed the performance of a netball performance and set short-, medium- and
player, provide feedback to the player. You long-term goals based on SMART targets.
will need to provide verbal (through video Your recommendations will need to consider
evidence) and written feedback (two-page individual skills training, fitness training and
summary report). Within the feedback you will specific coaching points. m 3
need to include: 3 Justify the recommendations that you have
• strengths made to the athlete. Add additional evidence
• areas for improvement to support your choices, for example a quote
• evidence supporting your findings from a book. d 2
• factors influencing performance
• goal setting
• recommendations for future training. p5
Knowledge check
1 In your own words, describe what notational 7 Describe how age may influence the
analysis is. biomechanical performance of an athlete.
2 What type of data would you use in 8 What is the difference between height of
conjunction with a line graph? Explain why. release and angle of release?
3 List the key performance criteria for a sport 9 Explain how goniometry works.
of your choice and explain why you have 10 Why is goal setting important for future training
included them. plans?
4 Why is it important to produce a numerical 11 Describe the five phases of a long jump.
model when comparing with a sporting
performance? 12 Describe the reasons why an athlete may
be suffering from poor motivation and,
6 Describe the advantages and disadvantages thereby, influencing their biomechanical
of using the mean when analysing your data. performance.
6 Describe the reason for horizontal scaling
when filming your athlete.

End of Unit 6.1
assessment
a s s e s s m e n t
ti o n f o r
P r ep a r a
1 You have been given an interview for a coaching • As you will need to produce a fair amount of
position, which is open to you on a local coaching raw data, if possible, you should record the
scheme. As part of the interview, you will need performances so you can review them at a later
to show that you have a solid biomechanical date (recording may also help to provide evidence
understanding of performance. On an individual for your work).
basis, you are to plan and present a five-minute • The report must include the performance criteria,
presentation based on the title ‘Performance criteria the use of statistics, data representation, raw data
for…’ (name of sport). results and key findings. p2
• Choose a team/individual-based sport depending To help you meet the M1 criteria you should read the
on your own interest or area of expertise. following M1 grading tip.
• You need to cover five performance criteria
that are relevant for your sport. It is possible
for another group member to present the same
sport with different performance criteria. This is
acceptable as long as both can show it is relevant. grading tips
• You can choose to describe a particular player in a Grading Tip m1
team (e.g. goal shooter in netball) rather than the To meet the M1 grading criteria you will need
team as a whole. However, you may decide to pick to take the data you have generated for P2
an individual-based sport such as snooker. and compare the performances to draw out
• Consider using pictures of your chosen strengths and areas for improvement of the
two performances. This comparison can be
performance criteria to demonstrate your point
and also make the presentation interesting. 1
p made through the use of statistics, for example
comparison of percentages (look at the percentage
2 The interview went well and you have been appointed a differences). You should also make comparison
role within the scheme with a dual role of sports coach through data representation. Therefore, you could
and performance analyst. Your boss, the performance put the two sets of data on the same line graph
director, asks you to carry out two notational analyses for example to make the comparison easier to
on a sports player/team of your choice to show your see. Your findings should be supported by relevant
expertise. The performance director has asked you to information or data taken from the literature.
provide a report on your findings. For example, if your goal shooter in football only
catches 65 per cent of the passes, you may use
Here are some helpful hints.
data from the internet, which states the goal
• Try to gain access to your school’s/college’s sports shooter at a recent competition catches 96 per
teams to aid your approach to the athletes/players. cent of the passes, as a comparison. Therefore,
However, you can use the club that you are you have supported the notion that this is an area
attached to either on evenings or at weekends. for improvement for the goal shooter you have
• If the above is not possible, you can analyse analysed.
televised events.

3 The performance director is pleased with your work 4 Within the coaching scheme another performance
and wants to extend your role within the scheme. analyst is struggling to produce a technical
In conversation with the performance director, you investigation into a hockey player’s performance. The
mention that you can compare sporting performance performance director has asked you to produce a case
to a numerical model. The performance director asks study that you can give to the performance analyst
you to carry out a numerical investigation into a local to aid their understanding of the process. Therefore,
sports performer. You are asked to produce an A2 within the case study (based on a sport of your
poster to be displayed in the local sports centre to choice) you are to include:
demonstrate the work you can do. Within the poster • the four performance criteria (model) you
you will need to show: investigated
• the three performance criteria (model) you • references from the literature, which helped you
investigated produce the model
• references from the literature, which helped you • a basic methodology – for example camera
produce the model position
• a basic methodology – for example camera • your results, including any numerical calculations
position or equations used
• your results, including any numerical calculations • findings and implications for the athlete or
or equations used team. p3
• findings and implications for the athlete or Despite your good work, the performance
team. p3 6
director is concerned that the athletes you have
To help you meet the M2 criteria you should read the investigated have not received feedback regarding
following M2 grading tip. their performances. You are to produce a written
report that details the feedback you have given. This
report can be either based on the notational analysis
(P2), numerical investigation (P3) or technical
investigation (P4) you have carried out. Within the
report you should include:
Grading Tip m1 • strengths
You will need to provide an explanation and • areas for improvement
justification of the methodology you used to collect
• evidence supporting your findings
the data from your athlete used in the poster.
Therefore, you will need to consider issues such as • factors influencing performance
horizontal scaling and camera position. In addition, • goal setting
you should explain and justify why you have • recommendations for future training. p5
included the three performance criteria you have
used in the investigation. Therefore, if you can find
To meet the M3 criteria please refer to the following
supporting quotes and statistics that, for example, M3 grading tip.
explain why you used the height of release in the
javelin, this will help.

