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1119 1133 PDF
1119 1133 PDF
Prithwijit De
Homi Bhabha Centre for Science
The Arithmetic Mean – Geometric Mean – Harmonic
Education
Mean: Inequalities and a Spectrum of Applications Tata Institute of Fundamental
Research
Mumbai
The Arithmetic Mean – Geometric Mean – Harmonic Mean Email:
inequality, AM–GM–HM inequality in short, is one of the prithwijit@hbcse.tifr.res.in
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
An = , (1)
n
√
Gn = n a1 a2 · · · an , (2)
n
Hn = . (3)
1 1 1
+ + ··· +
a1 a2 an
To prove Gn ≥ Hn for which we have already proved. This proves the AM–GM–HM
any n is same as proving inequality for n = 2. Note that to prove Gn ≥ Hn for any n is
An ≥ Gn for the
same as proving An ≥ Gn for the reciprocals of the given real
reciprocals of the given
real numbers. numbers. Thus to prove the AM–GM–HM inequality it suffices
to prove that An ≥ Gn for all n. For n = 3 the inequality can be
proved by using elementary algebra. We have to prove
a + b + c √3
≥ abc . (8)
3
This is same as proving,
But,
Therefore,
We can write,
But,
1
a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca = {(a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 }. (14)
2
Thus,
1
a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc = (a + b + c){(a − b)2 + (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 } ≥ 0.
2
(15)
Using the AM–GM–HM inequality for n = 2 we see that,
√ √ √
(a + b )(b + c) (c + a) ≥ (2 ab) (2 bc) (2 ca) = 8abc. (16)
Therefore,
a1 + a2 a3 + a4 √
Now set b1 = and b2 = . Then b1 ≥ a1 a2 ,
√ 2 2
b2 ≥ a3 a4 and
a1 + a2 a3 + a4
+ b1 + b2 √
2 2 = ≥ b1 b2 = 4 a1 a2 a3 a4 . (19)
2 2
Hence,
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 √4
≥ a1 a2 a3 a4 , (20)
4
with equality if and only if a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 . This argument
can be easily extended to n = 8 and more generally to any n of
the form 2k for some positive integer k. For instance, when n = 8,
apply A4 ≥ G4 to the set of numbers
a + a a + a a + a a + a
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
, , ,
2 2 2 2
Ann ≥ a1 a2 · · · an , (23)
x1 + x2 + · · · + xm−1 ≥ m − 1 , (27)
(x2 − 1) (1 − x1 ) ≥ 0 , (28)
implying
x1 + x2 ≥ 1 + x1 x2 . (29)
y1 + y2 + · · · + ym−1 ≥ m − 1. (30)
Applications
a1 a2 an
+ + ··· + ≥ n.
b1 b2 bn
b1 b2 bn a1 a2 . . . an
≥ n = 1. (32)
n b1 b2 . . . bn
2. (Nesbit’s Inequality)
Let a, b, c be positive real numbers. Then,
a b c 3
+ + ≥ ,
b+c c+a a+b 2
and equality occurs if and only if a = b = c.
a b c
Let P = + + . Then,
b+c c+a a+b
1 1 1
P + 3 = (a + b + c) + + . (33)
b+c c+a a+b
Now A3 ≥ H3 implies,
a+b b+c c+a
+ + 3
2 2 2 ≥ . (34)
3 2 2 2
+ +
a+b b+c c+a
9 3
Therefore P + 3 ≥ and hence P ≥ . Equality occurs if and
2 2
a+b b+c
only if A3 = H3 which occurs if and only if = =
2 2
c+a
, i.e., a = b = c.
2
3. Let a, b, c be real numbers greater than or equal to 1. Then,
a3 + 2 b3 + 2 c3 + 2
+ + ≥ 9.
b2 − b + 1 c2 − c + 1 a2 − a + 1
a3 + 2 b3 + 2 c3 + 2
+ +
b2 − b + 1 c2 − c + 1 a2 − a + 1
1/3
(a3 + 2) (b3 + 2) (c3 + 2)
≥3 = 9. (35)
(a2 − a + 1) (b2 − b + 1) (c2 − c + 1)
1 1 1
4. Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that + + = 1.
a b c
Then, we have the inequality,
1 8 1
+ ≤ .
(a − 1) (b − 1) (c − 1) (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) 4
Therefore,
8 1
≤ . (37)
(a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) 8
By adding (36) and (37) we get,
1 8 1
+ ≤ .
(a − 1) (b − 1) (c − 1) (a + 1) (b + 1) (c + 1) 4
5. (Euler’s Inequality)
Let R be the circumradius and r be the inradius of a triangle.
Then R ≥ 2r with equality if and only if the triangle is equilat-
eral.
This is perhaps the most elegant geometric inequality that one
comes across in school level mathematics. There is a geomet-
ric proof of this result. Here, we shall present an algebraic
proof.
