France under the Germans Collaboration and Compromise Philippe Burrin ‘Translated som the French by ase Love "HE NEW PRESS | NEW TOREsn Eons sa nut inn © noe ar ‘Aine No a bok epee iw an pri tt sae "She tseesease ttedin th nln soe es Neo “Db 1 Nonoe Compe Nea ‘phe hoes ey ens sugges ‘eee pur Te Pres pet aly he ae ‘ys er an fr pc ph ‘Seine oof tint em ‘Srl omnia ie Pea ot ‘Srnec piney iene cue No ey eth eh ny ( | Contents Preface to the Bagh edition ‘Aswowledgements, ‘Abbreviations Map Inraductin 1. The future of defeat 2. An undecided present 3. A present past 44 The masters ofthe moment ore 1 Reasons of State 5. France for itself lone 6. The machinery of occupation 7. Montire The Darian era 9, Endless negoratons 1. The return of Laval 11. Puppet Viehy Pert 1 Accommadations 12, Puble pinion 13. The French and the Germans 14, The Church andthe asocatons vm 1 2 ° 6 ars 10 160 "5 7 wr1. ca 3s 2 2. 5. Busines lenders Captains of industry ‘Money manipulators Rogues and menials Sprechen Sie deutsch? Teeloctunls and self pretrvation Inter orma silent Masse ‘The signng-up ofthe Muses Anti-france ‘The Pals Fronde ‘Abetr let wing ‘The notabler ‘The hard right Party members and military men ‘lie ‘The rout concn ‘Tables Notes Index “ at an 21 ses = 39 aw He 58 as +9 ws12 Public opinion ‘mos, who had spent the war Sn Brasil, wrote after his return to Prance: If one could «plot 2 graph of the chances ofan lied victory precisely, month by month, between 1940 and 1943, ‘one would Rotice that, through’ curious application of the od Principe of elementary physics that of communicating vessels it (vincded perfectly withthe curve ofthe increasing numbers sup- porting a hypothetical Victory Party, ft fra German victory, then {oran lied victory" Bat this pamphleteer, who had penned a moral portrait of Vichy with such inspired violence wat mistaken about the attude of mort of his compatriots ihe relly thought them 0 fnxlous to be on the rght side and so prompt to switeh camps fn ‘onsequence. His representation is cloefo another that ix even more ‘widely known, that ofthe metamorphosis oferty milion PEanists Into forty milion Gaullsta Nelther does Justice to Pench public pinion on collaboration. One should not only take acount of is ‘road tendencies and how they evolved, but also understand their cohesion and internal force = ell ar remembering the waverings snd mobility of people's minds, At Claude Mauriac corectly observed, ‘What French person would be capable of recognising everything he or she thought and sid (let alone did) under the ‘occupation? Dictatorships are always curious to disover the state of mind of the people that they gag Vichy and the oceupler were constantly monitoring the pulie of the French people The German suthortes 1d at their disposal the network of Rommandatren and Props gande-Staffetn, the antennae of the SD and the Abweht, and the ‘Wehrmacht armament service (@he W., Ri-Stab). They could also keep am eye on the free sone through the control commssions that ™Accommodations went ont ound o eae tht he amie term wee beng ‘Spec. Only the eabany wat short fees andere In order toto belt ou i cenad seinen servic, Spaying \frencimen ie hal manftced. am ieee dn is preps Inner Tete aime of eg a dnp 99 cores |Fasdens 308 of who wee led and teed calabro, (Tim tle i organs oesonaier fr Ay forthe ech foverment ft onened tn adminton that ep it minty te Ta the fee tone, where had feta of movemert treat oo Gar w © yous ia ome no pete eurenmndence Miltary men dapendd with thet Bonou aa ined ote phone conversion inerepedelgrme od ach ek ploughed | Betsey through seer andre! ound ler Te pone | them with mate on ih to bse pete rected noel || emote hl dese ge accurate sunt nd thei fa of ‘ing eplesure® ‘A crmcton ofthese sources shows, beyond any doubt, at she claim prowl i 10 by the shove of dat and the {love bearng othe Grane doula he atu, ‘Sebintion of Bish estan the aggravation othe Sap {on andthe prospect fying winter rom at manent on most Sf the poplaon wanted Wcery for Engadine {Guards elaboration tntinents tat ranged fron spin © Sci. Prom mi-198) on the Geman tack onthe SSR lowed by the hasta executions nce both the ius and the seg of tat tendon. rp the Reo and te aed lindlngr fn. Noch. Ae, dei colsbortiog defaiivly Even the boglsh bombing rade which took tho ill of ore tid mee tow dot vere pale opinion two ely surpsing The condivon ht played guns | vicky were overwhelmingly untavoursbe. Germany’ nage, which vr fled with ep che snd prey even ifthe ely | diye the occupation undermined thee ail feds bulwark of aie tion. Ait fo the pce of repesion an pre ono the acepying power won ceed ont of bared Tc ST thatthe searntoas pepeted by the commis we toe the summer of t94t by quargenrl disapproval bute ‘vary of he enring repress som changed ater On op of She os sono cxpotaton on e ak ht Seeded al ‘xpectaton. 1s deiged to impoveruh ths exte papoaon 18 Pubic opinion and did indeed gradually come tafe even those wn ad tit managed to de “The occupies Squeezed the country lke 4 enon and could only _tiort 10 propaganda to stempt to psuade te french tat twas alfor ther ow good Tey did so with the rete energy turn fut Brochures tracts and porters By the milion ood the pres fd cinemas with images beated with cre ad sometimes with Considerable talent The embassy isl, for bor propoganda wat cerinly not the rime miso, dstibted over milion aifeent tochures, ro mllion tracts, and 400000 copies of twenty tree Alerent posters in the space of to years” well ay Inunchiog taelf ito the product of ne ab plas snd constructing & Publis empire that cyentually came f0 Monopole anos Ei he periods of ars” Resulted ot mettre upto al ees efforts and such lavish cxpendtare. The oespiers wore oiged to ecgune the supremacy ‘tthe Engl and Onli propgands. Al they Soul do wes ry Tit fs tnluence and dusae the French from aca on ei sympathies, So long asthe German smc ete sweeping all before “hem: Gosbbss’ propaginds machine wale o convey se imag ‘ponee and desiction Impressive enough to paralyc semps st ive resistance” “ip Tr the Vicy reine, oo bad setup considerable appa sus. under the tection st Maron I wae ply igpred by ie ‘ropepanda of the conqueror and it sufered the sme diced! {The BBC bradcas and the diffson of ramoars hese fo the ‘epi roght Peach people tebe and separ them bees {Be copes and Mkewise oe te poveramer "Eas not long Before the majry of French people rejected cela Bat wilt ica varnton oa the asso Sober Lt us leave sie Alice sad arp, whee lbabants ‘wee subjected io the rely ef minesaton and pemaniaston, There a perl sens of absdooment preville abence ef public poets fom Vihy ws ltexpied a scence etre ‘at ccnp Tn the prohibit aon the reject of colbert ‘ees both massive and immediate, amore of thee orrpaion ‘tere revived bythe measres~ thou equlvalstdlewhare= tat ‘Wee taken thee the very fe moots: hg mumbo hostages, ‘rere then men were selzed in the ate for deportation to he ech and, in one lly. eve women were rounded” wp for sytaccologiea! examinations The Fencon ot public opinion fo the 19Accommodations | ut of thee mesures wat so rong that he Germans dsoctnued | sec nigel prac inbred em the previous coat” ‘ere oo sexsi seed 1 Jom, sharpenag the sesso bsg etende by Vichy whoweplil incisions hed oehing ‘commend then fo tht bien of scl and‘ ade unonsm FRrtermoe the tage ofthe nish wat tadcnlly favours here oo tt by ant lage creghiog conbloed to tne the Dopultion to Conds ti amisice fale wos toe found ‘ong the bourgeoisie but mow cnr It wat Tesmpied by ‘ejeston of he frelg ples. ibe occupied non the cejesion of collaboration wat less tmaedlate: bat spread que apy Ina report produced Sp tember 190, Qe lly of the Wehemaie armaments sevice (Grew Rta) expected auc bot gral andthe tame sine gut ube Judgement: “he populon is x the whale cm, cexoaly welling, But most of oe ine reserve a Sous Eien pouively Rowle™ forthe goverment as Tor the ont pique ciciaed or roe Iran a ong may ty pened tle impotent and wl fer cllaoraon, A cent ‘ben the poral ceralpsumaried the stustion a flows Pot the people of tbe Supe Sone the very mention oC Se oe ‘Slabs crake ew Se of he pope of Alc nd torre cjeied fom tr homes an another, no se oro pending ie lain was spared, however and copia cloy ¢ eof twa rn denied aloe ‘a ping gs he pv cnsthip dting ae paie ‘pnt i the ncpled sone wasn all vost Vichy ‘Eien thine ‘ur ofthe Marta it nt peat vey fr Te he Gee sone opinion was vied ont colbert’ eetion a Bele: guical noe Tnmedite Tbe Inhalants Wee woke ‘Spore Vichy propaganda, mare afte! byte opal of ean wh, they ier won poet them ant tm unde ‘Bic exenin ofthe orapatin, tr national evltcs, which met ‘rsh amor teller’ had lt do with Ks populr {phe rope rood hgh publi opinion becuse tgp then the presthr othe Germs eying to Iproe relia eween the tw tone nd 0 get the Poneto. Demis slp: wich inetd. fr more of population stan the eeepnd Soe flowed the Marsh ad one ted to tar lenge" alter some relianly. Thanks to Pe ‘perch, Matar eh pepe eng» mina of hope and ame. Publi opinion ee Seeger pee eee eth aie ere ee aes aaa aes rn ee ce eee gal ng se a no cea tees eee ea eee eee ete e poy eee ee plang flipldidin areerereer ee cara eoeeiaes ener as a ee ara eas Ser eer ea eee ae pagename rae ene irae ees ae eee er ee “peng cone ed ceo ly she ea a ene a ee a ig go ered he era OS, a a rea ea oe pana tena commie ha eet Spe ee Se ee et say ep ol re oa eden reenter tron geome "Semen yh apt ae ie al sont ee eras ee ie te eee oud ae oy of enim ei ‘ume ee emis heme hsp es external policies, At that time, they had encountered no hatred in ee ae ar ee ae ee hem en ey em Se eat SE en ee Pe ae ene gee Biome sazet by ae ve ee coy eee eS eae Fe er as mageAccommodations Pain to deliver his speech about ‘the evil wind’. He thereby gave « leg up to the minority current of opinion that supported the ational fevolation, which thereaer hardened in its denunciation of those two oppored i. The situation continued to deteriorate none theless. "ihe teed for a policy of collaboration with Germany seems to be accepted by no more than quite limited number of Fench people the second to last survey ofthe year reported, Peain's position continued to weaken despte the fat that his prestige remained ‘considerable and his stock rose fom te to ime sates speech tt January rpea, in which he spoke of bis ‘emi-aptvity’ In the ‘pring of toya the contra commissions observed that ‘Down with ‘Pease raf were no longer a rarity and that in many ples his sppearance on The cinema screen was no longer gested with spplause™ Laval return staf new wave of doubts and speculation, in an atmosphere of roserve and dirtrur. But even at tls date. pat of ble opinion Femained unconvinced af the ftiity ofall Vichy’ forts, However, t could aot swallow Laval’ speech, Hi wish fr 2 German victory was grected with tense emotion’ and “general upefacion’ "In the autumn of 1942, the Viehy services reog- Sized the file of thelr offical plies In generis possible fo ‘detect in the attitude of those questioned the growing feling cat, il things considered, it would be better to adopt an atltude towards Germany that openly corresponds "tothe wishes of the ‘vast majority” of Prench people, even af the price of the risks fnvolved. given that now the Reich “isin command nthe fre ‘one [usta ti in the occupied sone”. That solution would have the advantage of cestoring the national ually that i compromised by the demaretion Hine”? One month before the lndingr and Pétain's ‘confirmation of his polis, many people had sieady come tothe ‘conclusion that thete was no longer any Justietion for Vichy Petsin® aura was, however, not toally disipated. As 2 public ‘gore, he continued to be rerpected tothe biter end by part of the population, which elt eompasion for him and regarded him as 3 symbol of their sufering country. Meanwhile 2 by ‘D0 means Seglgible faction, despite thinning ranks, condnued to reqard ‘im asthe country’s leader andthe emblem of «political struggle “The majority tendency to reject collaboration et room fra current that favoured ithe importnce af which, up unt 1943, should not be discounted, Between September 194t and May 1942, the posta Pubic opinion ‘rasorship ofthe fee ane radon average 00000 letters cach week ‘Thesubjct mit reqenty evoked food supplies conceraed oly ‘percent ofthe eters: rench pepe above all wie about thet familes and their heath. Depending on the wees, esncen ce sad oo eters (0.5 pr cent of percent ofthe foal] contained allusions to Pein, the vast maori o them favourable Reference to alle oration appeared in nly 700 01000 letters (2 per cat o 0.3 Pet fn). een 2 nd 30 er tf these wee pst spate tie in tour anda percent ll were ln Apel-tny 194 Although these figures cannot be dled to et ona represent tive sample, they do provides rough indication that cacy wth ‘Geman estimate which se reeton a 4 per cet. ogy Dt seem too unreasonable to suggest thie up uit Ipq2 the cleat ‘rvouring collaboration concered. on average bxtwera one-quarter 4nd eoesfth ofthe French people in the fee one and between ‘nest and anesthe he country a whole This woul ser Al amour several million people ay tore than te member Ship of the small collaboration parte, But to wht exact was that gppoval ges? would be maive to'tsagine that twas folly cme, herent and contin “Three major views of collaboration aeaecle fom the sports based on the Vichy ccasorahip The Sst was that of tallaborstion. The defeat had reveled the enced sate af France: Lit provided achat for reform accompanied by an enente with the /~ ‘Gonguezoe Bor sme, the ater needed tobe lite to politcal and “iplomatic alignment’ others went ro far a argue for a milary allince and co-telligerence against the Soviets or even against the ‘Anglo-Saxons. some reckoned that collaboration plied following the Nazi_mode) others simply that it was compatible with an ‘uthortarian regime as invented by France. “The second view af collaboration was of realitic’ varlety: ket se not, Gectan daiation in Europe was there to say. France had to adjust its politics Ih wished to safeguard the future, bepining Dy delending ts possessions agnnst fe Galliats and iBe Bch “This position was frequently associated with tbe hope of #Uenlese paice that would restore a dignified role to conqueved France and Ita Bwvourable peace treaty with Germany, which semed Unlikely-to be defeated, This wat the major Inspiration of Vicky's ppoltcy buts existed alongside a current more influenced by the ‘providenta’ view of collaboration Benois Méchin, Marien, Bon- sird, etc), According to portal censorship, the second view (of 3Accommodations zeal collaboration) was shared by some ofthe population. Thus, ‘98 8 November 1941, a report rn 3 allows: ‘People catinue tobe Allighted that both the Germans and the Russians are sffering heavy losses ‘They are hoping that eventually France wil act af a intermediary for «compromise peace” (bethird view was of cllaborstion as an expedient: policy accepted with suspicion and resigation, in the short term, nthe ‘hope of obtaining angi alleviatons to rance's ot. Most reach people didnot believes: Dalan did, that an English victory would bbemore coy for France than s German one. But they were not all confident ofan English victory, and many feared what a lengthy Wat ‘would cost thers. Germany was nota rusted parte, but Ia ple SE ecconmordatica orld eccve afew advantages WBY BHC AEE De ‘mom of ie? Just 20 long asthe future was not compromired and, ove al, France didnot swing over into a war against the Anglo” Saxons. Tis patently clear that, out of these Unee vews, support wat strongest forthe third, ad weakest forthe Bret aS most French people tempted by Penn's polite belonged to the third ¢ategory. This faction of the population followed the government woerng between hope, sceptiiam and resigastlon But prepared, the lat inalysig oalow themselves tobe convigced A synthesis of “he reports ofthe prefers inthe free soe, for November 1941, 00, ‘the sebject of collaboration, after noting that Is supporters were Sil few in number, continued: ‘On the whol, public opinion finds ‘his policy repugnant it wil submit to it forced to, considering it 2s 2 strictly provisional olution designed to play for time to ‘leviate the weight of the occupation, and to obtain a number of Jnmediate advantages (in partclar he return of prises). But ‘will continue to hope fr an Anglo-American victry™ Vichy wat ‘wae that this was more oles the only remaining popular basis for {ts polices and war all the more masous to make them pay of "The partisans of collaboration ifthe word partiane can be used fn conjunction with an attitude Uhat wat in many caser £0 208, uncertain and lacking in confidence ~ seem to have been draw ‘monlyfom the bourgeoisie and the middle clases, to judge fom the scattered notations in the censorship reports, Bu they were also {e be found amongst prisoners of war and ther families, whom ‘Vichy treated with considerable care. The postal censorship reports tress the Petainism ofthese cles and thelr support for collabora ‘Hon. In the autumn of 1941, one even sated that im the occupied 14 Puble opinion ‘one support ‘came sel from the familie. of prisoners af war’ 1 sill existed in November 42, “manifeing self through thee loyalty-tothe Marsa the tase that most of them place In the head of government, and a qulte general anglopbbia’ a fr the Prisoners sil n the camps: their opinions were mixed they were ‘Strongly attache to Pein, but deeply divided over clortion $epieted pesoers however sem to Have Ba le equvcl ag othe postal survey “a very. ge number of them suppres play oceans Thc coat owe ie "uation wat sla they reckoned the liberated prisoners to Be thai bs propaganda ajens fr cllaboration _Vichy’s politics had the support of no more than 2 minority, and “even that_was_ftagl,_shaky_and_ winding One might ave ~expeted ft be altoetber crushed by the majority opinion. How ejection of collaboration was not neesarly ether absolute oF On he Sof Gone pane Heme et twine ihe Geman ha be mae ve ceo ‘ey weuld ct hee te ley seats sand wet ute sow septa sco the hope af des fhuly coca by the Cesaip ops sorng to mck [Fesalernion poe gis tou wold alr we slant Be cond pl, swt ping out that commanicng eset to erst range hy eer es Tule opnon te conerned agains of eaten, 2 isancing ftom Vichy di net eteae the level of este = cary imac nah tay eed in dope sy at a ober iu ea ‘fp iour hfe tera a ay etd he pols Sone enh the Geman ete a ido one ‘The mow ior tg ens colton the wees aint so hoe of var nt yn hata Saray pene tnd cert eso mae the Pence Tooley dle ogee for coe. Met ere Ping an Enis ity fat cae hwy hove beled i ee {runy ate nx fte ough thas ope ew sen ‘time et tw een cael ey the pores ote te The extent othe nero py fd the Jo ‘Sloper iy the being often pve yt me‘Accommodations Aepresson, asthe German offensive fm the Bast revived the disap- potntnent ft atthe inaction or reverses ofthe Allies Even strong Ici minds, as well informed ae wa possible weat through crises of lube up unl the landing i North Afi” A poigaat example pumber of conscripted people for Germany inthe sumer ‘1943, 1:400m a Sicily had been taken by the lle and Masuli i is lef anticipation ie ruppled by the sudden collapse ofthe | ad an. tthe first third of r943 they numbered 17997 inthe last three months, 12951” Burler most of those requisitioned || Se'eors Saeco { rltary events indicated that liberation wae nt far of. The onks ofthe Maquls wer swollen by young men who were then to fae ‘esting winter. This ‘average’ reaction of public opinion provides the tackground against which to set the impressive courape ofthe ny stinority who had opted for resistance eve in the frst fo years. To doo presupposed a quite unurual level of faith that doc great credit fo thee men aod women, “The tials of dally life were furthermore very rea and, even at | toe military ‘situation began, piflly slows, to evlve ta the ight direction, there were still no allevitons in fact quite the reverse. When they spoke of the hard timer’ they were living ‘hough, French people Festored full memning to that over-wed expression. ‘What with ffozen salir and rising. pricey real wages dropped by 37 per cent between 1938 and 1943 ~ and ‘that ls simply an average” The weak and the disadvantaged were afflicted by penury that provoked growth problems amongst ‘hildren, higher death cate amongst the elderly aad. sterp Hise in accidents and sickness amonget workers, many of who suffered trom partial unemployment up until 1943.” Om top of ll this, virtually ‘everywhere people had to endure pata sepa Lions, with families diapersed in diferent zones prisoners of war held” captive far away, and increasing mumbery of displaced ersons and rege a rnult of alied bombing raids onthe ‘The existence of the Vichy regime compounded al thee difeu- tie for many considered it the legal i ot legitimate, government. For some people the national revoltion introduced confusion, hesitation 6 the score of the enemy, and doubt over pric Such approval as greeted Vichy’ lateral policies even led some of those who rested ight from the tart, such as emay and ‘General Cochet, to adopt acrobatic positions ever Mamita” 186 Public opinion eain's popularity, even when it had eroded, mitted apes fection of alubraton and even mere alowed dows ts tat | ton ito acions. A sense of aitude in the face of the war that ragged on and on, sods longing for apedy sangemest seo couraged vacation arung even howe wh deity approved falas, nally. the Germans in the own fon alt promoted par 1 the fst pace trough thelr vetoes, which encouraged {he oton that sctosmodaton wa Ineviubl then through chat Iseture of epresion. which boca Snceaogly intent From the summer of 194? onwards, and theaty undrined the perils of active opposition. In to4o German itary ena ad Condemned eight people to dsthy between January snd September {out the gure war fiy-one: between September Yet ant March {94a ltjmped to 36 sed to ich i tht las pero, hosage recto talmed 333 vin There was Bley to cow th ‘French and they an hardly have derived much sae fom ome paring thi lotto tht of Cental and Earn Burope, ined {ey were even aware oI a Sebi In tha sume period beeen Sepember init and Match p43, 27905 people wee Cece, ver aoeco ‘of them by may of repens i aes enone cen have been stonger if the Germans had cotincd exec owtigs see om mange he “ota. a hey “din the pst. By exceutng Jews and mms intend het aim = party sizeoful it mun be said ~ we fora cee coaglct ‘Ani all the repenive and-cxlotatve Sspects os polices id leave soe pokes of feed, under saline det to ups Gr i oan a lmurements, and thee encouraged isons of somal Tt “inteerting to. spect wht would have bappened arin Foland. schools univerties ema tester and. pushing Howse had een closed down, "Thee conditions het many French people cocoon rh othe 9d ejeton‘ofoccation and calbocron exe ngs + “Goze smply to et through I al for many people the phoney war lasted right rough to 194. Apia) Babhow Pash Imig who fey an Invaable dary chonicing he occpation ‘itl i Decmber gio tat a actry ese, wing hm ak of ‘See t Hogan, reo: “One bis to ere onc ows le ving. and thats all there fs to "Ue was an attude Oat Infrted those who were resting, sometime to We pnt of 187‘Accommodstons Public opinion | deppte. Guhenno speaks of ‘postration’ in February 1a, then, of the most notable eects of this stmospher, more detectable in (2ne yea ater on the mubect of thedlence to the SO aed ‘me circles than in others, was the tendency co hang bck behind “his ene country is by ow nothing but a fighter ne brlder spirit, Keeping one's own counsels a otto sick one's asm’ aay istehing othe conversations ofthe papi fos ‘ec out inthe event of Germany lng te war and the sae ‘pei the sprig of 1944, he comments: ‘Stl the sue ear te Une Keep 3 fot Inthe door in ete it was Wctrous fame fo. People are tered. They ae way of everyting, the Ty miG194), diferences of atte, were tuck sharper and ‘the Russians; all hey can think abet it references to the Dreyfus afar were fequent. The prefect of ough witout coming to any har ea tthe Falter nthe satan of 14 "We a bck he eat mass of this country, nothing mats excep uri se Ind ed. dayy of the Dray aa, with dep divisions even in i “ families. People are classifieds partisan either of collaboration or Daring theft wo years ates, the tite of he majority was of General de Gale” And in December 1942 Claude Macrae 2 far removed from 2 firm. aggresive state of nd 2) ete wrote: vs snow Dreyfos alse". my father told bis brother {utude ofthe minority. So mach was cea rom the prodence and Plre who was passing trough Pri They are themselves divided isreton shown by virtually everybody. tn March qt, Poco by ich a chasm that they doe not talk to each ober without wrt “Have tld you that i he Hite sro where disks cee creme prudence" very moring in the company of five or sk working nes gl "AS tine passed, the reference to the Dreyfs afar lot prt women from the quarter never the sume ones, In all hes thon, ‘ence Gradually a the cours ofthe war disipated uncertainty and | sands of cospaints over tree mothe have neve hes ste Pur sop tothe qurcs that this ad oeasoned,colaborson | mention of the Germans, 1's mater of prudence, digisy fog Exme tobe reed less a les aban option and more and more ethaps a miatare of al thre" Genel Doyen nated the shack fran act of trexchery ny the summer of 194%, stead of lokng story wat desired by the marty but as aiff ge ae ‘back othe Dreyas aff poople were already thinking in tems of ls plete a people were so pent. "Thee who favour Coenen) punlshmest and pees. in July that yar, Angelo Tase, a socast Ie 208 very proud of the fact anywoy, and those who frvout ‘eho had aed te Vhy. noted with considerable alarm what be bad England areata of having ther hope dathed or Catto Nee ‘oar fom a Parsi cotac ‘as son the Germans go there will {heir oplaion because ofthe possible consequencer™ In Nay Pace be deaths many: thousands Everyones ooking forward to the day ‘Mare Bloch wots fo Lucien Rebre“One othe things thats ‘when certain people wil be torn to pieces” Such thinking was | ‘me most tay is hove impose is fer ay a ast hao he at Simos paleo the end of the fllowig month, when people | j osest neighbour is thinking and doing. One emesis eas learned ef the atsasioation temp against Laval and Dt AS astonishing dscoveies I certunly have" Sometimes the motive ic CGathenno note, the people of ars ad ‘reat ifialty In cone this prudence war afer of being denounced, but een was wove sealing thee Joy’ the joy of horying hatred’ Pauthan had the fea of bing wrong or bing beled pablo grat wie cect Sine iupreston in a tle isto fn the sinteenth arrondissement, uncertainty and so persistent heir confson as to what war or twhere regulary workers and unemployed ten, were sled by 8 "ight wise or opportune “range Jo's dexp and sent T shall ever forget that Ide old Jae the ext dys, cllaboraion was sil sinply an opinion that ‘ooktnder who was literally trenling with oy his normally wise /aivided people it dlogused many but it wa tied nod at countenance suddenly wid. hat show te Coammune must have ‘coud apree to ifr aver im May 1941" Deca oot he es ‘Sido at least bos prepared fr"! The ea of retbuton was work (Eertsde jeunes) to Gudhenna dediesting ts flor: Ae cverythere, On 10 September tot, RemandLaurent spoke 0 token of our perfect duagreement which is recipent fey ct SCanneney the president of the Senate ofthe ned for 8 ity rather lee of hin’ tn ebraary 1041, Pango Mauriac ad repr Yiten to Ramon Fernandes: ‘Our politcal dngresmee eat ‘The susimer of 194 certainly marked trai plato rather ‘othing to Pench people who drink from the sn springs = One ‘he beginning of staring point, one that developed gradually, nat 88 189‘Accommodations bout reveals and only raced clint the end of ‘The atmosphere of those fat two yes even then vied sod Prise, with undertow of ln hated renga song, fing, bat sll coed by mary uocetanice Senate he tekground to accommodsion of many Kinds 130 13 The French and the Germans [IVD Bat ot te country ta hy he the Germans amped their mark upon the Preach landscape. They made their presence ‘widely fot by being both seen und heard, Even when invisible they Invaded people's mince even their dreams. The presence of the Intruders whether palpable ot Imapned, made It necessary for people to undergo a kind of apprenticeship in attitudes and modes ‘behaviour. The problem war forcefully and immediatly posed ‘whenever coutacta were made, pariularly wen the occupey tok. the form of, nota compact military unit, but oe individual clad in ‘the enemy uniform. Not everyone could aeld such contacts. Some tolerated then, osheis accepted of even sought them. They were bound to occur inthe context ofthe requisitioning of Billets or of| professional, social, sexual or romantic relations. In some eases the Contact would be anonymous and indgec, af la the case of ‘denunciations, ‘When it came to fadvidaal behaviour, fed withthe Germans, te French were very much on thelr ob Memories‘ previous experiences where they existed of they did et, some’ nd of Instinct, sometimes prescribed a line of conduct. But when the cocupler presented am attractive face, was he sil to be treated in ‘Sccordance with thowe ancedralrellexer?‘The politics of the new ‘epme seemed to indicat that some kind of revision warn order Aid the vacilations of public opinion, The bate of representations that developed quite independently of any offical intervention Was symptomatic. During the exodus, on Werth considered thie question very ‘aefully He had been born in the Vorges, nd remembered many Stories from his childhood, such asthe one heard many times over 91Accommodations ‘Sout am ant for whom, i 1870, 4 Geran ocr had arranged a ‘Betog with her pruonerhusbnd. She had faced isa ot ‘scene: how shoul he thank hin? Wi adore ination ‘the het or by shaking hs hand” nthe even she she i and, but tity years tr wail agonsog seat Werth watched the frst comacts ook pace: deplving these of hs coapao wie ‘i not ‘tha with ach conse mate wih le Carmen fone mesure however smal four diguy et sake Swe the ey wor dig. The sight thing fo do was submit, wit {roveling,notovestep a constrained cbedenc suc ani ducta say egiimate authority: “Whether to scope anything il thatthe nemy canna force upon you neds to be thought shout Yery cae, fly” But what the ennty ws nsisting upon nothing and ened fend? Werth himself experienced one uncomfortable deme at thiskind witha noncommisoned ofc who ed orepy im or hie companionship wth packer of obsccy and anther when the sole bile on his farm oltre then cone af pamophone ‘cords Werth wid to recone spoon as conquered Pench tan witha minimum of ivy: We const wo separate prope ‘without howl, but lo without over” “The question ofthe correc attade to adopt was key symbolic Issue wth regard 0 ath the resistance and the collation that vere burgeoning. In text poblshed ia oe ofthe ft ins of Drie ta Rochell's WRF, chardonse sanctioned an aude tat Involved god-hertedes in nfoanate ccumstanoy whe he spprovingly described a sene that he sore to be ef whch ‘ite rome Inthe Charente sid oa Gran er’ woul peer {have invited you~ But cant change te way tha thing re jy my epi you with nd eng ee remy was promoted othe ats os gests tomorow pony ie fa fend. Chardonne inew tht this was nut the behave erly expected. Under fou sack, he peste by trang {be argument of dgaty upside down: “hat gesture of the pens vom Beyond the tadon of sig broke Grough te fl ha of dees rom the pit of view of vesanc, what you nade to do wat designe the enemy cul sa rere» Sandan ge ok that woud render any corre behaviour on his pus Recara ‘heat ny misplced ceey on Yours snd cet you Goo many fut an individual benenth the uafrm, The behaviour preseribed Boied down to erecng a wall Bewetn the Drench and the Gee roa “The Pench and the Germans sens! As exly m July 1540, Jem Tenciey, a mii soci, Produced "ite manval on aigalty’ entitled Cones & ecrpé evecommended acting‘orety bt without ning any saves Inthe deco of the ascuplers pretending not to odestabd thet language dicourepng ther stems to eter ato conversation in Frost refusing tr witch the eney padi’ ad aring a deat ‘arto propane cven when wed the Pench pres and radio. It tras a code of conduct designed to aiuene though a8 wal at ‘clone diguiedatude should ot be acompanied by “cle tert’. colocted the stmcephere ofthe fret semer of ‘ccupaton” 90 hate, no cll to armed resistance, pence {one and a ene of humour whic, however ano way undermined femmes cvty was hcepae of coune aoe responded when ‘Sind a quien in Pench or requested fea ight” The sve {Bren was aed at people wwe tomas with the cep Wee ly scent an person Pin Le Silence de la or, Werces tired fam the srt t the intimacy of the home, and st the sandards higher. The novel is bout san and Bis nce who are German offer billed on them. Werner von Hbrenac fsa cmporey he loves Pance and sl et bee sft ete th ae lags of sypathy the Pench rere tito sence. The menage Of he sory te toed. sane ft, the gay of reco, ‘ended in pariculr by the who refures retin of sy Kind ‘wih hs ma rho ithe Very embodiment ofthe good Germany the Semany of inkers and micans secondly, ie inpssbity of Colcbortioe: even if he epi aa persons pte every god ‘quai, hee og machin designed to dertroy Prance. Vercors {pit am enciny ed by the power tat he serves and riven fo {BE pot of expr when he rennet “the mage the Gorman opie whch Vercors was bing was probably not very wiespesd even during the fret two years evertelas lite ecclers manta, his novel was emblem of ¢ ‘Staton wth the occur inge was Hntred andthe econ ofthe scoped cae woe tonptng to allow oneself to be {ken in by appearance to treat the cum ifn ars pret ‘Sy an ering ety sod dro. De dwn eath hi ry 3 powetal longing to return to normal and individ cso ned dpe tga he man hms fom the comiry be came fem andthe regime e served. At MeranPony wrote after the war We had to ream all the aAccommoitons a sarge em tin a Ice fe ncn ered sis oa Seer emer sean eae masts aa se ea std ay ph Spee Re alee eae Sean er ama a mmc a Sa circa cere Set we ga ther invinibilty Myths cele about the eecapirs oe aking pce Ag ai ret ruth eanainn don Sear eh oy te SSE ae ie Pe Sea PD oat ei i Sn een ee ap sacs erga HE ae rgertng themselves, ma Tit ee mmyceeremee ace tes ate nn tes Asm ei a seesicesa ce ace Sop iva nes eat eae ctihpesmerae nce te Sie asec pene gro SSR Serer sions hacia ce seater eine cig ey ise eel St Sacer ll ie ee ae ercesreenaninearn sea arr cet lem cn etme pry rennin nd pvt Eats eincemmeng erent seat ce ca omer mr Ses : rs ofthe oeupler thet continued to cele and that wos revived iterate ee SA Src rig 194 ‘The French andthe Germans fhe ly ey ses of he, a et ate were ey aed Si dt DS on ey Pryce wi bn oon te Tattpat easel te phe dea Sey cag a pate Ce ce Eley oe nce ne Stearn ser on Ie wit ed Se ret Sle at dite, Tague tog oe SS no Seca soe cote S'S Cina aint abd daa Mow anes Ar ge Slo wa tl oy Ra aw se co sone Serpent cee eminent gs ae See ear tire Baer ted oe ts SECT Ey hana es ee ree Sa of opin folowing te rong a he no deans a See eT ea en oat dae ‘Str he dcr anu mse by oo tn So st ontndlcn of aa tate wae De ‘us beers Germans and us rdnay poole and leaders te Mooici cacy wee anand Sab au eee SCathean rested i abr igy have sen hed rw Bo retoe nar gees Sov instante Ee asec raeinee et pee Sac ls pa tea ad eye Set nG eaten tsp ua eet Sa, Tats ar tioe onfroen nad Te nines Saenger ge oe cee tec can “ait hat hats upg Sonar tee arama cn tg wee ba Sie gO: Sere otal ved hed eee eee nae unas a pene ‘mui cp eal vet "Sa onay ay ‘tet har la see ses ove eg ek Buje Bosco el 1m Boule de Sui, Maupassant decribed in pasting a village under ‘German occupation in 187, where soldier carried out dally tasks alongside the women who iad been left there on thet own: ‘amongst poor fll, of course you have to help one another 195Accommodations este high and mighty who ae waging war’ One republian wat Imoved toranger sth night of tly thee eae ealced Renwesn congusros and conquer But muah snes ere en iny in pee Miltary ting was moe sgpouy end the Ned rege’ plan wn for altar conta en If covert behevioet tru nl the oder ofthe ay. the ane could nt bead of Emerson which anyway, wos mae exredlagly tel {ie lnguge Uae Gotan dle hd the og at fers pe flue and wortlp even ther own shop sed tie Conitleraby cra opportunites for contacts parcsaly fot {he opentional oop Ae for members of the lary aii ‘note the Benen fork they wr fob fo fe eet cera eategres of French people sucha members of he (overment nd Joos and ad fo bain author for ‘ther ration that were considered “undesate’=* On the sie of he ocaped reach, the maority was disinclined toseck cont ef any Kinda ner code of condo spontseons nd forme, presarbed nr may diane, bs ponte ‘eke of the sense, to which the tvaded managed to Pract {he integrity. ven ones yes denied the Gorman any HN SGadhenno wre "hen you ster the Mtra we squcre oper sae fir Yue tne mm Bnd that you anno se wre my ee ae ected and to dey You he Joy ofthe lah oan exchanged lok. There you arn he ds of lke an objec, rounded by sence dl te September ‘Sets in the Pace du Potion, Lusad winewed 4 ne of into his oe obvi, Sone ws ad red int the manures. Asal groop oie gl age betwee Sve fd ten pnd mele hy agi f sot eve Dor lok a ‘Sows do "Dk thn"hy a one re {he pavement in flct ofthe brary and coniut oth {herbed aver" ~ oer “the rale ont okng was evn sie onlin in order to seu In Oxaber spe ping tn nafs egustoed ho {ats bend « Goren teres plying, “Tere wor whole Crowd of tethers on the pavers cng the de open oc 0 SBeonuryard watching ening People weeping into the feud to pou by in bah econ T beard people yg to "el you neers seem to ve time fo wate ou fb" Iga ime some den of how Parana In geal re fg” Clary the 196 ‘The French sod the Germans code of behaviour was not yet respected by everybody, but socal | presure to observe fe was increasing. u "The occupiers of his ‘liad own soon senued the ly atmosphere. tn his eters the writer Felix Haru, posed to Pais fom December i940 to September 1941, described that allncompsss- Ing freeing silence evoked by Gudhenno. He and bs colleagoes inover strayed beyond the centre of town, where every thir person ‘Novon watch The climate was arte e wrote on # June 1943, and ich one of them knew they could never return alone when pace fame" Erst Singer discovered that on the rare ccasions when jes were not turned away, 2 direct gate fom them could be hard to bear. Wearing his uniform, be one day entered satiner’s, where be was served by 2 git who Bxed him witha ook of ‘prodigious Itt That was the frit ime happened. Tt was August 1942, ad ‘Tanger was upc, 2 If suddenly cealaing his position.” One yar late he wes used tothe experience: ‘Whenever I pats by in nk form, {catch looks fled with the deepest aversion coupled with + ‘marderous longing" “The “lind tows? was nevertheless seretly observing the intru- era Tt notced how the dashing, well-fod grey-green’ soldier of the tary days howe bering erated the fightened, bunry french” gradually eam Increasingly to resemble them both i Cxpression and In clothing, ae Hf he vas mutating, turaing into fue of the detested whom he was soon to become. Yet amid that Compact, diagreabl greenish mass it did occasionally happen ‘that lok turned German into an individual man. Over period tf days, Guchenno observed the afecton between one ol soldier Sod hi horse, and this tetwakened memories of the good Ger many’ And eve and there im private diaries the odd remark efons a fleeting shock provoked by am instance of unexpected Tehaviour “Just now in the Meta, an armed German soldier who es siting down got up to offer his seat to Léon A, having Dotlced the tar pane to his ches. “al the same, distance and rejection did not always rule out | ctvlliy of « hind or even, acesionaly kind of base solidarity | ‘The most common contact between Preach people and Germans | would occur when the later nd lot thelr way. Sartre described | {he mined feelings French people might have when rejection was at (olds wah a deeply implanted humanistic date tobe of service’ | "On such wasons, you decided according tothe fe ofthe moment nd either sla" don't know" or "Take the second turning tothe | roAccommdstions sight, ether ease, you moved of feng discontented with ri 7" fastnd, an indetgable walls, menost only three such chance envasters i his ary He stone solder on sey talked {anther ina ibrary and eae aces hrd in January 14400 {he ip home there ats Geman mole om he deck othe bux 3 ‘rcthd flow by the lok of him snd is equpmen. nothing ike ‘Bvstronp banda lds we ave become setusomed a secng He Spoke nas word of Wench, cou only preset the conductor with Ep ot paper om ich was write "rote ann, Bus 946" ‘Alber eves on the bus deck ted to balp him out ‘plas to him where he was glng and where he sould gr of ah time smeone new boarded the bu the conductor ke, "You oa’ How German By any chance do Jou? Theres ths fll, sees 1 That city wa addressed to representative ofthe enemy who war on hr ow andlor th ight of whom evoked a general gus |Inmincive pity. Such encounters sometimes id produce an impale |ofsldariy, sin the following scene which struck Sarre: the Souevard Sin-Germai, one ay 4 mlltary vehice overturned, ‘Suahng + German colonel I tenPrenchocn ris fo fre hi Shey bated the ocuper tam sre oft but aher all was this ectpir this mun iying cashed under hs cat Aad what wee they Sppsc to do The concept the enemy I only ever cmpeely fem and lar that enemy Is eprted foe ws by a bare of fren thee own fashion the senes reported by Letaud and Saree convey the extent to which some French people could be Glsrmed and how deeply they yearned to hor the spre of th own Bves separ from ht he wa. Distance and silence did not constitute an inevitable pattern of| behaviour tall depended on whether or not the pareular circus stances introdoced a messare of clsicty as to the prolen of ‘vllty, or whether Chardonne's recipe seemed appropriate. In| ‘ther cae, those involved umully manifested a discretion tht tesied to their awarenes ofthe code of conduct and their concern ‘otto attract the opprobrium of puble opinion which save ofthat the code was Increasingly respected. Amid the ocean of deliberate Indierence and heetile dating, any iolated instances of con- tet clearly did occur up until 1042, but thereafter they were submerged by the rising tide of hatred. Iéeolopcal connivance 98 a eee rs eee caret eee eee ad ee eee cs a te pen ee ge nl Soa aaa anata eee peck foggy ge ars petgieeg per ne Fol empleo ee cera oat ata a a eee al ee ade eats a ceerenighade cl yng eens at | sf inna ale ie ee rca a Sects wry fees oe Sate ret aie ee Sa Stine gaat etneeea ay ttn oe sn ca fel mp mired a a Fa Fn Sg ee a a Sg aera ears eee Ferry bondoc een er enfertetey Seppe Sosa et ee eee al ees neers te eer eer ee ere eee ase ee oe teen aoe meget ore re ay aero Seg ha pz ering er nde nerd ee rept eme ry mercer oe ar ee ee Pra een a aegoet seca ee ee ee 99‘Accommodstons er image othe ce nL Sine de mer He however, as ot Bet by a sea of silence. for example. once he wat billed on & ‘woman whore husband wat & priser of wat and he at hone ‘Bade god impression on her she ot hin a ation to oe her ut and ear ne, sent him schicken as «preset ese stayed with a peasant whose conversion enchanted in snd hs would ask hin questions about him (Do you haves ya) ‘His exprince was nota ltd oe In rtany the Tay Ohh soured anit ted ns report fr Aptos thatthe ated ot the ppaliton was caves bat varied depending om wither one ‘was im public or in private. “Bven in pre-German cies people generally avoid bln ce wih Comany where fcr nee Bilt on people get along well with them.” Ths pts oe i sind of Matpassat wha in Bae de Su describes th ely days Of the occpation of Rouen, tn s870, when the absence othe ‘masares that had been fered had coved the atosphere, ta say fii, Pusan ofc would ex with the ely Sane Of te wou b mal owt pan ot of pen weld ‘ommisrte with france. praesing rpugnance shaving to tke an hi war Pepe wold npc sch etme ee ne day they might need the man's protection They wal henselves that afterall onthe bai ofthe uma srgenent at French urhaiy it was sil permis tobe pole tes owe tome, sp ong atone showed foreign sleet 0 tamer public ‘As wel a enforced cbabtation, thee were varius forms of fee association that were, however, reputed by physic or socal fcomrphy. The occupier’ presence wat nt eee o opal easy. was strong in major centres bt thin In coin soe dsticts, where uniformed men scdem went. Ruthesnons meet fogs between the two sides lowed the patter of vl canons fa getera eis bry surpsng tat the world af workers wes the at frchcoming ht ws nat ell bee Geran pe ere ‘ot a6 Ful stoned in the indutal suburban We erally Kept aneye on them. was lean efecto socal ests fod a tain of rejection and Pasion visdns the sucontes tha could eal be itched to apply tthe vedere tthe eke dof the soil sale among the bourgeois, internaonl cape ‘cs, sna edvtion and manners falanty with dpe “The Prench and the Germans snd intervention, and th invitation and hospital all made for ‘ier contact relton ad Hao Clfs provided fxmework for scabiity where the ccupers quite frequently became fir aren, parcel in ral ress, ‘the hiorian Lou Chevalier noticed i his own wlge Inthe ‘Vendée Whereas peasants tended to contine t dink fem thet vn barrel slr ack to ther weal habits sd wold requnt thehotl onthe quays “tn the eny days they had pretended not to ace the Germans, t behave a if they were noe there "= And hen eo tng te 0 oes hy ep ‘sd dank a thee seperate groupe hoy weal cvetenly ‘SESE glrescgehe and, shes bi fering, Boga adres ‘ne another ar "and vse one another's at names” "The hotel ‘ropritres her date nd he serving gi who wee ot tll Teniidatig, sted a ink between the ts Reteny ed Norse cot resistor trip at od of tgee, the detec ofthe etenely colabresoci spency Teter anc dcrred tht vor cam pared the recor of favouring collaboration from publ opinion, which was Sp por cent sngopbile Ye he note, with contralto, SLES same popsation ose withthe escpir alatons that were ‘marked bythe gretestcordaty” Shopkepers would ‘welcome hem effsiey inthe towns ~ even the lage ones = and ‘ten mre inthe wilge the Geran solders have ther routines Saou cvablchnets (cafés sod retawaats) They are known there, respecte, and sometineraddrened by name. ad Wt not ‘rua find the naff the exablshment testing them with nt ‘bee conaldeaton but evn a verable sympathy bora of dlly ‘Ezllacicy ~ tate manieted tn» fendine that» purely cmnnere interest cnld ot jy Tn the larger cites twas sometimes in cafés hat contact were sade Caude Marine noes inhi Gary in March 943 tht nom. ‘Omiastooed officer had splen to him in café and he had not ‘ed a ith" ware aed by slap we ‘rere the sane ag both yong Biron’ Yer here at so ‘SSeprenon mich Hod ens mich td it despite evrything we oth felt embarrased and ditt’ The ‘Seman eke ofthe deity of caabortn. “Aer the ws replied Maura ‘And even he red to chat with me fend he ‘sts exberancd by his vaio aod was tying to dace my {Renton frm in any way e eslAccommodations Contacts in the way of busines and convivahity amongetsoca- sues concerned a much smaller ce of people oa both sdes who were conscious of coming from the same background. Business Telations for which restaurants would provide 2 setng, absorbed ‘the occuples Into practices familar to the world of business fire (generally German officers were weful to Know and a meal in 3 Festauratt could facltate arrangements ina way that a discussion 2 office could not atthe same tine avoiding the embarrassment of feruing + compromising invitation to one's own home. Countless rowing ofthis kind fook place; evens man such ax Charis Bist taok pat In sme. Though hortileto Vichy and even more 20 to the polls of callaboration, Rist was atthe sme time 3 liberal from the Upper bourgeois who continued to defend the intererts fr ohich bevwas serponsble In he Cunemary fashion, even making 2 fw ‘advances towards the occupier himself aecessry, yet never ith Soy sense of pacing his lnterity and conviclons st risky Ae 4 ‘member of reveral boards of directors, he worked hard 10 defend ¢ bank upon wich the occupiers had fisted a commissioner by the ‘ame of Falkenzuren, When he was reeived along with this mas ty che ltary ote rexponsbl for the banking sector, i October 1540, Rist spake in German, hoping thereby to fnd an understand. ing car" He established cordial relitions with Falkenhausen and Tunched several tes with hm ~ but never after 1943 The ‘commissioner was 2 cultured and sympathetc man, who helped ‘him Insofar ashe was able. ‘To invite German into one's own home was more of 3 commit- ment it meant treating the occupier ava ghot. But Ernst Janger+ Airy testifies to the relative frequency of such oceations In October tothe inched er offi in the home of Brinon, who spake mock Ingly of the "vide The guerts included Sacha Guiry 2nd Arley "The mere word "cuckold" was enough to make her aug sin this company she wat amised sil the time™ Daring the months that Followed he was «guest of Sacha Guity, Paul Morand (several tines) ‘Cocca, Fabre-Lute and Horence Gold The wife of the American rallway magnate held a salon, where Jnger was ecetved along with, ‘ost aotably,oubandenu,Cocen, Marl Lauencin and Clraudoux, tnd where the young Mauriac allowed Meet tobe taken one day in “out to lunch wih Gerhard Heller (After all the champagne, 2nd this “internationale” of sympathy and youth made ial to ey 1 ‘Should not have been there") Hinge wae no doubt an exceptional ‘ase. He was a weter with reservar aout Nati wih had bee “The rench andthe Germans ‘ranaated into French He belonged to the cre surrounding Stl ‘gel which was keen to get rid of Hier before xtartrophe struck, Passo, whom he met in uly 1942, judged ims well when he aid ‘Between the to of us a5 we ae siting hee, we would negotiate 4 peace this very afternoon. This evening people could celebrate with Ituminaions * That no doube party explains how it was that he cuntnued to receive invitations from French people othe last. But, 2 the beginning could the ocer relly have been obscured by the waiter! "The socialite circle was certainly nat confined to this small come munity of men of leters. When questioned after the Hberaton, ‘sccupiersfrely supplied the namer of people who had entertsned them in thei homer a if the war were already over. They were smotvated in 2 variety of ways: by 2 desire to ingratate themselves {nd get to koow those curently in power by cosmopolitan incline ‘ont or habit of estan the case of cera retorts, who were members of a society tht recognized its own acossfonters and that was wel represented in the Majestic Others did s through Sympathy or admiration forthe conqueror and what he represented. Yet others sch ag business entrepreneurs, were after special fal lies as was. for example: Baron Jean Empsin the chairman ofthe “Metra, wo would invite Germans home now fr one putpors, Do% for another: "Some were forthe Metre some for fond supplies, se for petra” ‘iplomsts from the embssy lzo mixed in high scety. After the ‘war Epting recaled im paricular being the guere of Carbacis, Count de Bourboo-Busret Count Etienne de Beaumont, Earonest de Sele, the marguls de Poignac, Rent de Chambran (Lava sominlaw), Chappedelaine, and Lambert de Guise *Schwendemann the press siacha was 2 favour of the Bunau-Varil family, with ‘whom he often spent the weekend. tn bis diary of soe] engage: ‘ments, most of which relates to 1p43-e4, the names of ity four of 1s Fench hosts appear, ten of them aristocratic ones, indading seven marglses and countesses” Nor war the SS a victim of smobbism. Knochen remembered the horpitalty of Mme Gould tnd also of the Duboanet family, who invited him to er chateau {fst outlde Paria, "he houses ofthe Munim and Polignac families held the two principal Pain salons, where we were Fecelved and where the cream of society mingled" ‘We may rely on Fabre Luce testimony onthe socialite scene and Daley him when he remarks, & propos af these recepsions: "When 20)Accommodations ‘French and Germans mect in this wry oman equal foting, they start ‘ff coldly but end up on cordial lems" He tase amiating, in the syle of La Bruyére on he mined reactions of Parisian Bigh ‘aie. Hobpobbing with the occupers would tometimer prompt ‘areflly calculated scl sanctions "Araminte has ben oa German ‘concer she wil no lngr be invited to au musical evenings Dame hasbeen sen in Maxim's; we shal reat him a he end ofthe abe. Clovinde has ivited Germans to her home; in future we shall et (on 9 July 1940; Copeny on is way to Dijon, faced he detected ‘women beginning to get closet tothe Geman’, who were more -tracive than ‘the puny reformed French’ and the kinay old men" Sill in town. He went on to remark how painflit was to see Preach ely submerged by this endless greenish wave.” Under any bsccupaton,sevual encounters ares sensitive mater. They affect deep stata of the collective subconscious and, because of what ‘they come to symbolize they evoke srong emotions fea of losing ‘one's partner; esentment of thes to national virility that emphar tae the humilaion of defeat; suspicion of the wen sex, which fel tobe taking ts revenge with the ald ofthe ll 00 apiy termed ‘ccupying power’. For the invaded, the only way to oppose the Invader wat by sealing off thee senses therby defending and ifrming their Intepriey. Soi 20 hard to ee how deeply rela tons of this kind tndermined thst integrity and. how forcefully they crated a sense of deflement and contamination. At the ibers- tom al these felings were passionately unleashed inthe shaving of ‘women's heads as I was meant to pully the national boy. “The main problem for the occupation authorities was controling prostitution. "The Nal regine exacerbated 2 German obtession with ener] dlacaes that Id already been evident igra-r8 and that ‘now caused them to reserve particular brothels fr the exclusive se of the Webnnacht. By the spring of 94%, twenty-nine of these ‘ctablishments im the Paris repon had been devgnated forthe troops and tee for German officers no Jews or Uacks condoms ‘obligatory; detailed ruler hygiene forthe es backed up by strict. medial checks and rarvllance whenever they lft the conflocs the house; and no licences given without permission frm the Kom= mmundatur Each tea German solder lft a brothel he recived a card bearing the name of the brothel, the dateand the gels rst ame They were forbidden o ining the obligatory distance om the natives by 204 “The Pench and the Germans for instance, glving them thelr photographs. Between S000 and 6ooo ‘trectwalere were also issued with bilngual card that designated then forthe exclusive use ofthe Germans However, these mensuret fled to prevent an explosion of unauthoried prostitution, Accord. ing to the German authorities thr involved between Soooo and 100000 women in Pars alone, a2 consequence of poverty, separ ‘ons and the pecunlary atraction of occupers who postered an ‘overvalued currency. If was a major source of Infection” "The French accepted thi vnal rade philosophically. At the most, Induenced by Maupassant” they iked otell hemeelves that these ‘submissive girs’, asthe policemen called them, made ther grey- green clients pay dearly for what amounted tothe violation of thei ‘Ronour as French women, cven if thie was all nthe day's work for them, by leaving them with an Infection, as souvenit. Other felatinshipe were not looked upon with such indulgence. I Ai Conse the mild Texcer eal for viclnce solely inthis connection, Whereas promituter were simply plying thei trade by sling themselves to the occupiers. it war inadmistable tat “honest women’ should dily-dally with them. Such behaviour deserved the Kind of punishment thatthe enemy himse meted oxt for fe ‘Beyond the Rhine he pretty lady would be pelily whipped.” The Germans hada ead rare in these matters During the occupation af the Rhineland in the rosox women had Aad their heads shaved for Hleeping with Pench soldiers From 1040 on, some sections ofthe Nadi party inflicted the same fat n the public square, upon Ger ‘man women who had entered foto sexual reltone with foreign workers in France, there was no authority responsible for discouraging relations between soldiers and natives, Many Kinds of lisont developed, ranging from feting chance encounters 0 fall-bows love affairs. Michle Bond's dary discloses the author an anglopile school, trying fo flirt with young German solders” Jungers ‘iay show that twas not hard for Kindred souls o come fogether (on 7 atey 1941, there was ng with a sales: "Paris offers you these Linds of meetings almost without you having to seek them" ‘exe, he got to know s dresmaker, who invited hm home for her Srthday: then there war a relationship with a woman doctor; ‘eventually succeeded Laftwalfe major asthe lover of Florence Goal, ‘Other well-known women aio took German officers ar ther lovers Arley, for example, and’ Coco Chanel, whose behaviour | 205Accommodations can be put down wa number of explanations a cosmopolitan past ‘with an unhappy love hfe polis! inclinations developed in the ‘wake of the shock of 1936, and elfinterested resentment that Prompted her to exploit aryanisation in order to recover contol {ta perfume company lost Jewish competitors before the war” But most ofthese women came fom modest backgrounds, many of| then actualy being in the Germans’ employ” As maids, lata dreses, waitresses, nurses or ace workers they were surrounded by soldiers and oliers and some of them allowed themselves be tempted or seduced. Women working In direct contac with the Publi were ale particularly expored. Many ofthe to00 odd female PrT employees mort of them young sunsries, who were invert: {ted inthe course ofthe profesional purges during the lberation, ‘had been accused of going out with Geman solder In Hiroshima, ‘mon amour, Marguerite Duras gives a realistic description of alson that begins in a shop towards the end of the occupation, A seven: teeryeareld gil is necking nthe fly chemist dno. Her entber [Samay fom home and her entered father is biting the bottle ‘The own all around is empty of men. Shei weary ofthe wea, ad the wastage of her youth ‘sticks im her gall One day 2 German oldie comes infor trentment. T bandaged his hand ar Thad been ‘aught to ull of hatred.” He return: she Bandages him again. ‘never rlsed my eyes ohim, just 25 had been aught’ He ays siege te ber: eventually she succumbs (1 became his woman In the tw Tight. im happiness, and in shame), Thinking that nobody has oticed, they become careless At the liberation, he i murdered; her head i haved" would be pointless to rek a single explanation for these love affairs whether Heeting or of longer duration. The elation of the wives of prisoners and others separated from thelr husbands a Aesre to obtain favours or other advantages in dial material situation; aquest for protection or possibly a taste for adventure the tatefaction ofa grudge ora dese for revenge: there were many diferent causes, many diferent circumstances but they ail under line the prearious situation in which many French women found Uenselves at ie tered by the threefold inreate im arrest of women inthe Seine department between t938 and 1044 so {hss there may even Rave been politcal considerations involved “Take the case ofa young gl inthe Gard, Dorn r9a4.and, living with ther peaant parent, who welcomed the German seldiers with open rns when they invaded the fee zone. Her Bighty behaviour was 206 ‘The Prench and the Germans compounded by the insulting mature of her remarks: "The Germans te great, the Beach are dirty bastards. They show yout” In ‘August 1943, she decided, probably a 2 result of her social ose: ‘nm, to go fo work In Germany (a decision taken by quite a ew ‘women inher postin). The day Before she was due to leave 3 ‘ouriaand four of his mates shaved her head“ Tt is very hard to determine how widespread thie phenomenon was Between 10000 att 29000 women were probably punistied fr ach atone in the coune of jadi and profesional pares. fe fhe most part i rural departsents" Inthe countryside everyone Knows everything and virally nothing was forgotten a he ib tration. I the towns, many laions, particularly fly-by-night ones ud encounters inthe early days of the occupation lft no trace and were forgotten. A minimum of several tens of thousands of Freach ‘women engaged Sn rexval relat with te oeuplers “A similar uncerainy surround te frulte of those loves, despite an enguity that the S¥ had the Progaganda-Abtellung organize tn Toa The propaganda service wis ale to produce omy etiates, ‘he bases for which are unknown, or the reion of Rouen, a gure ‘of yo00 to 400 children ls suggested: a erehe is claimed to have been att up to help the mothers a few of them the wives of prisoners. the majority girls eugaged to German soldiers who Rare planning to sole inthe Meith ter the yar, The eststs for France aba whole is so000 to 70000 children," ‘When caught up inthe purges in sel-deence some women drew sttentlon to the ant-Nan opinions of thle lovers or asserted that they werenot German, but Austean; they had not assodated withany ‘occupation regime or system, only witha man whose dreumstances Irought han close those occupied. Others claed that on’ ele Inge were ee ay tas one's choice ato how tase one's ow body Yet ‘thers fad clearly simply been looking for source of help Sn bard ‘ines and had probably met ap with man who wa ikewie simpy ‘bent on getting through bad patch, ina version othe entre core between poor people that had so scandalized the republicans In ‘Mauparsan’s story. But ina Jove alfa with amember ofthe oc€upe- fg force a woman is always suspected a seeking to surround here twit the laters power The relationship implies protection, advan- {oes and evasion of the common lt Such behaviour was no doubt ‘deeply celited to these women's weaker seve of eational duty and thelr Flative Ink of interest in public affairs ~ factors that were ‘hemselves consequence of ther enjoying fewer civil right, sorAccommodations ‘The last form of contact withthe occupers, which was indirect and sponymous wat denunciation, and wat consdered the most reprehensible. a involved making use af the oecupier to sete (3 scores with cov' compatriots Denunclation tne doubt 4 ‘Phenomenon that i typical of troubled times, the berton tele that by no means fre of. But by then the denunciations would be ‘Mldressed to the authorities of legitimate state, and the victim ‘would benefit ffom the guarantees that this implied. Under the ‘ccupaton, in contrast 2 denundation inevitably produced lormid She reule ven when unfounded, ed to arr intrrogation (2 experience bound to be unplearant, at bet) and the rik of being sed a «hostage oof being deported. I the ccumetances of the person denounced happened tobe irregular, the consequences were Says dive “The scale of this phenomenon is impossible to gauge, but it certainly existed. Some French people limited themselves Gf tit Is the ight word) to denouncing thes to thelr own administration: the French police or reach antisemitic organizations” Others went straight to the occuple, behaviour that many prefcts biterly deplored. othe autuma of 1941, one prefect spoke of postive ‘ood of denuncitory laters and added that, inthe opinion of the sccupation authori, “virtually all the mates that have erlted fm French people being condemned by German tribunal were brought to ther notice through denunciations made by other French. people.” Even more common than denunciation ‘sci were threats of it, Brandshed among neighbours or in the work place to frighten or intimidate Some of these threat were caried fat. A strike broke out inthe factories of Gentilly on 9 February toa the management threstened to denounce the rrikers "othe French and German police”. The fllowing day. a numberof workers were areted nine were deported to Germany” Dany ofthese informe were motivated by sebdnteet: the luse ofa reward, s desire to sete an inheritance quarrel ort aequire 3 Property for oneself. But the major motivation was revenge: arf {imes of passion, thse involved tended tobe members of the same family or close relatives, warring spouses, unsuccesfal vals or detested neighbours. At the time af the purges the Bery replica carried a number of edifying examplen "A foy-thre-yeanold Uibourer wan denounced by 2 Get win be fd bexn pestering with his unwelcome attentions, and extricate mel rom trouble by himself denouncing ls own nepheve, who had secret cache of ‘The Pench and the Germans weapons (7 February 1945} nlneten-yearoldtyplet denounced her boyfriend, who had come bome on lve from Germany and never returned, and who had then left her (21 December 1944 couple of workers Who had been turned out by thet Iadlord fenounced him for antGerman talk (24 December 194), A café proprietress with a German lover denounced her husband (8 Feb ‘ary 1943} A young man reprimanded by his father for the ‘company he was keeping denounced his father for having hidden Ils if; the father was deported, and the son went of to Germany sa volunteer worker (22 February 1945), ‘veal, women constituted 3 small minority af thote purged, but they were overrepresented in cares of denunciation, tn Finite ‘iy-four ou of seventy-seven canes Judged by a court of esti the accused were women. In the Hore department, the accused were women in twothirds of the 225 cases recorded. They were also in the majority in the sixty-tree denuncition ces with + politcal ‘motive for example those in which aed parachutists or members| ofthe resistance had been denounced.” Betrayal le the weapon of the weak and denunciation is doubly so: not any were the msjerity — of those who resorted to it women, but many sere women Who | ‘belonged to disadvantaged social categories. People fom the iberl professions, whether men or women, were vry underrepresented uch affairs” Denunclatlon wat the weapon of weak poople wh ‘ould not resist the temptation to make this source of newfound ower play into ther own hands,14 The Church and the associations ssocarons, as well as Individuals had to determine what stitude to adopt. All organizations possess a wil to survive want their presence and action to continue and hope t0 grow FRronger and expand. Were they to give up those aims on acrount| ofthe occupation? In the cae ofasocintions, the safeguarding of postion and interests and, even more, the satisfaction of ambition were hard to reconcile with a strke ofthe semen ax prescribed for Individuals. The code of dignity was not rejected, but Ie was made sore plant, bent Into a policy for survival: In other words, for ‘ccommodation. Ie worth sensing the extent to which an insti ‘onal framework predisposes those nvelved to adapt, checks any ‘ecermination to Keep apart, and limits the taking of sks even ‘where there ie no Sdeclopeal coanlvance in ply. For some associations, even thoe without great ambitions, i wat smpoeible to ignore the ocupier given that they were purring 32 active policy of solicitation and intervention. A major case in pot twas the German embassy which a well shaving to “keep ln step’ With the Majestic had ls own means of inuence and manipulation, whlch i employed inthe interests ofits mison: namely to divide the French, to put pressure on Vichy and to inedl 2 yolanary servitude. One instrument was esential for this policy: the MBF decree of 28 August 1940 that prohibited sttocations fom engaging ip any activities without authorisation. The ocupying authors eranly possessed the power to damage But, through Abets, they ‘bo manifeted a derre to atract and win ove, making the most of ‘converging interests Associations that allowed themselves to be “The Church andthe associations tempted found themselves in a tlangular relationship, with the french state athe tied party. Paradoxically, the very ealet negotiations brought the occupirt into contact with one of their worrt ideological enemies. In the “Gmmediate aftermath of the deft. the Prench Communist arty was weakened by the imprisonment of many of ts miltant dir lrganized by the exodus andthe defeat, and deserted by most ois tmembers. But it sill had some of is eadres slink with Moscow, ‘where Thorer had taken refuge, «doctrine and an identity — enough Tort to launch into negotiations that aed to obtain authorization forthe reappearance of L Human, which meanwhile continued to be published clandestine. The fst advances, made on 18 Juneto the Propagands-Abtelung, cime to nothing: the French police arrested the emleares of Humanite The affair was revived bythe nterven- ‘on of Abe, who was dying to fishin popu waters. With Ut ‘very alo in view, he had just crested La Prance a revel 3 publies- ton that attacked Viehy, capitalism, the Jews andthe warmongers. OF 32 June, be wrote tothe MBP expressing his regret that censorship Ina fled to ruppress news of thore ares The occupying power should nt appear to be giving its approval o anticommunist repre sion by the French police: & if did, other arrests of soca ‘employers ought tobe announced a che ame time” ‘On 24 June, the prefecture of police was ordered to release those seated as well ab several of ther comrades Negotiations now ‘hed tothe embassy where, between 26 June and 1} July. thre ‘Rectings took place. Two members of the central committe of the ‘Communist party took part in these, Maurice Tréaud and the deputy, Jean Catcax, both controlled from 2 distance by Duclos. ‘They explained that, In the newspaper they wanted t0 receive suthorization to publish, they planned to support reconstruction [bd denounce the warmongers and Brshimperalinm ~ in other ‘words to pursue «policy of “European pacdcation’* When Abetz Sndieated that republishing L'fumanié was out ofthe question, they suggested reviving Ce sie “Abctt pin tae let in a memorandum be adreed tothe (BP on 7 July, in an attempt to get his polices accepted. Rather than struggle gaint che ‘communist danger’ by seresing 2 few apistors why not be more subtler make contact withthe leaders, “ny to win them over, and ure them to organize the workers into ‘etng the economy moving agaln and, to thls end, pert them toAccommodations [publish a sewapaper? The communist he had met wee prepared to {iscontinue the clandestine publleation of Human, to submit the futhorized organ to censorship before printing and ofall at line with La Prance au troveil on political questions of importance. OF course, they were hoping to smuggle through their own doctrines lunder cover of pursuing an apolitical, aniplutocratic and ant English line: But an attentive eye would beable to it the merchan- dig in sucha way that, than to this newspaper that they them felver wanted, the working css could be influenced 29 the fdvantage of German interests? "Abetr's den wa preted with hostlty by the military in bod ‘erin and Paris Nor did Hitler, whom he strove to win over in early ‘August, Took upon it favourably. He agreed not to tke repressive ction i the tenedlate future snce the eornits were cetialy helping to divide the Pench, but he asked the authorities o be ready todoso when theright moment cme* When Abetx tured, afer = month's abseace, he old his Communist party contacts the bad news. Tm an effort to hep his polices going he sugested giving La France ‘4 travail «new look by taking on & few communist Journalist, At ‘ths point the communists broke off reltions. The to Abst Intervention, this whole afar ad escalated instead of mectng 3 speedy end at the hands of the miltary. Abete bad shown poor {fedgement, probably becrase he had overestimated the el enough ‘convergence between his own polices and thos of the communists {exemplified bythe line pureed by the underground L Human ‘xiticism of Vichy, denunciation of the war, and atacks agaist England, de Gaulle and ‘other agen of ‘Baanee™ that, ‘would like tose the Pench make wat fr the beneit ofthe Cty “As it clear fom the Soviet archives’ on the communis side the Initial go-ahead and alo the subsequent order to withdraw came ‘rom Moscow: In the itereal thee had been a clath of views ‘complicated by delays in tansmiting them. The reappearance of the newspaper had been par ofa satey for returning to operating {in bond daylight abd setting about the reconstruction of the com ‘must apparatus through the Mberation of militants who were sl Imprisoned and a return to activity im trade unions, asoistions snd ‘muneipal councils. For this strategy to work, the support of the ