C L Wrenn

CHAPTER- II
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
2.1. Origin of Indian Legal Language
The Indian legal system is embedded in the English language due to the
colonial rule of the British. It is based on the Anglo-Saxon legal system. India does
not have legal language developed out of its indigenous system and languages.1
2
David Mellinkoff in his monumental work, The Language of the Law has covered
the historical development of the legal English. It had its beginning with the Anglo-
Saxon roots and continued through the Middle English period right up to the present
day. In the process of evolution, he has acknowledged the contributions from Latin
and French to legal English.
2.2. Origin and Growth of the English Language
The English language of today reflects many centuries of development. The
study of the origin and growth of the English language throws light on the changes
underwent by it. The present cannot be understood without the knowledge of the past.
It was observed by remarkable twelfth-century chronicler, Henry of Huntington, that
an interest in his past was one of the distinguishing characteristics of man as
compared with the other animals.3 Many interesting facts are revealed in the
historical study of the English language. English is classified as a Germanic
1
Dr.S.R.Myneni, Legal language and Legal Writing, (Asia Law House, Hyderabad, 2008) p 3.
2
David Mellinkoff, The Language of the Law, (Little, Brown & Co., Boston, 1963) vi.
3
cf Albert C. Baugh, A History of the English Language, 2nd Edn. (Allied Publishers, New Delhi,
fifth Ind Rep 1977) p1.
29
language.4 It belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. It is not the native
but an immigrant language of England. It was the outcome of the dialects spoken by
the Germanic tribes who invaded England in the late fifth century. These Germanic
tribes were the Jutes, Saxons, and Angles. Reference may be made to the monumental
work of Venerable Bede. In his Ecclesiastical History of the English People,5 he has
recorded that these tribes have crossed the North Sea which is the present day
Denmark and Northern Germany.
It has to be mentioned that the Celts were the first settlers of England. 6 They
spoke Celtic language, which is also one of the Indo-European languages. Besides the
Celtic language, Latin was spoken on the English soil. Indeed, it was a province of
the Roman Empire for about 400 years. The Romans called the land as “Britannia”.
With the arrival and settlement of the Germanic tribes, the name of the land was
changed into England. England used to be known as „Engla land‟, meaning the land
of the Angles. Otto Jespersen7 stated that the country is called England (OE
Englaland), the nation English (OE Englissse, Englisemon, cf also Angelcynn,
Angelpeod, and the language English (OE Englisc Englise gereord). A reference can
be made to the work of A.C. Baugh 8 wherein he states:
4
It belongs to the group of languages which comprises of German, Dutch, Flemish, Danish,
Swedish, and Norwegian.
5
It was originally composed in Latin and is considered to be one of the most important original
references on Anglo-Saxon history and has played a key role in the development of an English
national identity. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_History_of_the_English_People
(last visited 16/10/2015).
6
Before Celts, England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Paleolithic period.
7
Otto Jespersen, Growth and Structure of the English Language, (First Press, NewYork, 1968) p32.
8
Supra note 3, p 57.
30
“The word is derived from the name of the Angles
(OE Engle) but is used without distinction for the
language of all the invading tribes. In like manner
the land and its people are early called Angelcynn
(Angle-kin or race of the Angles), and this is the
common name until after the Danish period. From
about the year 1000 Englaland (land of the Angles)
begins to take its place. The name English is thus
older than the name England.”
The English language, which has evolved out of its earliest form, was
subjected to various changes in the course of its evolutionary period of 1500 years in
England. In fact, the process of change is the characteristic feature of life. The
evolutionary biologist, Stephen Jay9 has stated that evolution is by definition an
ongoing process whose perpetual state is change. There is an ongoing metamorphis
within changing environment. The English Language is no exception to it. Unlike
Latin, the English is a living vibrant language. The Classical Latin is considered to be
a dead language because it has not changed for nearly 2,000 years. The Linguists
have examined the changes and developments of the English language with respect to
three main historical periods. It is classified as The Old English period (c. 450–1066),
Middle English (1066–1476), Early Modern English (1476–1776), and Modern
English (since 1500 onwards). Generally speaking, changes in a language occur due
to internal and external factors such as political, economic, and social forces. This is
evinced in grammatical, phonological and vocabulary of English language.
2.3. Significance of Vocabulary
Vocabulary is always the most noticeable area of language change. In this
context, A.C.Baugh 10 observed:
9
Aruko Momma and Michael, The History of English language, ( Blackwell Publishing, West
Sussex, 2008) p 4.
10
Supra note 3, p 2-3.
31
“The change that is constantly going on in a living
language can be most easily seen in the vocabulary.
Old words die out, new words are added, and
existing words change their meaning. Much of the
vocabulary of Old English has been lost, and the
development of new words to meet new conditions is
one of the most familiar phenomena of our
language.”
In fact, vocabulary is considered to be the prominent asset of the English
language. English has an extraordinarily large vocabulary, much larger than that of
many other languages. It is due to its extensive contacts with other languages, a large
number of its users and increasing manifold purposes for which it is used11.
Moreover, the English word stock is constantly growing. In an article, “All We are
Saying” Grant Barrett has recorded a list of words in 2007. In the list, many words
were found to be older but prominent ones during that year. Some of the words are
astronaut diaper, colony collapse disorder, crowd source, drama-price etc.12
Generally speaking, language is enriched on account of progressive changes
in all walks of life. When the speakers of a language have need for a new word, they
can make one up, borrow one from some other language, or adapt one of the words
they already use by changing its meaning.13 The word stock of the English language
is enlarged by three chief ways: (1) borrowing from other languages (2) word
formation and (3) semantic change.
11
John Algeo, The Origins and Development of the English Language, 6th Edn. (Cengage
Learning, Delhi, First Ind Rep 2012) p 206.
12
New York Times dated December 23, 2007.
13
Supra note 11, p 207.
32
2.4. Loan Words
The English language has shown a marked tendency to go outside its own
linguistic resources and borrow from other languages. Reference may be made to
Dryden‟s observation. He has said that “I trade both with the living and the dead for
the enrichment of our native language”.14 In the course of time, English has built up
an unusual capacity for assimilating outside elements. David Crystal15 has rightly
commented:
“Vocabulary is the Everest of a language. There is

no larger task than to look for order among the
hundreds of thousands of words which comprise the
lexicon. There may be many greater tasks – working
out a coherent grammatical system is certainly one
– but nothing beats lexical study for sheer quantity
and range.”
The whole history of the English language may be described as one chain of
borrowings. All the people with whom its speakers have come into contacts have
been deep and lasing like those of France and ancient Rome, or casual like those of
Spain or Czechoslovakia, have almost without exception left permanent marks on the
vocabulary.16 David Crystal aptly commented that English has borrowed words from
over 350 languages around the world. English is a vacuum-cleaner of a language. It
sucks words in from any language it makes contact with.17 The lexical borrowings
14
15
David Crystal, Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 3rd Edn.(Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, 2010) p 117.
16
C.L.Wrenn, The English Language, (New Print India Pvt Ltd, Sahibabad, 1989) p 33.
17
David Crystal, Words, Words, Words, (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007) p 59.
33
were the direct outcome of the important socio-historical events and circumstances in
the history of England. Regarding the loan words, Otto Jespersen 18 says:
“They might with just as much right be termed some

of the milestones of general history because they
show us the course of civilization and the
wanderings of inventions and institutions, and in
many cases valuable information as to the inner life
of nations when dry annals tell us nothing but the
dates of the deaths of kings and bishop.”
There are three important languages which have contributed widely to the
stock of English vocabulary. They are Latin, Scandinavian and French. It is of great
significance because these three languages have moulded the English to a great
extent. Mention may be made of Otto Jesrpersen19 observation:
“Three very important factors in the development of

the language, three superstructures, as it were, that
came to be erected on the Anglo-Saxon foundation,
each of them modifying the character of the
language, and each preparing the ground for its
successor. A Scandinavian element, a French
element, and a Latin element now enter largely into
the texture of the English language, and as each
element is characteristically different from the
others.”
While tracing the influence of the various languages on the English, the Celtic
influence remains the least of the early influences that affected the English language.
2.4.1. Celtic Influence
Truth is stranger than fiction. This can be true of Celts, the original
inhabitants of England. It is surprising to note that Celtic words did not form the
18
Supra note 7, p 27.
19
ibid,p 54.
34
permanent part of English vocabulary. Certain names of the places of England
suggest the existence of Celts in those areas. The name London itself, although the
origin of the word is somewhat uncertain, most likely goes back to a Celtic
designation.20 Some of the first syllable of place names of Celtic origin such as
Devonshire, Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Gloucester, Worcester, Lichfield.
Crystal rightly has pointed out that the words have no life of their own. It is people
who have life, and it is they who give life to words.21 Similarly the names of river and
hills of present day English vocabulary owe its source to Celts. The Thames is a
Celtic river name. The other river names are Avon, Exe, Esk, Usk, Dover, and Wye.
Certain other Celtic elements occur more or less frequently such as cumb (a deep
valley) in names like Duncombe, Holcombe, Winchcombe; torr (high rock, peak) in
Torr, Torcross. The Celtic language was not a significant source of new words,
except for a few everyday words such as bin, cradle, dun, crag, curse, loch, cross,
hermit. 22
2.4.2. Latin Influence
There are innumerable Latin loan words in English language. Some Latin
words like wine, cup, and bishop came to be the part of the English vocabulary by
means of early contact by Germanic tribes with the Romans in the Europe. When
they settled in Britain, they learned a few more Latin words. As Romans where of
20
Supra note 3, p 84.
21
Supra note 17, p149.
22
Robert Stock Well & Donaka Minkova, English word, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
2001) p15.
35
highly civilized culture, many adopted words were assimilated into English whenever
it came into contact with them. Regarding the influence of Latin, A.C.Baugh23 says:
“Latin was not the language of a conquered people.

It was the language of a highly regarded
civilization, one from which the Anglo-Saxons
wanted to learn. Contact with that civilization, at
first commercial and military later religious and
intellectual, extended over many centuries and was
constantly renewed.”
Early Latin words came to the English language, mainly through vestiges of
the Roman occupation and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the
seventh century. Many places in Roman Britain were the seats of military garrisons.
Such places ended in with the Latin word „castra‟ meaning „camp‟. The old English
form of the word „castra‟ was „chester‟ or „caster‟. The present day names of some
places have these endings such as Chester, Colchester, Dorchester, Manchester,
Winchester, Lancaster, Donscaster, Gloucestor, Worcester, etc.24 But all the place
names with such endings do not underlie that it had Roman settlements.
Another factor which introduced a lot of Latin words was the conversion of
the English people to Christianity. Words are generally taken over by one language
from another in order to answer a definite need. They are adopted in order to convey
new ideas and things connected with it. Some of the borrowed words in the modern
form are abbot, alms, altar, angel, anthem, Arian, ark, candle, canon, chalice, cleric,
cowl, deacon, disciple, epistle, hymn, litany, manna, martyr, mass, minister, noon,
23
Supra note 3, p 87
24
ibid, p 93
36
nun, offer, organ, pall, palm, pope, priest, provost, psalm, psalter, relic, rule, shrift,
shrine, shrive, stole, subdeacon, synod, temple, and tunic.25 Similarly, the words,
which represents the specific members of the church organization, were borrowed
from Latin. They include words like Pope, Bishop, and Priest, or Monk. Similarly,
some of the names of articles of clothing and household things were also borrowed
from Latin. They are cap, sock, silk, purple, chest, mat, sack. Certain borrowed words
connected with education and learning reflects the influence of church. They are
school, master, Latin (possibly an earlier borrowing), grammatic(al), verse, meter,
gloss, notary (a scribe).26 A considerable number of Latin words were introduced into
the English language during the period of Renaissance and also after it. Mention may
be made of few borrowed Latin words:27
Sixteenth century : exit, genius, areas, fungus, miser, circus, vacuum,

medium, species, ignoramus, vagary.
Seventeenth century : torpor, specimen, arena, apparatus, focus, album,

complex, minimum ,status, lens, pendulum.
Eighteenth century : nucleus, inertia, alibi, ultimatum, extra, insomania,

bonus (noun),via (preposition), deficit.
Nineteenth century : opus, ego, moratorium, referendum, bacillus
2.4.3. Greek Influence
As there was a revival of learning in Greek and Latin works in Renaissance,
the Greek words found its way into the English language. It is pertinent to note that
25
Supra note 3, p 99.
26
ibid.
27
37
many Greek words had entered English by way of Latin. The renewed study of Greek
led to the introduction of some Greek words at first hand. Words like acme,
anonymous, catastrophe, criterion, ephemeral, heterodox, idiosyncrasy, lexicon
misanthrope, ostracize, polemic tantalize, thermometer and tonic made a direct entry
into English.28 Due to an abundance of Greek scientific and philosophic terms, a large
class of technical words were adopted or formed from the Greek elements. Some of
such words are atom, character, chorus, cycle, and acrobat. A few examples of
essential Greek elements are graph (writing), phone (sound).29 The word anaesthesia,
lithography, epidiascope, ophthalmoscope, stereotype, telephone, cinematograph,
photography30 telephone, (tele„far‟ and phone„sound‟) phonograph (sound-writing)31
are the illustrations of word combinations.
2.4.4. Scandinavian Influence
An important impact on the English language was caused by the language of
the Scandinavian invaders.32 The Scandinavian words entered into the English
language after the settlements of the Danes.33 It is pertinent to note that the first
invaders were Danes. Since other invaders, whichever area in Scandinavia they came
from, seemed to look and talk alike, it became a regular practice among the English
to speak of all Norsemen as Danes. Their interactions with ordinary people had a very
28
29
30
Henry Bradley, The Making of English, (Macmillan, Suffolk, Rev, 1968) p 67.
31
32
The influence of Scandinavian Language can be seen in three well-stages. The first stage began in
787 and continued to 830. It was only a period of raid and plunder. The second stage is marked by
widespread plundering and by extensive settlements. The third stage covers the period of political
adjustment and assimilation from 878 to1042 AD.
33
38
significant effect on English culture and language. Thus the Scandinavian elements
could be seen in the ordinary words of everyday life. Such words include:
“Axle-tree, band, bank, birth, boon, booth, brink,

bull, calf (of leg), crook, dirt, down (feathers),
dregs, egg, fellow, freckle, gait, gap, girth, guess,
hap, keel, kid, leg, link, loan, mire, race, reef (of
sail), reindeer, rift, root, scab, scales, score, scrap,
seat, sister, skill, skin, skirt, sky, slaughter, snare,
stack, steak, swain, thrift, tidings, trust, want,
window.34”
Similar to place names of Celtic origin, there are also a large number of places
that bear Scandinavian names. It has been estimated to be more than 1,400
Scandinavian places-names35 in England. The word ending in „by‟ referred to a
„town‟ or a „farm‟. There are 600 place names. For example Grimsby, Whitby,
Derby, Rugby, and Thoresby. Similarly, the word ending in „thorp‟ meant „village‟.
Some of the 300 place names are Althorp, Bishopsthorpe, Gawthorpe, and Linthorpe.
There are 300 place names with the ending „thwaite‟ which means an isolated piece
of land. They include Applethwaite, Braithwaite, Cowperthwaite, Langthwaite,
Satterthwaite. There are some 100 words ending in toft. It has referred to „a piece of
ground‟. Some of such place names are Brimtoft, Eastoft, Langtoft, Lowestoft,
Nortoft.
The Danes had established and administrated their own legal system. This
came to be known as Danelaw. On account of it, a number of Scandinavian law terms
entered the English Language. Reference may be made to the work Danelag of
34
Supra note 3, p117.
35
ibid, p115.
39
Professor Steenstrup. He has established it through a study of number of case laws.
He states that “the Vikings modified the legal ideas of the Anglo-Saxons, and that
numerous new law-terms sprang up to the time of the Scandinavian settlements which
had previously been utterly unknown”.36 The mighty word “law” outlaw, moot,37
crave māl (action at law), hold (freeholder), wapentake (an administrative district),
hūsting (assembly).38 Except the words law, bylaw, thrall, crawl, the other words
have disappeared as the subsequent Norman conquerors took over the Courts of
justice and legal affairs.39
2.4.5. French Influence
The most important influence on English was the French. With Latin, French
is one of the great fundamental formative influences on the English vocabulary.40
England was conquered by the Normans of France in 1066. From that time onwards,
there was a steady flow of French into English language. Even before them, there was
a relationship 41 between the ruling classes of the two countries. Hence certain French
loan words had entered into the English. After the conquest, it was not only the
language of the rulers but was also a part of colloquial vocabulary of the Englishmen.
The members of upper classes initially spoke French for they knew no English. As
the French was the mark of the social distinction between the classes, it remained
the language of the upper classes in England for 200 years after the Norman
36
Supra note 7, p 67.
37
Owen Barfield, History in English Word,(Faber and Faber Ltd ,London ,1969 ) p 49.
38
39
Supra note 7, p 69.
40
41
The Saxon king Ethelred the Unready (978-1014) had married a Norman Princess and eventually
his son Steward the Confessor came to the throne.
40
Conquest. It was the language of culture and fashion.42 Hence it was favoured even
by the affluent English. Though English remained the language of the country,
French became the language of the upper classes, aristocrats, church, law Courts, and
trade.
The upper classes brought the management of military matters under their
control. A large number of French words, which were connected with it, became a
part of English. Such words include war, peace, battle, arms, armour, lance, dart,
43
banner, ensign, troops, assault, siege, lieutenant, sergeant. Some words, which are
used outside the concept of military at present, are also of French origin. They
include danger, enemy, challenge, escape, copy, aid, prison, hardly, gallant, march,
company, guard.44
As the law Courts were under the control of the ruling French, the most of the
term pertaining to the law are of French origin. They include assize, judge, jury,
justice, prison, gaol, bar, bill, petition, complaint, inquest, advocate, attorney,
indictment,45 justice, just, judge, jury, Court, suit, sue, plaintiff and defendant, a plea
to summon, felony, session, dower, property, real estate, penalty, injury, privilege.46
Similarly, French words relating to the church and its activities include religion,
service, trinity, saviour, virgin, angel, saint, abbey, cloister, friar, miracle, preach pray
sermon.47 Similarly, the words pertaining to cuisine are of French origin. This was
42
43
Supra note 7, p 80.
44
ibid.
45
46
Supra note 7, p 80.
47
ibid.
41
due to the superiority of French cuisine. They include sauce, dainty, fry, toast, pasty,
soup, sausage, jolly, dainty, roast, feasts, meals, dinner, supper.48 The names of the
living animals are English whereas the cooked flesh of animals is denoted by French
words. Some of the words are beef, mutton, veal, pork, bacon, venison.49
The English vocabulary was also enriched by dialectal differences of the
French in England. The Northern French dialect gained currency in England with the
coming of Normans. Later the dialect of the Central France became the language of
the Court and of fashionable society. These two dialects differed considerably in the
pronunciation. As a result, there were two different English words for same French
50
words. In this context, Bradley says “Once consequence of the two fold character
of the French spoken in England was that very often one and the same French word
was adopted into English twice over, in two different forms and with meanings more
or less different”. It can be stated that the influence of French language on English
was tremendous one. It had not spared any field of human activity.
2.4.6. Other Influences
The English has augmented its source by constant borrowing from other
languages. As it is very vast, mention may be made of a few sources from some
important languages. Some of the words pertaining to music are borrowed from Italy.
They include replica, studio, terra cotta opera, piano, pizzicato, prima donna,
48
ibid, p 83.
49
ibid.
50
42
rallentando, staccato, basso, fantasia, gamut, violin, solo, giraffe, sonnet pizzicato.51
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Italian music and especially Italian opera
became very fashionable in England. It brought a new wave of Italian words. Indeed,
there was a real explosion of new musical words in English. They include cicerone,
fiasco, influenza, isolae, motto, stanza, umbrella.52 Similarly the words relating to
artistic culture like easel, landscape, maulstick, sketch and stipple are from
Netherlands. The nautical terms like smuggle, cruise, easel, etch aloof, vast, boom,
buoy, cruiser, deck, dock, flyboat, hull, skipper, sloop, smack are of Dutch origin.
Similarly the words like bismuth, blende, cobalt, gneiss, greywacke, nickel, quartz,
shale, zinc are of German language. The Portuguese language contributed words like
- albatross, caste, cocoa, dodo, pagada, and veranda. The words like monsoon,
marmalade, molasses, and flamingo are also of the Portuguese origin. The English
language took words like samovar, soviet, sputnik, steppe, troika, vodka from the
Russian. The word „tea‟ came from China whereas the word „rick-shaw‟ came from
Japan. Similarly many words of Indian origin have entered the English language due
to direct and uninterrupted relationship between England and India. Mention may be
made of Lord Mountbatten‟s statement.53 On August 14th 1947, he expressed that
“during the centuries that the British and the Indians have known one another, the
British mode of life, customs, speech and thought have been profoundly influenced
by those of India-more profoundly than has often been realized.” The words like
avatar, chakra, karma, mantra, yoga, guru, swastika, mahatma are of Sanskrit origin.
51
52
ibid.
53
G.Subba Rao, Indian Words in English, (Oxford University Press, London, 1969) p1.
43
The Dravidian languages gave the following words – catamaran, copra, curry, mango,
teak to it. The words like bangle, bungalow, cot, pundit, shampoo, jungle, lot, thug,
tom-tom are also of Indian origin.54 Some of the other famous words are Calico,
chintz, tussore,55 brinjal, jaggery, mango, banyan, teak, anaconda. 56
2.5. Word Formation
Apart borrowing loanwords from other tongues, the English language has
enriched its resources by making of new words. The new words are formed in three
ways57; (1) Composition. (2) Derivation and (3) Root creation. When two existing
words are joined together, it gives rise to a new word. It is called as composition. For
example, apple-tree, Blackbird, downfall, breakfast, spendthrift, turnkey, break up
and knock out. The second type of words is formed by creating a new word from the
old word by means of the addition of prefix and suffix. For example, anti-slavery,
enliven, ex-king, actively, graceful, hardly etc. The third method is the invention of
an entirely new word usually either imitative of some inarticulate noise or suggested
by some instinctive feeling of expressiveness. For example, blob, flip, flap hug, see-
saw, squander, thump, etc.
The new words are also created on the basis of the proper nouns. Certain
words like boycott, derrick, lynch, nicotine, ohm, guy, sandwich are created on the
basis of names.58 Some words are formed from the geographical names.59 They are
54
55
56
ibid, p16.
57
58
Supra note 22, p15.
44
bikini, denim, cheddar, hamburger, jean, port, china, turkey.60 Certain new words are
based on literature, folklore, commercial brand names such as atlas, chimera,
morphine, panic, nemesis, band-aid, levis, Xerox, zipper.61
2.6. Semantics
Word is not a mere sign, but a symbol of meaning. A characteristic feature of
the language is its arbitrariness. Hence there is no inherent relation between the word
of a language and the meaning or the idea conveyed by it. Thus a word is capable of
conveying any idea or thought. The meaning of a word is what those who use it
intend or understand that it represents.
The study of meaning has been one of the most important concerns of
scholars for centuries. According to Sapir,62 the study of meaning is crucial to the
study of language. I.A.Richards 63 is of the opinion that the meaning ought to be “the
pivotal term of every theory of language.” The American Structural linguist, Leonard
64
Bloomfield has made the following observation on the subject of meaning in his
book Language:
“The study of speech sounds without regard to

meaning is an abstraction: in actual use, speech-
sounds are uttered as signals. We have defined
the meaning of a linguistic form as the situation in
which the speaker utters it and the response which
it calls forth in the hearer. The speaker's situation
59
ibid, 16.
60
ibid, p17.
61
ibid, p18.
62
Edward Sapir, Language, (Rupert Hart-Davis , London ,1970) p 84.
63
I.A. Richards and C.K. Ogden, Meaning of Meaning, 6th Edn.( Kegan Paul,Trench, Trubner& Co,
London, 1944) p 28.
64
Leonard Bloomsfield, Language, (Motilal Banarsidass, London, Ind Rep 1964) p 164.
45
and the hearer's response are closely co-ordinated,
thanks to the circumstance that every one of us
learns to act indifferently as a speaker or as a
hearer. In the causal sequence
speaker's situation --> speech --> hearer's
response,
the speaker's situation, as the earlier term, will
usually present a simpler aspect than the hearer's
response; therefore we usually discuss and define
meanings in terms of a speaker's stimulus.”
Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through the language.65 It is
the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of meaning, changes meaning, and
the principles that govern the relationship between sentences or words and their
meanings.66 It is Breal who is supposed to have given the study of meaning a
scientific status for the first time.67 He introduced the word „Semantique‟ for the
study of meaning in its historical perspective. The Swiss linguist Ferdinand De
Saussure68 introduced the word „semiologue‟ to describe a branch of science intended
to study the meaning of words at a particular stage in the history of a language.
Saussure has compared the rules language to those of chess.69 The analogy of this
game was intended to convey that one could not add, remove or displace any element
without affecting the entire field of force. Though this analogy explains his views on
language, it also has a bearing on his concept of meaning. According to Saussure,
meaning is a matter of contrast.
65
John I. Saeed, Semantics, 2nd Edn. (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Oxford, 2003) p 3.
66
Collins English Dictionary in http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/semantics (last visited on
30/9/2015).
67
cf R.P.Sharma, I.A.Richards‟ Theory of Language, (S.Chand & Co., New Delhi, 1979) p 83.
68
ibid, p 83.
69
46
As word is an embodiment of human thoughts and actions, it is subject to
change. It does not change its meaning suddenly. Usually it develops new meanings
which are related to the previous one. Hence the gradual change of signification in
words is a universal feature of human language. But these changes take place
continuously.
Campbell and Blank expound the semantic change in the following manner.
According to Campbell, semantic change deals with change in meaning, understood
to be a change in the concepts associated with a word.70 According to Blank,71
semantic change is the result of a new meaning added to the already existing
meaning(s) of a word and then this new meaning is lexicalized. He calls this as an
innovative semantic change. The other way of semantic change is the loss of one of
the existing lexicalized meanings which he calls it as reductive semantic change.
Generally speaking, a word has an ordinary sense. On certain occasions,
people tend to deviate from its primary sense and use it in another sense. Such new
senses which have employed on temporary basis, do not survive. In this regard,
Bradley says:
“Very often these novelties of meaning do not

survive the temporary occasion which gave them
birth; but when a new application of a word
happens to supply a generally felt want it becomes a
permanent part of the language, and may in turn, by
a repetition of the same process, give rise to other
senses still more remote from the original meaning.
Sometimes the primary sense remains in use along
with the senses derived from it; sometimes it dies
out, so that the word has exchanged its old meaning
for a number of new ones.”
70
Lyle Campbell, Historical Linguists, 3rd Edn. (Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2013) p 222.
71
http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/192733/an-insight-on-semantic-change (last visited on 30/9/2015).
47
2.6.1. Causes of Semantic Changes
The semantic changes take place on account of the changes in social,
economic, and political life of people, the progress of culture and science. These
72
changes in notions and things influence the semantic aspect of language. Bradley
has rightly pointed out:
“When we wish to express some notion for which

we know no exact word, our easiest resource
commonly is to use the word that stands for
whatever other idea strikes as most like that which
we have in mind. This process accounts for a great
proportion of the new meanings that words
acquire.”
A word has a denotative and connotative meaning. The denotative meaning
refers to the literal meaning of the word whereas the connotative meaning stands for
its associations. Words change in both their senses and their associations. A sense
may be expand to include more referents than it formerly had (generalization),
contract to include fewer referents (specialization), or shift to include a quite different
set of referents (transfer of meaning).73 The association of a word may become worst
(pejoration) or better (amelioration).74
2.6.2. Types of Semantic Change
A number of classification schemes have been suggested for semantic change.
The most widely accepted scheme in the English-speaking academic world is
from Bloomfield.75 According to him:
72
73
74
ibid, p 210.
75
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_change (last visited on 30/9/2015).
48
Narrowing: Change from superordinate level to subordinate level. For
eg, skyline formerly referred to any horizon, but now in the USA it has
narrowed to a horizon decorated by skyscrapers.
Widening : There are many examples of specific brand names being used for the
general product, such as with Kleenex. Such uses are known as
generonyms.
Metaphor : Change based on similarity of thing. For eg, broadcast originally meant
"to cast seeds out"; with the advent of radio and television, the word
was extended to indicate the transmission of audio and video signals.
Outside of agricultural circles, very few use broadcast in the earlier
sense.
Metonymy: Change based on nearness in space or time. For e.g., jaw "cheek" →
"mandible".
Synecdoche: Change based on whole-part relation. The convention of using capital

cities to represent countries or their governments is an example of this.
Hyperbole: Change from weaker to stronger meaning. For e.g., kill "torment" →
"slaughter".
Meiosis: Change from stronger to weaker meaning. For e.g., astound "strike
with thunder" → "surprise strongly".
Degeneration: For e.g., knave "boy" → "servant" → "deceitful or despicable man".

Elevation: For e.g., knight "boy" → "nobleman".
Blank76 has made the following classification which has gained acceptance. They
are as follows:
Metaphor: Change based on similarity between concepts.

e.g., mouse "rodent" → "computer device".
Metonymy: Change based on contiguity between concepts,

e.g., horn "animal horn" → "musical instrument".
76
Supra note 73.
49
Synecdoche: A type of metonymy involving a part to whole relationship, e.g.
"hands" from "all hands on deck" → "bodies"
Specialization of Downward shift in taxonomy, e.g., corn "grain" → "wheat"

meaning: (UK), → "maize" (US).
Generalization of Upward shift in taxonomy, e.g., hoover "Hoover vacuum

meaning: cleaner" → "any type of vacuum cleaner".
Cohyponymic Horizontal shift in taxonomy, e.g., the confusion

transfer: of mouse and rat in some dialects.
Antiphrasis: Change based on a contrastive aspect of the concepts,

e.g., perfect lady in the sense of "prostitute".
Auto-antonymy: Change of a word's sense and concept to the complementary

opposite, e.g., bad in the slang sense of "good".
Auto-converse: Lexical expression of a relationship by the two extremes of the

respective relationship, e.g., take in the dialectal use as "give".
Ellipsis : Semantic change based on the contiguity of names,

e.g., car "cart" → "automobile", due to the invention of
the (motor) car.
Folk-etymology: Semantic change based on the similarity of names, e.g.,

French contredanse, orig. English country dance.
The two important types of semantic change are the semantic narrowing and
semantic broadening. Semantic narrowing, otherwise known as specialization or
restriction, is the process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or
less inclusive than its earlier meaning.77 In this process, the meaning of a word
becomes more specific and thus narrows the application of the word to which it is
77
http://grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/semnarrterm.htm (last visited on 10/10/2015).
50
attached. For example, the Old English word „deer‟ used to mean „animal‟. But by an
addition of something particular like cervidae to the sense, it refers a specific kind of
animal.78
Semantic broadening, also known as generalization or extension, is the
process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or more inclusive than
its earlier form.79 In the event of progressive changes, new concepts are required to be
expressed. When there is no exact word to express it, it is quite common to use an
existing word which is similar to the new notion. Thus a word has extended its use to
accommodate the other senses. For example, the word‟ „mill‟ was earlier a place for
making things by the process of grinding, that is, for making meal. A mill, at present,
is a place for making or processing things: the grinding has been eliminated. For
example cotton mill, steel mill etc.80
2.7. Illustrations of Semantic Broadening
A study of the following words reveals the adoption of new senses by means
of Semantic extensions.
Bank
The primary sense of the word „Bank‟ is the land along side of a river or
81
canal. It was used in this sense from the 1200 century. It was taken from the
Scandinavian source such as Old Norse „banki‟ and Old Danish „banke‟. 82 In Middle
78
79
http://grammar.about.com/od/ab/g/broadenterm.htm (last visited on 10/10/2015).
80
81
http://www.macmillandictionary.com/ (last visited on 9/5/2015).
82
http:// www.etymonline.com/index.php? term=bank (last visited on 9/5/2015).
51
English „bank‟ meant mound or a shore.83 It means a long, high mass sor mound of a
particular substance. For example; a grassy banka bank of snow.84 An illustration of
this type of bank is found in Oberon‟s song in Shakespeare‟s play The Mid Summer
Night’s Dream. He sings:
“I know a bank where the wild thyme blows,

Where oxlips and the nodding violet grows,
Quite over-canopied with luscious woodbine,
With sweet musk-roses, and with eglantine;
There sleeps Titania sometime.”
In the fifteenth century, the word „bank‟ extended to include the current
meaning of „financial institution‟.85 It was taken either from Old Italian banca or from
Middle French banque, the meaning of both the word is „table‟. Mention may be
86
made of the fact that the Old High German „bank‟ meant bench. It had acquired
this sense due to a custom followed by the moneylenders during the Renaissance
period. They used the benches as desks for the purpose of their money transactions.87
Reference may be made the writings of Bacon and Evelyn.88 The famous essayist
Bacon says that “Let it be no bank or common stock, but everyman be master of his
own money.” Whereas Evelyne referring to the Monte di Pieta at Padua writes:
“There is a continual bank of money to assist the poor.” In the sense of „bench‟, it
also referred to the „bench or tribunal occupied by the judges. For example, a „sitting
in bank‟ is a meeting of all the judges of a Court usually for the purpose hearing
83
bcagalgotiasuniversity.weebly.com (last visited on 9/5/2015).
84
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/bank (last visited on 9/5/2015).
85
an institution for receiving, lending, exchanging and safeguarding money and, in some cases,
issuing notes and transacting other financial business.
86
Supra note 82.
87
http://www.onlinebankingblog.(last visited on 9/5/2015).
88
http:// chestofbooks.com/finance/banking (last visited on 9/5/2015).
52
arguments or demurrers, points reserved, motions for new trial etc. It is distinguished
from the sitting of a single judge at the assises pr at nisi prius.89 It has also included
the senses of „set of things in rows‟ and „tier of oars‟.90 In games, it refers to
the stock or fund of pieces from which the players draw. It also stands for special
storage place (blood bank).91
Box
The primary sense of the word „box‟ means „a wooden container‟. Later it
came to refer to a container of any kind typically square or rectangular and having a
lid. For eg cigarette box. Originally, the word „box‟ was the name of a type of shrub
which came from late latin word „buxis,‟ and from the Greek words „pyxsis”
(boxwood box) and „pyxos‟ (box tree).92 In 1600 onwards, it was extended to include
the sense of a compartment at a theatre. In this sense, it also referred to a small
enclosure or area in a Courtroom, where the jury sits during the trial. 93 The historical
meaning of box is coachman‟s seat. Chiefly in Britain, a small country house used as
a sporting lodge came to be called „box‟.94
In 1832, it acquired the extended meaning of a pigeon-hole in a post office. In
1950, it has extended its sense to include „television‟.95 In technical sense, it refers to
a computer. It is especially used in the construction of „foo box‟, where foo is some
89
http:// the lawdictionay.org/bank (last visited on 9/5/2015).
90
Webster Encyclopedic Unabridged dictionary of the English Language (Portland House, New York,
1989).
91
Supra note 84.
92
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=box (last visited on 9/5/2015).
93
Supra note 92.
94
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/box (last visited on 9/5/2015).
95
Supra note 92.
53
functional qualifier.96 From 1300, the word „box‟ also came to mean a „blow‟. It was
of uncertain origin. But this word is related to the words like the Middle Dutch‟
„boke‟, middle high German „buc‟ and Danish „bask‟. All these words mean „blow‟ 97
Thus from the 14th century, it came to mean to beat or whip. From 1560s onwards, it
included the sense „to fight with the fists‟.
Bug
The origin of the word „bug‟ is unknown. The verbal form of „bug‟ means to
annoy, irritate. It has acquired this sense from the noun form of bug. 98 It is often
referred to tiny creatures that crawl along such as insects and even small animals and
not insects, such as spiders and millipedes. But for scientists the word has a much
narrower meaning, in the strictest terms bugs are those that have mouthparts adapted
for piercing and sucking.99 The earliest reference to bedbugs was in 1620s.100 From
1919 onwards, it adopted a technical sense of „equip of concealed microphone.‟ 101 It
refers to a concealed miniature microphone used for secret eaves dropping or
recording. It also applies to an error in computer programe or system. 102 It is a
generic term that describes the malfunction of undetermined origin in a computer or
other electronic device. The term originated in the 1940s when the examination of a
large computer revealed that an actual insect had landed on one of the circuits,
shorting it out and shutting the machine down.103
96
The Free On-line Dictionary of Computing. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/box (last
visited on 9/5/2015).
97
Supra note 92.
98
http// www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bug (last visited on 9/5/2015).
99
The American Heritage® Science Dictionary 2002.http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bug
(last visited on 9/5/2015).
100
Supra note 98.
101
ibid.
102
http://www.oxford dictionaries.com/definition/english /chip (last visited on 9/5/2015).
103
Supra note 99.
54
Crack
The literal meaning of the word „crack‟ is to break or to make something
break, either so that it gets lines on its surface or so that it breaks into pieces. The
word is evolved from the old English „cracian‟ to mean „make a sharp noise‟.104 In
the early 14th century, it was used to mean „to utter, say, speak talk. And in the late
14th century, it meant „to speak loudly or boastingly‟.105 It also extended to mean to
hit someone or something hard.106 In technical sense, it refers to illegally copy
computer software or change free software which may lack certain features of the full
version.107 It means to break into a computer system. The term was coined in the mid
80s by hackers to want to differentiate themselves from individuals whose sole
purpose to sneak through security system.108
Desert
In the early 13th century, the word „desert‟ referred to a wasteland. It is
evolved from the Old French word „desert‟ meaning wilderness or wasteland. It
further goes back to the late Latin word „desertum‟ which literally meant „thing
abandoned‟.109But it has acquired the sense of „waterless, treeless region‟ during the
middle English period and has become the main meaning. The other sense of desert is
„suitable reward or punishment. It evolved from the old French „deserte‟ meaning „be
worthy to have‟ ultimately from Latin deservire „serve well‟.110 The verb „to desert‟
104
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=crack (last visited on 9/5/2015).
105
Supra note 104.
106
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/crack (last visited on 9/5/2015).
107
http://www.aldictionary.com/definition/english-to-english/crack(last visited on 9/5/2015).
108
http://www.webopedia.com/term/c/crack (last visited on 9/5/2015).
109
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=desert (last visited on 9/5/2015).
110
ibid.
55
acquired its meaning to leave one‟s duty only. In late 14th century, it came to be used
in military sense from 1640. The verb „to desert‟ acquired its meaning to leave one‟s
duty only. In late 14th century, it came to be used in military sense from 1640. The
word „desertion‟ used in the sense of abandonment is one of the grounds of divorce
under S.13 (1) (a) of Hindu Marriage Act,1955.
Dock
The term „dock‟ refers to a closed area of water in a port for the loading,
unloading and repair of ships.111 The original sense of the word may refer to „furrow
a grounded vessel makes in a mud bank‟. The origin of the word is of two
possibilities. It means „ship‟s berth which may be evolved from Middle Dutch or
Middle Low German „docke‟ and ultimately from Latin ducere „to lead‟. The other
possibility is from a Scandinavian word for „low ground‟.112 The old English word
dock refers to a coarse weed of temperate regions.113 It also refers to a place in a
Criminal Court where a prisoner stands or sits during trial. Originally a dock was
crammed full of the thieves and petty criminal whose trial was scheduled for the day.
It has developed this sense from the rogue slang use of the Flemish „dok‟. It referred
to the meaning of „pen or cage for animals‟.114 Later it has included a technical sense.
It denotes a device in which a laptop, smart phone, or other mobile-device may be
placed for charging providing access to a power supply. 115
111
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/dock (last visited on 10/5/2015).
112
Supra note 111.
113
ibid.
114
ibid.
115
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/docking-station (last visited on 9/5/2015).
56
Mug
The word „mug‟ is derived from the Scandinavian word „Mugg‟. It means a
„drinking vessel‟ in 1560s.116 Before adopting this sense, „mug‟ was first of all a
measure of salt.117 From 1708, it came to mean „a person‟s face‟. It has developed
this sense from the notion of drinking mugs shaped like grotesque faces.118 It is still
used to describe a less than beautiful face. A reference to „face‟ gave rise to the act of
striking in the face. This has developed into the meaning „to beat‟ in 1818. It has
gained the new sense of „attack‟ from 1846 and then „attack to rob‟ from 1864. It has
acquired the sense of „portrait or photograph‟ in police records in 1887. 119 The phrase
„mug shot‟ referring to the photo is used from 1950s. From the act of attack, it came
to refer to the perpetrator of the assault or robbery crime.
Pan
The origin of the word „comes from the old English word „panna‟. It in turn,
has evolved from the Latin “patina” meaning dish and from Greek „patane‟ meaning
„plate, dish‟.120 In the foregoing sense, the word pan is applied to the things like the
mental container used for cooking food, a bowl fitted at either end of a pair of scales,
toilet bowel and steel drum. It has to be noted that the steel drum is a shallow in
which gold is separated from gravel and mud by agitation and washing.121 In this
sense, the verbal form of pan came to be used from 1839. It referred to the act of
116
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=mug (last visited on 10/5/2015).
117
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/mug (last visited on 10/5/ 2015).
118
Supra note 116.
119
ibid.
120
http:// www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=pan (last visited on 10/5/2015).
121
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/pan (last visited on 10/5/2015).
57
washing the gravel or sand in a pan in search of gold. It further came to be used in the
figurative sense. Such as „to turn out, succeed‟ „criticize severely‟ (1911).122
The word „pan‟ also relates to a pan-shaped parts of mechanical apparatus
from 1590 onwards. Figuratively it referred to the early firearms where a pan hold the
primig (and the gunpowder might flash but no shot ensue. Of late, it is connected
with the swirling of the camera. It refers to the „swing of the camera from one object
to the another‟.123 In India, pan also refers to leaf of the betel leaf.124 In Greek
mythology, Pan is the name of the God of flocks forests, meadows and shepherds.125
Pound
The term „pound‟ evolved from the Old Englsh „pund‟ which meant in weight
or money. It had been borrowed from the Latin „pondo‟ which originally expressed as
„libra pondo‟. It meant „a pound by weight‟.126 The pound means „a unit of money‟ in
old English. Originally it denoted a „pound of silver.‟127 Mention may be made of
Shakespeare‟s The Merchant of Venice‟ where the moneylender Shylock refers it to a
pound of flesh.128
122
Supra note 120.
123
ibid.
124
Supra note 121.
125
The American Heritage® Science Dictionary 2002. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pan
126
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php? term=pound (last visited on 10/5/2015).
127
Supra note 126.
128
The moneylender Shylock lends the merchant Antonio money on condition that if he fails to repay
it on time he must forfeit a pound of his flesh. When Antonio is unable to pay, Shylock insists on
holding him to the agreement, but is foiled by the clever pleading of Portia, who argues that if the
flesh is taken it must be done without spilling any blood in the process, as the deed specifies flesh
only. To demand your pound of flesh has come to mean „ruthlessly demand something you are
owed.
58
In another sense, it meant an enclosure for the detention of stray or trespassing
cattle. Thus in the late 14th century, it stood for an enclosed place for animals.129 The
origin of the word „pound „used in the sense of enclosure was not known. As a verb,
it has acquired the meaning of „hit repeatedly‟ from the Middle English word
„pounen‟. This is turn evolved from the Old English „punian‟ meaning „crush,
pulverize, beat, bruise which came from West Germanic „puno.‟130 Thus from the
year 1790 onwards, it has been used in the sense „beat and thrash‟.
Spring
The term „spring‟come from the old England word „springan‟ which means
„to leal, burst forth, fly up; spread, grow‟. The origin may be traced to the Proto-
Germanic „sprengan‟.131 It was originally referred to the source of a well or stream.
This word soon extended its application to the first sign or beginning of something.
From 1380 to 1600, the expressions like „the spring of the day‟, the spring of the
dawn‟, the spring of the year‟132 „spring of dai‟(sunrise),„spring of one‟ (moonrise)133
were commonly used. By the middle of the 16th century, it replaced the Celt word
“lent” which was the name of the first season of the year. It was the season of new
growth.134 At present „lent‟ is used only in religious context which refers to the period
of „fasting‟ and repentance between Ash Wednesday and Easter. The other extended
sense of the word „spring‟ is a metallic coil. It is a device, such as a coil or strip of
129
Supra note 126.
130
ibid.
131
http// www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=spring ( last visited on 10/5/2015).
132
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/Spring (last visited on 10/5/2015).
133
Supra note 131.
134
Supra note 132.
59
steel, that stores potential energy when it is compressed, stretched, or bent and
releases it when the restraining force is removed.135 This meaning was suggested by
the verb sense „to come out or jump up suddenly‟.136 As slang it refers to the release
from prison or other confinement.137 There are also recorded note of the word in
association.138 In 1843, „spring fever „means „surge of romantic feelings‟. It has
developed from the earlier sense of a type of disease or head-cold prevalent in certain
places in spring season. In 1780 „spring chicken‟ referred to „small roasted chicken‟
(usually 11 to 14 weeks). Later this sense was transferred to „young person‟ in 1906.
2.7.1. Words -Technical Sense
Bar
The word „bar‟ which means „stake or rod of iron used to fasten a door or
gate‟ is evolved from the Old French word „barre‟ in the late 12th century.139 It has
acquired legal sense. During the late Middle English period, In the early sixteenth
century, it referred to the whole body of barristers.140 It has gained this sense on
account of the railings which separated the benchers from the hall in the Inns Court.
141
After1600, this word was popularly assumed to mean the bar in the Court room. it
separated students from those qualified, and a student was „called to the bar‟ to
become a fully fledged barrister at the Inns of Court It was the wooden railing which
marked off the area around the judge‟s seat from the place where the prisoners stood
135
http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/spring (last visited on 10/5/2015).
136
Supra note 132.
137
Supra note 131.
138
ibid.
139
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bar (last visited on 10/5/2015).
140
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/bar (last visited on 10/5/2015).
141
Supra note 139.
60
for arraignment and where a barrister stood to plead. This sense was extended to
include „prisoners at the bar‟.142 It also referred to a place which separated students
from those qualified, and a student was „called to the bar‟ to become a fully fledged
barrister at the Inns of Court As it was the place where the business of Court was
done, it became synonymous with the „Court‟.143 In the United States, the phrase
„behind bar‟ meaning „in prison‟ is used from 1934. Currently, it also refers to a legal
obstacle or barrier that prevents or destroys a legal action or claim, especially one that
prevents the litigation of an issue or the formation of a valid contract.144
The origin of the term “bar” is from the barring furniture dividing a Medieval
European Countries. It also refers to a place for the sale of alcoholic and nonalcoholic
beverages. Regarding the source of the word it is derived from a contraction of the
English word „barrier‟. It is very interesting to find that the term „bar‟ is used very
differently from Anglophone speaking countries. It defines essentially a room
wherein alcoholic and nonalcoholic (like coffee, cappuceino and hot chocolate, as
well as simply foods like pizza, croissants and various sweet and savoury products
were served.
In 1590s, it is used in the sense of „tavern‟. It refers to the bars of the
barriers or counter over which drinks or food were served to the customers.145 In
Britain, it also refers to a place in kitchen where one eats his breakfast or a quick
meal. It acquired the meaning of „bank sand across a harbor or river mouth‟ from
142
Supra note 140.
143
Supra note 139.
144
http://www.yourdictionary.com/bar (last visited on 10/5/2015).
145
Supra note 139.
61
1580 onwards. It extended its meaning to include bar of soap in 1833 and to „candy‟
in 1906.146
In the field of Computer science, it means a placeholder in programming or
documentation. In 1903, it gained a new sense of „unit of pressure‟. It derived its
meaning from the Greek word „baros‟ meaning‟ weight.147
Cell
The origin of the word „cell‟ goes back to Latin word „cella‟. In the twelfth
century, the latin word „cella‟ meant‟ small monastery, subordinate monastery. In the
13th century, it denoted „small room for a monk, or a nun in a monastic establishment;
a hermit‟s cell.148 A reference may be made to use of the word „cell‟ in Shakespeare
Romeo and Juliet.149 He has used in the sense of monk‟s room. In the play, the nurse
tells Juliet about Romeo „concealment in Friar Lawrence‟s cell. It is as follows:
Nurse: “Hie tot your chamber. I’ll find Romeo

To comfort you. I wot well where he is.
Hark ye, your Romeo will be here at night
I’ll to him. He is hid at Lawrence’ cell.”
By 1722, this sense of monastic rooms was extended to prison rooms.150 It adopted
figurative meaning of brain compartment in biology by 17thcentury.It gradually
gained a modern sense of basic structure of living organisms. In 1828, it is extended

151
to include the electric battery sense. In 1925, it signified a small group of people
146
ibid.
147
ibid.
148
http:// www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cell (last visited on 9/5/ 2015).
149
http://www.folgerdigitaltexts.org (last visited on 12/5/2015).
150
Supra note 148.
151
ibid.
62
who are working secretly as part of larger political organization. For eg. terrorist cell.
In American English short form of cellular phone- a telephone that you can carry
around with you. It refers to a small compartment in a larger structure. For example
honeycomb.152
Charge
The term „charge‟ has evolved from the old French „chargier‟ meaning „to
load‟ fire in the 13th century. The French word in turn has emerged from the late
Latin word „carricare‟ meaning „to load a wagon or cart‟.153 The word came to
include the following sense; „entrust‟ „command‟ „accuse‟. In 1560s, it was used in
the sense of „rush in to attack‟.154 It has expanded the sense of burden to include
„pecuniary burden‟. It has further developed the current meaning of „price‟ demanded
for service or goods in 1510.155 It adopted the legal sense of accusation in the late 12th
century. This is in fact development of the earlier meaning „injunction, order‟ in the
late 14th Century.156 From 1769 onwards, it has acquired the meaning of „fill with
electricity‟. It means a fundamental property of the elementary particles of which
matter is made that give rise to attractive and repulsive forces. 157 It also refers to a
design, device or image depicted on heraldic arms. For eg a charge of three lion 158
152
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/cell (last visited on 10/5/2015).
153
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=charge (last visited on 10/5/2015).
154
Supra note 153.
155
ibid.
156
ibid.
157
The American Heritage® Science Dictionary 2002 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/charge
158
http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/charge (last visited on 10/5/2015).
63
Chip
The word „chip‟ has come from the old English word „for cippan‟ meaning „to
cut off‟. The noun form of the word „chip‟ means „a small piece of wood‟ which is
removed in the course of chopping of the word. The first known use of it was in the
14th century.159 Thereafter this sense has been extended to similar „pieces‟ from a
larger one. For eg. „granite chips‟.160 A reference may be made to the literary use of
the word. In 1620, it was used as „chip of the same block‟. Milton has altered this
expression as „chip of the old block‟ meaning in 1642.161 In 1769, „chip‟ stood for
„thin slices of fruits. It is very interesting to note that the current famous notion of
„potato chips‟ was employed by Dickens in his novel A Tale of Two Cities. In
American English, it gained the meaning of „piece of dried dung‟ in 1846.162
It acquired the meaning of counter used in a game of chance from 1840 163 eg
poker chip. It is extensively used in different kinds of sports. In football, it stands for
a lofted kick or stroke. Similarly in wrestling, it refers to a trickily as special method
by whip an opponent can be thrown.164
It has gained the electronic sense from 1962. It means a tiny wafer of semi
conductor material such as silicon proceeds to form a type of integrated circuit or
compound such as a transistor. Another meaning of chip is something small worthless
or trivial. For example the phrase cheap as chip was used in an advertisement in the
159
http:// www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chip (last visited on 10/5/2015).
160
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/chip(last visited on 10/5/2015).
161
Supra note 159.
162
ibid.
163
ibid.
164
Supra note 160.
64
times magazine in 1850. In New Zealand, the expression also refers to a container for
oft fruit, made of thin sheets of wood.165 It also means a thin strip of wood or straw
used for making woven hats, baskets.166
Hack
The meaning of the word „hack‟ is „to cut” roughly. It comes from the old
English word „to haccian‟ meaning hack to pieces. It dates from the twelfth century.
It is similar to the Old High German word „hacchon‟.167 In 1560, the word „hack‟
meant „use a horse for ordinary riding‟ On account of this sense, it came to mean
„to make commonplace by everyday use‟ from 1745 onwards.168 Actually the verb
sense had developed from the shorten form of „hackney‟ meaning an ordinary horse
in 1300. It is interesting to note that hackney is a place in East London of England.
During the medieval period, the horses were raised on this pasture land.169 From that
time onwards, the word „hack‟ came to be used in the sense of horse in the 14th
century. In 1704, it extended its use to carriage and ultimately led to official term for
taxi.170 It also came to mean „to cough with a short, dry cough‟ in 1802. In 1848, the
171
figurative sense „to try, an attempt‟ was adopted. In American English, it has
acquired the slang sense of „cope with‟ in 1955.172 It means to „get through by some
165
http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/chip (last visited on 10/5/2015).
166
Supra note 165.
167
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hack (last visited on 10/5/2015).
168
http// www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=hack(last visited on 10/5/2015).
169
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/hack (last visited on 10/5/2015).
170
Supra note 169.
171
Supra note 168.
172
Supra note 169.
65
effort‟. By 1984,173 it has been applied to the act of „illegally enter a computer
system‟. It means „gain unauthorized access to computer systems and data‟.174 Email
hacking is one of the most common instances of cyber crime and it is one of the most
severely penalized. In sports, it refers to a „kick or a stroke‟.175
Mouse
The word „mouse‟ is evolved from the Old English word „mus‟.176 It owes its
origin to the Proto-Germanic word „mus‟. It also adopted the sense of „black eye‟ (or
other discolored lump in 1845.177 It has acquired the computer sense in 1965.178 It
refers to a small, hand-guided electronic device for positioning the cursor and
executing commands in a computer program.179 The term mouse comes from the
appearance of the device, with the cord to the main computer being seen as a tail of
sorts. 180
Window
The word „window‟ comes from the Old Norse „vindauga‟ which means
„wind eye‟. The original meaning of the word was „an unglazed hole in a roof‟.181
The primary sense of the window is an opening in the wall of a building, the side of a
vehicle, etc., for the admission of air or light, or both, commonly fitted with a frame
173
Supra note 168.
174
Supra note 169.
175
ibid.
176
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=mouse ( last visited on 11/5/2015)
177
Supra note 176.
178
ibid.
179
Webster‟s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. (Portland House New York
1989) p 936.
180
The American Heritage® Science Dictionary 2002 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mouse
181
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=window (last visited on 11/5/2015).
66
in which are set moveable sashes containing panes of glass. 182 It has acquired the
computing sense in the year 1974. It is a separate viewing area on a computer display
screen in a system that allows multiple viewing areas as part of a graphical user
interface.
Virus
The simple meaning of the word „virus‟ is „agent that causes infectious
disease‟.183 Scientifically, it refers to any of various simple submicroscopic parasites
of plants, animals, and bacteria that often cause disease and that consist essentially of
a core of RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein coat.184 The origin of the word goes
back to the Latin word „virus‟ which means „poison, sap of plants, slimy liquid‟. In
the year 1728, it extended its application to include to venereal disease.185 It adopted
the computer sense from the year 1972. It refers to a computer program that
duplicates itself in a manner which is harmful to normal computer use.186
2.8. Conclusion
The few chosen words for the study illustrate the flexibility of the words to
accommodate any new sense in the light of the changes in the society. The English
dictionaries comprise a larger number of words than those of any other nation and
that present a variegated picture of terms from the four quarters of the globe.187 It can
be said with certainty that the history of the human life can be traced by studying the
182
Supra note 179.
183
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php? term=virus (last visited on 11/5/2015).
184
The American Heritage® Science Dictionary 2002 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/virus
(last visited on 11/5/2015)
185
Supra note 183.
186
Supra note 184.
187
Supra note 7, p15.
67
meanings of the words. Barfield has rightly pointed out that “in the common words
we use every day the soul of past races the thoughts and feelings of individual men
stand around us, not dead but frozen into their attitudes like the Courtiers in the
garden of the Sleeping Beauty”.188
The English language is well equipped to tackle any new situations in the
present or future. It has already been mentioned that there are several methods of
representing new senses. One such method is coining new words. In this manner,
many new words are added to the vocabulary every year. But only some of the words
remain permanently a part of the English word stock. Conclusively it can be stated
that the semantic generalization is one of the best process to represent the new ideas.
188
Supra note 37, p14.
68

C L Wrenn

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CHAPTER- II

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

2.1. Origin of Indian Legal Language

and French to legal English.

2.2. Origin and Growth of the English Language

The English language of today reflects many centuries of development. The

It was observed by remarkable twelfth-century chronicler, Henry of Huntington, that

an interest in his past was one of the distinguishing characteristics of man as

historical study of the English language. English is classified as a Germanic

Denmark and Northern Germany.

Englaland), the nation English (OE Englissse, Englisemon, cf also Angelcynn,

be made to the work of A.C. Baugh 8 wherein he states:

evolutionary biologist, Stephen Jay9 has stated that evolution is by definition an

ongoing process whose perpetual state is change. There is an ongoing metamorphis

within changing environment. The English Language is no exception to it. Unlike

Middle English (1066–1476), Early Modern English (1476–1776), and Modern

evinced in grammatical, phonological and vocabulary of English language.

2.3. Significance of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is always the most noticeable area of language change. In this

context, A.C.Baugh 10 observed:

In fact, vocabulary is considered to be the prominent asset of the English

astronaut diaper, colony collapse disorder, crowd source, drama-price etc.12

Generally speaking, language is enriched on account of progressive changes

formation and (3) semantic change.

“Vocabulary is the Everest of a language. There is

over 350 languages around the world. English is a vacuum-cleaner of a language. It

“They might with just as much right be termed some

extent. Mention may be made of Otto Jesrpersen19 observation:

“Three very important factors in the development of

2.4.1. Celtic Influence

Devonshire, Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Gloucester, Worcester, Lichfield.

2.4.2. Latin Influence

“Latin was not the language of a conquered people.

places have these endings such as Chester, Colchester, Dorchester, Manchester,

school, master, Latin (possibly an earlier borrowing), grammatic(al), verse, meter,

be made of few borrowed Latin words:27

Sixteenth century : exit, genius, areas, fungus, miser, circus, vacuum,

Seventeenth century : torpor, specimen, arena, apparatus, focus, album,

Eighteenth century : nucleus, inertia, alibi, ultimatum, extra, insomania,

Nineteenth century : opus, ego, moratorium, referendum, bacillus

2.4.3. Greek Influence

As there was a revival of learning in Greek and Latin works in Renaissance,

anonymous, catastrophe, criterion, ephemeral, heterodox, idiosyncrasy, lexicon

lithography, epidiascope, ophthalmoscope, stereotype, telephone, cinematograph,

photography30 telephone, (tele„far‟ and phone„sound‟) phonograph (sound-writing)31

are the illustrations of word combinations.

2.4.4. Scandinavian Influence

An important impact on the English language was caused by the language of

“Axle-tree, band, bank, birth, boon, booth, brink,

Scandinavian places-names35 in England. The word ending in „by‟ referred to a

of land. They include Applethwaite, Braithwaite, Cowperthwaite, Langthwaite,

came to be known as Danelaw. On account of it, a number of Scandinavian law terms

justice and legal affairs.39

2.4.5. French Influence

is one of the great fundamental formative influences on the English vocabulary.40

The English vocabulary was also enriched by dialectal differences of the

2.4.6. Other Influences

made of Lord Mountbatten‟s statement.53 On August 14th 1947, he expressed that

chintz, tussore,55 brinjal, jaggery, mango, banyan, teak, anaconda. 56

2.5. Word Formation

example, apple-tree, Blackbird, downfall, breakfast, spendthrift, turnkey, break up

saw, squander, thump, etc.

based on literature, folklore, commercial brand names such as atlas, chimera,