Let ABC be the given triangle. Denote by a, b, and c the
lengths of the sides BC, CA, and AB respectively. Let s =
a+b+c
, where s is the semi-perimeter, and let Δ denote the
2
area of ABC. Observe that s − a, s − b and s − c are positive
Δ abc
quantities. Recall that r = and R = . Therefore,
s 4Δ
R abcs abc
= = . (38)
r 4Δ2 4 (s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
Now observe that,
a = 2s − b − c = (s − b) + (s − c) ≥ 2 (s − b) (s − c), (39)
b = 2s − c − a = (s − c) + (s − a) ≥ 2 (s − c) (s − a), (40)
and,
c = 2s − a − b = (s − a) + (s − b) ≥ 2 (s − a) (s − b). (41)
whence,
R abc
= ≥ 2. (43)
r 4(s − a) (s − b) (s − c)
Equality occurs if and only if s − a = s − b = s − c, that
is, a = b = c, which is same as saying that the triangle is
equilateral.
a + b + c +d = 4,
1 1 1 1
12
+ 12 + 12 + 12 (1 + 3abcd ) = 16.
a b c d
By A4 ≥ G4 we get,
a + b + c + d √4
1= ≥ abcd , (44)
4
1 1 1 1
+ 12 + 12 + 12
a12 b c d ≥ 4
(abcd)−12 , (45)
4
Multiplying both sides of (45) by (1 + 3abcd ) and simplifying
we obtain,
1 1 1 1 4 (1 + 3abcd )
+ + + (1 + 3abcd) ≥ . (46)
a12 b12 c12 d12 (abcd )3
4 (1 + 3t )
Let t = abcd. Then 16 ≥ . This implies 4t3 −
t3
3t − 1 ≥ 0. But 4t3 − 3t − 1 = (t − 1) (2t + 1)2 . Therefore
(t − 1) (2t + 1)2 ≥ 0. Hence t ≥ 1. But earlier we obtained
t ≤ 1. Therefore t = 1.
So now we have,
a + b + c + d √4
= abcd ,
4
a+b+c+d
that is, A4 = G4 . Hence a = b = c = d = = 1.
4
It is easy to see that (a, b, c, d) = (1, 1, 1, 1) indeed satisfies the
given system of equations.
1 1 1
t+ ≥ t. = 1. (47)
2 t t
Therefore,
y
x= ≤ y, (48)
1 1
y+
2 y
z
y= ≤ z, (49)
1 1
z+
2 z
and,
x
z= ≤ x. (50)
1 1
x+
2 x
Optimization Problems
Let p be the fixed perimeter. Let a, b and c be the sides of a Some optimization
triangle whose perimeter is p. Let s = p/2. The area of the questions can also be
solved using the
triangle is
AM–GM–HM
inequalities.
Δ (a, b, c) = s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) . (51)
(s − a) + (s − b) + (s − c) 3
≥ (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) , (52)
3
with equality if and only if s − a = s − b = s − c, that is,
a = b = c. Therefore,
s2 p2
Δ (a, b, c) = s (s − a) (s − b) (s − c) ≤ √ = √ .
3 3 12 3
(53)
p2
Thus the maximum value of the area is √ and it is attained
12 3
when the triangle is equilateral.
θ 2
AM–GM–HM
Let t = . Observe that 0 < t < 1 and,
inequalities can be 2π
applied to a system of
t t
quadratic equations. + + (1 − t)
t t
2 2 ≥
3
· · (1 − t) (58)
3 2 2
whence,
√ 2
t 1−t ≤ √ . (59)
3 3
t 2
Equality is attained if and only if = 1 − t, that is, t = and
2 3
2
this leads to θ = 2π . Therefore the volume of the cone is
3
2
maximised when the central angle is equal to 2π = 294◦
3
approximately.
2b c
α 1 + β1 = ; α1 β1 = , (60)
a a
2c a
α2 + β2 = ; α2 β 2 = , (61)
b b
2a b
α3 + β 3 = ; α3 β 3 = . (62)
c c
The roots are positive. By A2 ≥ G2 we obtain,
b α1 + β1 c
= ≥ α1 β1 = , (63)
a 2 a
c α2 + β2 a
= ≥ α2 β2 = , (64)
b 2 b
a α3 + β 3 b
= ≥ α3 β3 = , (65)
c 2 c
Let us point out to the reader that for the AM–GM inequality to
hold, the quantities a1 , a2 , . . . , an may assumed to be non-negative
but they have to be positive for the AM–HM inequality or the
GM–HM inequality to be valid. The AM–GM–HM inequality
can be generailzed to the weighted AM–GM–HM inequality by
assigning weights to the quantities. We state the inequality with-
out proof.
Let a1 , a2 , . . . , an and w1 , w2 , . . . , wn be positive real numbers.
Then,
n
n
wi ai n
1
wi
i=1 wi i=1
≥ (aw1 1 · aw2 2 · · · awn n ) i=1 ≥ .
n n wi
wi
i=1 i=1 ai
Here is an application.
Let a, b, c be positive real numbers. Prove that
1 1 1
+ + ≤
10a + 11b + 11c 11a + 10b + 11c 11a + 11b + 10c
1 1 1
+ + .
32a 32b 32c
1 1 1
+ + ≤
10a + 11b + 11c 11a + 10b + 11c 11a + 11b + 10c
1 1 1
+ + .
32a 32b 32c
Problems
(1 + a1 ) (1 + a2 ) · · · (1 + an ) ≥ 2n .
a1 a2 an 1
+ + ··· + ≥ .
a2 − a0 a3 − a1 an+1 − an−1 an
Suggested Reading
[1] B J Venkatachala, Inequalities - An Approach Through Problems, Hindustan
Book Agency.