6.1
• What was the influence on the overall performance for

the individual?
• Was it a key performance criterion in terms of the
Grading Tip m3 overall performance?
To provide detailed feedback the report will also • Did it influence the team as a whole (if applicable)?
need to include statistics (where appropriate) and • Did it influence the opposition’s performance?
data representation. You will also need to discuss
• What will the possible consequences be for future
a range of factors influencing performance and
performances?
set short, medium and long-term goals based
on SMART targets. The recommendations will • What other performance criteria may you investigate in
need to consider individual skills training, fitness the future?
training and specific coaching points. In relation
to recommendations, you should consider using
diagrams to explain the specific training to be used
Grading Tip d2
by the athlete. Once again, you can choose to meet D2 grading criteria
through extending your work in either the notational
analyses, numerical or technical investigation. This
Grading Tip d1 extension work requires you to link biomechanical and
As with other elements of the assessment criteria sporting theory to your feedback. Therefore, evidence for
you can choose to meet D1 grading criteria through your recommendations may come from:
extending your work in either the notational • biomechanical journals
analyses, numerical or technical investigation. • coaching manuals
Therefore, you must evaluate your findings in only
• fitness guidelines
one of these areas. Based on your results, you will
need to consider how they influence the sporting • training books
performance. For example, you may consider the • internet websites.
following.

To achieve a pass grade the evidence To achieve a merit grade the To achieve a distinction grade the
must show that the learner is able evidence must show that, in addition evidence must show that, in addition
to: to the pass criteria, the learner is to the pass and merit criteria, the
able to: learner is able to:
P1
Assessment practice
Page XX
Describe five relevant performance
criteria for an individual or team-based
sport
P2 M1 D1
Assessment practice Assessment practice Assessment practice
Page XX Page XX Page XX
Perform two notational analyses on a Compare the two notational analyses, Evaluate findings for either the
chosen sport, with some support using statistics, data representation notational analyses, numerical or
and literature to explain the strengths technical models commenting on their
and areas for improvement influence on performance within the
chosen sport
P3 M2
Assessment practice Assessment practice
Page XX Page XX
Produce a numerical model, using Explain and justify the methodology
three numerical components, and for either the numerical or technical
compare it to a sporting performance, models
with some support
P4
Assessment practice
Page XX
Produce a technical model, using four
technical components, and compare
it to a sports performance, with some
support
P5 M3 D2
Assessment practice Assessment practice Assessment practice
Page XX Page XX Page XX
Provide feedback on performance, to Provide detailed feedback and Justify the prescribed future actions
an athlete or team, using information prescribe future action for the athlete for either the notational analyses,
gathered from one of the analyses or team from either the notational numerical or technical models
performed, prescribing future action, analyses, numerical or technical
with support models

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in action

[102] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

These examples shou

6: Sports biomechanics in action [103]

Within this learning outcome you will consider the

[104] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

In terms of analysing unforced errors in relation to

6: Sports biomechanics in action [105]

[106] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

have identified where possession was lost or gained

One of the key elements that is central to a team’s

6: Sports biomechanics in action [107]

Often overlooked as a key performance criteria, heading

[108] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

feedback after the performance because you can upload

6: Sports biomechanics in action [109]

When analysing positional play you may want to use

[110] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

Distance covered including sprinting

6: Sports biomechanics in action [111]

[112] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

Runs scored by the opening batsman for Lancashire Range

Median 200 201

The media = 61.5 6 If you were analysing the golfers’ driving

6: Sports biomechanics in action [113]

Shot Shots Points won Points lost 8 winning volleys

organise and examine the collected data

[114] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

Player Hours of practice per Conversion rate in

6: Sports biomechanics in action [115]

[116] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

Shot Tally Total Tally success/failure

Activity Pie charts

Body shot Hook

Right cross Upper cut

6: Sports biomechanics in action [117]

Bar charts Taking it further

You can identify

[118] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

6.2 Be able to compare a numerical model to sporting

6: Sports biomechanics in action [119]

Elite-level athlete based

[120] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

Remember! In terms of analysing linear motion as a sports

6: Sports biomechanics in action [121]

[122] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

When reporting figures you should look to report

Case study Displacement (m) Time (s)

6: Sports biomechanics in action [123]

Rotation, thereby angular motion, is taking place at

[124] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

Angular acceleration Projectile motion

6: Sports biomechanics in action [125]

Through your research you should answer the

[126] BTEC National | Sport & Exercise Sciences | Book 1

A Performance criteria Unit of measurement

The smaller this difference, the better, because a large

6: Sports biomechanics in action [127]