Human Sexual Development

Author(s): John DeLamater and William N. Friedrich

Source: The Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 39, No. 1, Promoting Sexual Health and Responsible
Sexual Behavior (Feb., 2002), pp. 10-14
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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 Human Sexual Development
John DeLamater
University of Wisconsin
William N. Friedrich
Mayo Clinic

Empiricalresearchby scholarsfrom several disciplinesprovides the basisfor an outline of the process of sexual devel-
opment.Theprocess of achievingsexual maturitybegins at conceptionand ends at death.It is influencedby biological mat-
uration/aging,by progressionthroughthe socially-definedstages of childhood,adolescence, adulthood,and later life, and
by the person's relationshipswith others, includingfamily members,intimatepartners,andfriends. Theseforces shape the
person's gender and sexual identities,sexual attitudes,and sexual behavior.Adults display their sexuality in a variety of
lifestyles,with heterosexualmarriagebeing the most common.Thisdiversitycontributesto the vitalityof society.Although
changes in sexualfunctioningin later life are common,sexual interestand desire may continueuntil death.

Humanbeings are sexual beings throughouttheir entire
lives. At certainpoints in life, sexualitymay manifestitself
in differentways. Eachlife stagebringswith it pressuresfor
changeandsexualdevelopmentmilestonesto be achievedif
sexual healthis to be attainedor maintained.The stages of
sexual development are a human developmentalprocess
involving biological andbehavioralcomponents.
CHILDHOOD(BIRTHTO 7 YEARS)
The capacity for a sexual response is present from birth.
Male infants,for example, get erections,and vaginallubri-
cationhas been foundin female infantsin the 24 hoursafter
birth (Masters,Johnson, & Kolodny, 1982). Infants have
been observedfondlingtheirgenitals.The rhythmicmanip-
ulation associatedwith adult masturbationappearsat ages
2 1/2 to 3 (Martinson,1994). This is a naturalform of sex-
ual expression (Friedrich,Fisher, Broughton,Houston, &
Shafran,1998). Childrenengage in a varietyof sexual play
experiences while very young; this play becomes increas-
ingly covert as the child ages (ages 6 to 9) and becomes
awareof culturalnorms(Reynolds,Herbenick,& Bancroft,
in press). Infantsand young childrenhave many other sen-
sual experiences, including sucking on their fingers and
toes, andbeing rockedandcuddled.These experiencesmay
establish preferencesfor certain kinds of stimulationthat
persistthroughoutlife.
The quality of relationshipswith parents is also very
importantto the child's capacity for sexual and emotional
relationshipslater in life. Typically,an attachmentor bond
forms between the infant and parent(s)(Bowlby, 1965). It
is facilitated by positive physical contact. If this attach-
ment is stable, secure, and satisfying, positive emotional
attachmentsin adulthoodare more likely (Goldberg,Muir,
& Kerr,1995).
Address correspondence to John DeLamater, Ph.D., Department of
Sociology, University of Wisconsin, 1180 ObservatoryDrive, Madison, WI
53706; e-mail: delamate@ssc.wisc.edu.
Early childhood is also the period during which each
child forms a gender identity, a sense of maleness or
femaleness.This identityis typically formedby age 3. The
child is simultaneouslybeing socialized accordingto the
gender-rolenorms of the society, learninghow males and
females are expectedto behave (Bussey & Bandura,1999).
Betweenthe ages of 3 and7, thereis a markedincreasein
sexualinterestand activity.Childrenform a conceptof mar-
riage or long-termrelationships;they practiceadultroles as
they "playhouse."They also learnthatthereare genitaldif-
ferencesbetweenmales andfemales (Goldman& Goldman,
1982), andshow interestin the genitalsof otherchildrenand
adults as part of their naturalcuriosity about the world.
Childrenmay engage in heterosexualplay, including"play-
ing doctor."There is little impactof childhoodsex play on
sexual adjustmentat ages 17 and 18 (Okami,Olmstead,&
Abramson,1997). In response to such play, some parents
teach childrennot to touch the bodies of others,and restrict
conversationabout sex. As a result, childrenturn to their
peersfor informationaboutsex (Martinson,1994).
PREADOLESCENCE
(8 TO 12 YEARS)
In this period, children have a social organizationthat is
homosocial; that is, the social division of males and
females into separategroups(Thorne, 1993). One resultof
this is that sexual explorationand learningat this stage is
likely to involve personsof the same gender.
During this period, more childrengain experience with
masturbation.About 40% of the women and 38% of the
men in a sample of college students recall masturbating
before puberty (Bancroft, Herbenick, & Reynolds, in
press).Adolescentsreportthattheirfirst experienceof sex-
ual attractionoccurredat age 10 to 12 (Bancroftet al., in
press; Rosarioet al., 1996), with first experienceof sexual
fantasies occurringseveral monthsto 1 year later.
Groupdatingand heterosexualpartiesemerge at the end
of this period. These experiences begin the process of
developingthe capacityto sustainintimaterelationships.

The Journal of Sex Research Volume 39, Number 1, February 2002: pp. 10-14 10

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DeLamater and Friedrich
ADOLESCENCE(13 TO 19 YEARS)
Biological Development
The biological changes associated with puberty, the time
duringwhich there is sudden enlargementand maturation
of the gonads, other genitalia, and secondary sex charac-
teristics (Tanner,1967), lead to a surge of sexual interest.
These changes begin as early as 10 years of age to as late
as 14 years of age, and include rises in levels of sex hor-
mones, which may producesexual attractionand fantasies.
Bodily changes include physical growth, growth in geni-
tals and girls' breasts,and developmentof facial and pubic
hair.These changes signal to the youth and to others that
she or he is becoming sexually mature.
Whereas biological changes, especially increases in
testosterone levels, create the possibility of adult sexual
interactions,social factors interactwith them, either facili-
tating or inhibiting sexual expression (Udry, 1988).
Permissive attitudesregardingsexual behavior and father
absencefor girls are associatedwith increasedmasturbation
and heterosexualintercourse,whereas church attendance
and long-rangeeducationaland careerplans are associated
with lower levels of sexual activity.Many males begin mas-
turbatingbetweenages 13 and 15, whereasthe onset among
females is more gradual(Bancroftet al., in press).
Sexual Behavior
Toward the middle and end of adolescence, more young
people engage in heterosexualintercourse.In 1999, 48%
of females and 52% of males in grades 9 to 12 reported
engaging in intercourse(CDC, 2000). Women today are
engaging in intercoursefor the first time at younger ages,
compared with young women 30 years ago (Trussell &
Vaughn, 1991). Patternsof premaritalintercoursevary by
ethnic group. African Americans have sex for the first
time, on average, at 15.5 years; Cuban Americans and
Puerto Ricans at 16.6 years, and Mexican Americans and
Whites at 17 years;in each group,men begin having inter-
course at younger ages than women (Day, 1992). These
variationsreflect differencesbetween these groupsin fam-
ily structure (intact family), church attendance, and
socioeconomic opportunities (parents' education, neigh-
borhoodemploymentrates).
These rates of premaritalheterosexual intercourseare
connectedto two long-termtrends.First,the age of menar-
che has been falling steadily since the beginning of the
twentiethcentury.The average age today is 12.5 years for
Blacks and 12.7 years for Whites (Hofferth, 1990).
Second, the age of first marriagehas been rising-in 1960,
first marriagesoccurredat age 20.8 for women and 22.8
for men; in 1998, it was 25 for women and 26.7 for men
(U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1999). The effect is a sub-
stantiallengthening of the time between biological readi-
ness and marriage;the gap is typically 12 to 14 years
today. Thus, many more young people are having sex
before they get marriedthan in 1960. Since many do not
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11
consistently use birth control, there was a corresponding
rise in the rate of pregnancy among single adolescents
from the 1970s to 1991; however, from 1991 to 1997 the
rate of teen pregnancydeclined 18%.This decline reflects
increased attentionin society to the importanceof preg-
nancy prevention,increased access for teens to birthcon-
trol, and increased economic opportunitiesfor teenagers
(Ventura,Mosher,Curtin,Abma, & Henshaw, 1998).
Between 5% and 10% of adolescent males reporthav-
ing sexual experiences with someone of the same gender,
comparedwith 6% of adolescent females (Bancroftet al.,
in press; Turneret al., 1998 ). These adolescents usually
reportthat their first experience was with anotheradoles-
cent. In some cases the person has only one or a few such
experiences,partlyout of curiosity,andthe behavioris dis-
continued.
Developmental Tasks
Several psychosocial developmental tasks face adoles-
cents. One is resolving the conflict between identity and
role confusion, developing a stable sense of who one is in
the midst of conflicting social influences (Erikson, 1968).
Gender identity is a very importantaspect of identity; in
later adolescence, the young person may emerge with a
stable, self-confidentsense of manhoodor womanhood,or
alternatively,may feel in conflict about gender roles. A
sexual identity also emerges-a sense that one is hetero-
sexual, homosexual, or bisexual, and a sense of one's
attractivenessto others.
Anothertask of adolescence is learninghow to manage
physical and emotional intimacyin relationshipswith oth-
ers (Collins & Sroufe, 1999). Youthages 10 to 15 most fre-
quentlyname the mass media, includingmovies, TV, mag-
azines, and music, as their source of informationaboutsex
and intimacy. Smaller percentages name parents, peers,
sexualityeducationprograms,andprofessionalsas sources
(KaiserFamily Foundation,1997).
ADULTHOOD
The process of achieving sexual maturity continues in
adulthood.One task in this life stage is learning to com-
municate effectively with partners in intimate relation-
ships; this is difficult for many persons, in part because
thereare few role models in our society showing us how to
engage in direct, honest communicationin such relation-
ships. A second task is developing the ability to make
informed decisions about reproductionand preventionof
sexually transmittedinfections, includingHIV infection.
Sexual Lifestyle Options
Adults have several options with regardto sexual lifestyle.
Some planto remainsingle. They may remaincelibate,par-
ticipatein one long-termmonogamousrelationship,partic-
ipatein sexualrelationshipswith severalpersons,or engage
in serial monogamy-a series of two or more relationships
involving fidelity to the partnerfor the durationof each
12
relationship.Among single persons, 26% of the men and
22% of the women reporthaving sexual intercoursetwo or
more times per week; 22% of the men and 30% of the
women report not having sex in the preceding year
(Laumann,Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels, 1994). Black
men and women are more likely to remainsingle thantheir
White counterparts;in 1999, 41% of Black men and 38%
of Black women were never married,comparedwith 20%
of White men and 16% of White women (U.S. Bureauof
the Census, 2000). In part this reflects choice, but it also
reflects the economic position of Blacks in Americansoci-
ety. It is difficultfor manyBlack men to find a job thatpro-
vides the wages and benefits needed to supporta family.
Among Hispanics, 33% of men and 25% of women are
never married(U.S. Bureauof the Census, 2000)
Living togetheris an option chosen by increasingnum-
bers of couples. It is an importantstep in developmentnot
only because it representscommitmentbut because it is a
public declarationof a sexual relationship.For some cou-
ples, cohabitation is an alternativeto marriage.In 1999,
7% of all women were cohabiting (U.S. Bureau of the
Census, 1999). These relationshipstend to be shortlived;
one thirdlast less than 1 year, and only 1 out of 10 lasts 5
years (Bumpasset al., 1991).
Marriage is the most common sexual lifestyle in the
UnitedStates.In 1999, 73%of men and 80%of women had
been marriedat least once; by age 45, 95% of all women
have marriedat least once (U.S. Bureau of the Census,
1999). Marriage is the social context in which sexual
expression is thought to be most legitimate. The average
couple engages in sexual intercourse2 or 3 times per week
(Laumannet al., 1994).At the same time, thereis greatvari-
abilityin frequency.For example,7% of couples reportthat
they have not had coitus in the preceding year (Smith,
1994). Sexual frequencyin marriagereflectsthejoint influ-
ence of biological and social factors.There is a decline in
the frequency of intercourse with age (Smith, 1994).
Biological factorsinclude physical changes that affect sex-
ual frequency,and chronicillnesses. Social factors include
habituationto sex with the partner,andunhappinesswith the
relationship(Call, Sprecher,& Schwartz,1995).
Couples reportengaging in a varietyof sexual activities
in addition to vaginal intercourse,including oral-genital
sexuality (70% of married men and 74% of married
women), anal intercourse(27% and 21%), and hand-geni-
tal stimulation.Many adults continue to masturbateeven
though they are in a long-termrelationship;17% of mar-
ried men and 5% of marriedwomen masturbateat least
once a week (Laumannet al., 1994).
Sexual Satisfaction
Satisfactionwith one's sexual relationshipis an important
componentof sexual health.While many factorsmay con-
tributeto satisfaction,three that differentiatepeople who
are happy from those who are not are (a) accepting one's
own sexuality, (b) listening to one's partner and being
aware of the partner'slikes and dislikes, and (c) talking
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Sexual Development
openly and honestly (Maurer,1994). In other words, suc-
cessfully completing the developmental tasks of adoles-
cence and young adulthoodare keys to sexual health.
Most couples will experience fundamentalchanges in
their sexual experienceat least once over the course of the
relationship. The change may result from developing
greater understandingof oneself or partner,changes in
communicationpatterns,accidents or illnesses that inter-
fere with one's sexual responsiveness, or major stressors
associated with family or career.Some couples will need
professional supportto enable them to successfully cope
with these forces. Some relationshipswill not survive.
Extramaritalsexual activity is reportedby 25% of mar-
ried men and 15% of marriedwomen (Laumannet al.,
1994). Many of these persons will only engage in this
activity once while they are married.The incidence varies
by ethnicity; 27% of Blacks report extramaritalsexual
activity, compared with 14% of Whites (Smith, 1994).
Hispanicshave the same incidence as Whites (Laumannet
al., 1994). Several reasons have been suggested for extra-
maritalrelationships,includingdissatisfactionwith marital
sexuality,dissatisfactionwith or conflicts in the marriage,
andplacing greateremphasison personalgrowthand plea-
sure than on fidelity (Lawson, 1988).
Personswho lose theirpartnerthroughdivorce or death
have the option of postmarital sexual relationships.Most
divorcedwomen, but fewer widows, develop an active sex
life; 28% of divorced women and 81% of the widowed
reported being sexually abstinent in the preceding year
(Smith, 1994). By gender,46% of divorced and widowed
men and 58% of divorced and widowed women reported
engaging in sexual intercoursea few times or not at all in
the precedingyear (Laumannet al., 1994). Thereis a high-
er probabilityof being sexually active postmaritallyfor
those who are under35 and those who have no childrenin
the home (Stack & Gundlach,1992).
Divorced persons, especially women, face complex
problems of adjustment. These problems may include
reduced income, lower perceived standardof living, the
demandsof single parenthood,and reducedavailabilityof
social support (Amato, 2001). These problems may
increase the motivation to quickly reestablish a relation-
ship with a partner.
Some adultsengage in sexual activitiesthatinvolve risks
to their physical health, such as STIs and HIV infection.
Examplesof such activities include engaging in vaginal or
anal intercoursewithoutusing condoms, engaging in sexu-
al activity with casual partners,and engaging in sex with
multiple partners.Since 1985 there has been substantial
publicity aboutthese risks. Have adultschangedtheir sex-
ual behaviorto reducetheirrisk?Between 1981 and 1991,
men who have sex with men reportedreducingthe number
of partners, having fewer anonymous encounters, and
engaging less often in anal intercourseor using condoms
consistently (Ehrhardt,Yingling, & Wame, 1991). Among
heterosexuals,the numberof single adultswho reporthav-
ing multiplepartnershas declined (Smith, 1991), and con-
DeLamaterand Friedrich
dom use by men and women at rnskhas increased(Catania,
Canchola,Binson, Dolcini, & Paul, 2001).
SEXUALITYANDAGING
Biological Changes
Biology, a major influence in childhood and adolescence,
again becomes a significant influence on sexual health at
midlife.
In women, menopause-the cessation of menstruation
-is associated with a decline in the productionof estro-
gen; this occurs, on the average, over a 2-year period
beginning aroundage 50 (it can begin at any age from 40
to 60). The decline in estrogen is associated with several
changes in the sexual organs. The walls of the vagina
become thin and inelastic. Further,the vagina shrinks in
both width and length. These changes may make penile
insertion more difficult, and intercourse uncomfortable.
By 5 years after menopause, the amountof vaginal lubri-
cation often decreasesnoticeably.Intercoursemay become
more difficult and painful. There are a numberof ways to
deal with these changes successfully, including estrogen-
replacementtherapy,supplementaltestosterone,and use of
a sterile lubricant.
As they age, men experience andropause (Lamberts,
van den Beld, & van der Lely, 1997) or ADAM- androgen
decline in the aging male (Morales, Heaton, & Carson,
2000), a gradualdecline in the productionof testosterone;
this may begin as early as age 40. Erections occur more
slowly. The refractoryperiod,the periodfollowing orgasm
during which the person cannot be sexually aroused,
lengthens. These changes may be experienced as prob-
lems; on the other hand, they may be experienced as
allowing the man greatercontrol over orgasm.
These biological changes in women and men do not
preclude satisfying sexual activity. Among older people
who are healthy and active and have regularopportunities
for sexual expression, sexual activity in all forms-
including masturbationand same-genderbehavior-con-
tinues past 74 years of age (AARP, 1999).
Social Influences
An importantinfluence on sexuality is the attitudesof oth-
ers, especially those attitudesthat define specific behav-
iors as acceptableor unacceptable.This is especially evi-
dent with regardto older persons.American society has a
negative attitude toward sexual expression among the
elderly. It seems inappropriatefor two 75-year-old people
to engage in intercourse,and especially inappropriatefor
persons of that age to masturbate.These negative attitudes
are particularlyobvious in nursinghomes and care facili-
ties where rules prohibitor staff membersfrown upon sex-
ual activity among the residents.These attitudesaffect the
way the elderly are treated,and the elderly may hold such
attitudes themselves. These attitudes may be a more
importantreason why many elderly people are not sexual-
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13
ly active than the biological changes they experience.
SUMMARY
Humansexual developmentis a process thatbegins at con-
ception and ends at death.The principalforces are biolog-
ical maturation/aging;progression through the socially
defined stages of childhood, adolescence, adulthood,and
later life; and one's social relationships during each of
these stages. These forces interactto influencethe person's
sexual identity, sexual attitudes, and sexual behavior.
While similaritiescan be identified in the lives and sexual
expression of many people, there is wide variationin sex-
ual attitudes,behaviors,and lifestyles. This diversity con-
tributesto the vitality of society.
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