SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER SIX QUESTIONS This is because the difference in the size of transition
elements in a row is much less and almost constant.
(1a)
IS22S2 and IS2 2S2 2P6 3S2
Beryllium Magnesium
Beryllium will have a higher ionization potential than
magnesium because the size of magnesium is bigger
than that of Beryllium.
N.B:- The bigger than size of an atom, the lower the
ionization potential.
(1b)
IS2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d
and
IS2 2S2 2P6 3S2 3P6 4S2 3d6
These are manganese and iron respectively. Both are
transition elements. The ionization potential of
transition elements is reasonably constant
Generally, half-filled and fully filled valence orbitals
are more stable and have higher ionization potential.
Therefore; manganese will have slightly higher
ionization potential than iron.
Example,
d5 is more stable than d6.
(2a)
Mg = 1.36A and Al = 1.25A
While Ca = 1.74A, Zn = 1.25A, Ga = 1.25A.
Ans: The atomic size of Mg is higher than that of Al
because of the higher effective nuclear charge in Al than
in Mg. The same applies to the observation in Ca, Zn
and Ga.
(3a)
Moving across the period (from left to right),
electronegativity increases due to the increase in the
effective nuclear charge and non-metals are
encountered.
Moving down the group, electronegativity decreases
due to shielding effect and metals are encountered.
(4ai)
Cs (cesium) is bigger than Li (Lithium) due to higher
number of shells in Cs than in Li.
(4aii)
Cs+ is bigger than Li+ in size due to higher number of
shells in Cs+.
(4b)
Atomic size increases down the group and decreases
accross the period while ionization potential decreases
down the group and increases across the period.
(4c)
(5a)
Moving down the group in the periodic table, more
shells are added which leads to increase in the size of
the atoms in going down the group. Due to the increase
in the number of shells in going down the group.
Moving across the period from left to right in the
periodic table, atomic size decreases generally due to
electrons entering the same shell, leading to the increase
in the effective nuclear charge.
(5bi)
Group 1A elements are univalent because they have
only one electron in their valence shell. They give out
one electron to attain octet structure.
(5bii)
Group 1A elements are largely ionic because they easily
give out their valence electron to form ionic bonds.
(5bii)
Group 1A elements are strong reducing agents because
they are strong electron donors.
(5biv)
Group 1A elements have the lowest ionization potential
among elements in same period with them because they
have the lowest effective nuclear charge and highest
atomic radius in each period.
(6a)
Atomic size increases in going down the group in the
periodic table due to the addition of shells down the
group.
Atomic size decreases across each period from left to
right due to the increase in the effective nuclear charge.
(6b)
Ionization potential decrease in going down the group
due to the increase in atomic size or radius on going
down the group. This increase in atomic size decreases
the nuclear force of attraction between the nucleus of
the atom and the outermost electron.
Moving across the period from left to right, ionization
potential generally increases but with few exceptions
which is caused as a result of high stability of half-filled
outermost p-orbital in nitrogen.
(6c)
Generally, electron affinity increases from left to right
in each period but there is a slight decrease in electron
affinity with increase in atomic number and electron
affinity slightly decreases down the group.
(6d) Effect of Concentration
Metals are located at the left hand size of the periodic If a substance on the left side (backward) is
table while non-metals are at the right. Metals engage in increased(added), equilibrium will shift to the right
ionic bonding while non-metals engage in covalent. The (forward) and vice versa. But if a substance on the left
middle block elements are the transition elements that side (backward) is removed, equilibrium will shift to the
engage generally in co-ordinate bonding though some backward side and vice versa.
are ionic/covalent.
Effect of Pressure: An increase in pressure favours the
(7i) side that has lower number of moles of gases while a
This is because the last 2S-orbital in Be is fully filled decrease in pressure favours the side that has higher
while the last 2p-orbital in B is not. Fully filled and number of moles of gases.
half-filled valence orbitals are more stable and have N.B: Do not consider solids when checking for the
higher ionization potentials than those with partially- effect of pressure on equilibrium.
filled valence orbitals.
Effect of Catalyst: A catalyst has no effect on a
(7ii) reaction that is already at equilibrium point.
This is because the valence electron of Na is closer to Now use this idea to answer all No:2 questions
the nucleus and more tightly held than that of K. (3) Since the substance is a base, we need to find the
. 𝑝𝑂𝐻
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14
∴ 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝐻
(8) 2nd ionization energy is greater than the 1st 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14 − 11.25 = 2.75
ionization energy because the removal of the first 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = − log(𝑂𝐻 − )
electron makes the second electron to be more strongly ∴ 2.75 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔 log(𝑂𝐻 − )
held than the first electron due to the presence of an −𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑂𝐻 − ) = 2.75
extra proton. The same reason applies to why 3rd 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑂𝐻 − ) = −2.75
ionization energy is greater than that of the 2nd. (𝑂𝐻 − ) = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔(−2.75)
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟖𝑴
(9) Ionization energy (I.E) is the minimum amount of
energy required to remove an electron from the (4a) Balancing the equation, we have 𝐶𝑂 + ½𝑂2 ⇌
outermost shell of an atom. 𝐶𝑂2
𝑇 = 298.15𝐾, ∆𝐺 = −259.191𝐾𝐽
CHAPTER 8 ∆𝐺 = −2.303𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾
(𝑁𝐻3 )2
(1i) 𝐾𝑐 = ∆𝐺
(𝑁2 ).(𝐻2 )3 ∴ 𝐾𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
(𝐶𝑂 )2 −2.303𝑅𝑇
(1ii) 𝐾𝑐 = (𝐶𝑂)22.(𝑂 ) −257.191
2 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
(𝐻𝐼)2 −2.303 × 8.314 × 2988.15
(1iii) 𝐾𝑐 = (𝐻 ).(𝐼 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 ∆𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
2 2
−257191𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
(1iv) 3𝐹𝑒(𝑠) + 4𝐻2 𝑂2 ⇌ 𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4(𝑠) + 4𝐻2(𝑔) 𝐾𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
−5708.72
Kc =
(𝐻2 )4 𝑲𝒆𝒒 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟓
(𝐻2 𝑂)4
N.B: = Substances in solid states are not considered (4b) 𝐾𝑒𝑞 𝑜𝑓 2𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 ⇌ 2𝐶𝑂 will be the square of 𝐾𝑒𝑞
because their concentration is assumed to be unity(1). 1
(1v) of 𝐶𝑂 + 2 𝑂2 ⇌ 𝐶𝑂2 since multiplying the first equation
(𝑁𝑂)2 by 2 will give the second equation.
𝐾𝑐 =
(𝑁2 ). (𝑂2 )
(1vi) (5) 𝑁2(𝑔) + 3𝐻2(𝑔) ⇌ 2𝑁𝐻3(𝑔)
(𝑁𝑂2 )2 ∆𝜂 = 𝜂𝑝 − 𝜂𝑅
𝐾𝑐 = = 2 − (𝐻3)
(𝑁2 𝑂4 )
= 2 − 4 = −2
Effect of temperature: If ∆H is positive, an increase in 𝐾𝑐 = 6.5 × 10−2
temperature will favour the forward reaction. If ∆H is 𝑇 = 452℃ = 452 + 273
negative, an increase in temperature will favour the = 725𝐾
backward reaction. 𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾𝑐 × (𝑅𝑇)∆𝜂
= 6.5 × 10−2 × (8.314 × 725)−2
 𝑲𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟖𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 The 𝐾𝑐 of2𝐴 + 3𝐵 ⇌ 2𝐶 will be equal to (𝒙𝟐 ). This is
because if 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⇌ 𝐶 is multiplied by 2, it will give
∆𝑛 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 2𝐴 + 2𝐵 ⇌ 2𝐶.
𝑛𝑝 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER NINE
𝑛𝑅 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
SYSTEM is the part of the universe which the scientist
has special attention on for the purpose of experimental
(6)
(𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙2 ) study.
𝐾𝑒𝑞 =
(𝐶𝑂). (𝐶𝑙2 ) BOUNDARY is the diving line of surface separating
(𝐶𝑂𝐶𝑙2 ) = 𝐾𝑒𝑞 × (𝐶𝑂) × (𝐶𝑙2 ) the system from the immediate surroundings.
= 4570 × (2.5 × 10−2 ) × (4.5 × 10−2 )
= 𝟓. 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝑴 A PERMEABLE SURFACE is a surface that allows
the flow of matter through the boundary.
(7)
∆𝐺 = −2.303𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐾 There are 3 types of systems in thermodynamics.
= −2.303 × 8.314 × 900 × 𝑙𝑜𝑔6.55
= 14065.82 (a) dm = 0; dE = 0
= −𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟔𝟔𝑲𝑱 This is a system that does not allow exchange of matter
(8) (i) 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐻 + ) (m) and heat (E) between the system and surrounding. It
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ⇌ 2𝐻 + + 𝑆𝑂42− is called an isolated system.
𝑝𝐻 = − log(0.0025 × 2) = 𝟐. 𝟑
(b) dm ≠ 0; dE ≠ 0
(ii) 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑂𝐻 − ) 𝐾𝑂𝐻 ⇌ 𝐾 + + 𝑂𝐻 − This is a system that allows the exchange of matter (m)
= − log(0.0002) = 3.699 and heat (E) between the system and surrounding. It is
𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14 ∴ 𝑝𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝑂𝐻 called an open system.
= 14 − 3.699
= 𝟏𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟏 (c) dm = 0; dE ≠ 0
N.B: KOH is a base. This is a system that does not allow the exchange of
(iii) 𝑝𝐻 = −𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐻 + ) matter (m) but allows the exchange of heat (E) between
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝑂𝐻 ⇌ 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂− + 𝐻 + the system and surrounding. It is called a closed system.
𝑝𝐻 = − log(0.0001)
=𝟒 (9.4)
(iv) 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = −log(𝑂𝐻 − ) i. dT = 0… Isothermal process
= − log(0.0025) = 2.6 ii. dp = 0….Isobaric process
𝑝𝐻 + 𝑝𝑂𝐻 = 14 iii. dv = 0….. Isochoc process
∴ 𝑝𝐻 = 14 − 𝑝𝑂𝐻 iv. dq = 0…. Adiabatic process
= 14 − 2.6 A reversible process is known as an “Isochoc process”
= 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒 where  volume = 0.
𝑁2 + 𝑂2 ⇌ 2𝑁𝑂 𝐾𝑐 = 0.0408 (9.5)
1
INTERNAL ENERGY is the energy contained within
If this equation is multiplied by ½ , we will have 2 𝑁2 + the system excluding the kinetic energy of the system
1 and the potential energy force fields.INTERNAL
1
𝑂
2 2
⇌ 2𝑁𝑂. Therefore,the 𝐾𝑐 =(0.0408)2 =
ENERGY is the inherent energy of a system.
√0.0408 = 0.20199
It means that when a body at rest acquires energy, its
NOTE potential energy (energy at rest) changes from its
If the 𝐾𝑐 of 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⇌ 𝐶 is equal to 𝒙, the 𝐾𝑐 of 𝐶 ⇋ 𝐴 + original value to a new value according to the
𝟏 magnitude of the energy acquired by the system at rest.
𝐵 will be equal to 𝒙 because both equations are inverse
Example; If
of each other.
Ef = 245J Final energy
NOTE
Ei = 112J Initial energy
If the 𝐾𝑐 of 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⇌ 𝐶, is equal to 𝒙,
E = ? internal energy
But E = Ef – Ei S.I unit is the Standard International Unit of
measurement.
=245 -112
= 133J The S.I unit of work is KJ (Kilojoule).
𝑽
W = nRT In (𝑽𝟐). V1=4 x 10-3m3
Since E is positive, it means that the system acquired 𝟏

energy or the system absorbed heat. V2=2 x 10-3m3

At S.T.P, n=1 mole
T = 25oC = 298K
4𝑥10−3
(9.6)  W = 1x8.314xIn (2𝑥10−3 )
= 1717.32J
W = pv W= Workdone W= 1.717KJ
W = P (V2-V1) P = Pressure
V = Volume (9.9) and (9.10)
A(g) + B(g) C(g)
Mole (n) = 4 moles Change in mole n = nP – nR
V1 = 15dm3 = 15x10-3m3 Where nP = mole of product
V2 = 50dm3 = 50 x 10-3m3 nR= mole of reactant
P = 1atm = 101325pa
Expression n = nc –n(A+B)
W= pv = P(V2-V1)
= 101325 (50x10-3 – 15x1010-3)
H = E + W = E + nRT
= 101325 (35x10-3)
CH4 + 202 +H2C n = 1-3 = -2
W = 3546.38J
H= -E +W = -890.35KJ.
:. Converting to kilojoule, we have W = nRT = -2RT
3546.38
1000
= 3.546KJ
(9.10)
q = 30.80KJmol-1
(9.7) P = Pressure
W = nRT where n = 1(per mole)
(i)
=1x8.314 x(80 + 273)
For change in pressure
𝑷
= 2934.8J
W = nRT in (𝑷𝟏) =2.93KJ (converted to KJ)
𝟐
For change in Volume But E = q – W
𝑽
W = nRT in (𝑽𝟐 ) n=mole E = 30.80 – 2.93
𝟏 E = 27.84KJ
R= Gas constant E = 27.9KJ
T= Temperature
V= Volume (9.11)
𝑽
V = 10.1m3
W = nRT in (𝑽𝟐 ) n=4mole P1 = 1atm = 101325Pa
𝟏
R= 8.314 P2 = 0.25atm =0.25x101325
T= 25+273 =25331.25
=298K W = P x V
50𝑥10−3 W = (P2 – P1) x V
W = 4x8.314x298In(15𝑥10−3 ) V2 = 50 x 10-3m3 = (25331.25 - 101325) x 10.1
V1=15 x 10-3m3 =(-75993.75) x 10.1
W = 11931.72J = - 767536.875J
W= 11.931KJ here, W=H = - 767.5KJ

H = 11.931KJ. Heat absorbed. (9.12)

E = H – W CaC2(s) + 2H20g Ca(0H)2 + C2H2(g)
= 11.931 – 11.931 E = H – W
:. E = 0 But here, W = nRT
W= 1x8.314 x(25+273)
W = 2477.57J
(9.8) = 2.478KJ
But E = H – W 𝑨 −𝑲𝒕
log𝑨𝒐 = 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 and k=
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑

E +W =H 11.5 −1.22𝑋10−4 0.693
H = E + W log15.3 = 2.303 k= 5670
= 128.0 +2.478 k = 1.22 x 10-4yr-1
H = - 125.52KJ k=
−1.22 𝑥 10−4
log 0.752 = - 2.303
(9.13)
log 0.752 =0.5297 x 10-4t
H = E + PV
- 0.1238 = - 0.5297 x 10-4t
H = E + PV 0.1238
At constant pressure or constant volume, P = 0  t = 0.529 𝑥 10−4 = 0.23 x 10-4
Or V =0 which makes W=0 t = 2.34 x 103yrs
when W = 0, t = 2340 yrs
H = E+ 0
 H = E or H = qp (3)
0.693 0.693
 = 𝑡1 = 𝑡1
2 2
(9.14)
𝑽
W = nRTIn(𝑽𝟐)
𝟏
For ideality, n=1 (4)
0.693 0.693
24.6𝑥10−3  = 𝑡 1 = 3.83
W = 1x8.314 x 300 x In (2.46𝑥10−3 ) 2

W = 5743.1J  = 0.1809 day -1

𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑵𝒐
= 5.74KJ  = 𝒕 x log 𝑵
Let No = 1 and N = 0.164 x No
(9.15) N = 0.164x1
C7H16(L) + 11O2(g) 7CO2(g) + 8H20(L) = 0.164
n = nP – nR  0.1809 =
2.303
x log
1
= 7-11 𝑡 0.164
0.1809 2.303
n = -4 (only gases) 1
= 𝑡
x log (6.098)
E = H – W E + W =H 0.1809
=
2.303
x 0.785
1 𝑡
H = E +W = E +nRT 0.1809 1.808
=
W = -4x8.314x298= -9910.29J 1 𝑡
 W = -9.910 Cross multiplying, we have
E= -4807.12KJ NB: -ve is attached but it is heat 0.1809t = 1.808
0.1809
given out (comburstion).  t = 0.1809
H = E +W = -4807.12 + (-9.91029) t = 9.99 ≅ 10yrs
H = -4817.03KJ
(5)
0.693 0.693
SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 10  = 𝑡 1 = 5720
(1) 2

Ao = A + D  = 0.000121yr-1
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑵𝒐
A = 0.9547, D =0.0453  = 𝒕 x log 𝑵
0.693 0.693 2.303 
t1/2 =  = 4.5 𝑥109 x 𝑁𝑜
𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁
= 1.54 x 10-10yr-1 𝑵𝒐
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑫 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝐱 𝐥𝐨𝐠
From t =  log ( 𝑨 + 𝟏) t= 𝑵

2.303 Do the necessary substitutions and find the age (t) of the
t = 1.54 𝑥 10−10 log 1.047
sample in years.
t = 1.495 x 1010 x 0.01995
t = 2.983 x 108yrs (6a)
NB: Ao = initial quantity at t=o HALF LIFE of a radioisotope is the time taken for the
D = Quantity decayed at t =o substance to reduce to half of its original quantity.
A= Quantity left at t=o This implies that, it will take 146C a total of 5568 years
to reduce to half of its original quantity.
(2)
𝟎.𝟗𝟑
t1/2 = 𝒌 (6b)
14 14
6C 6C + 0-1B
Atomic number = 7
Atomic mass = 14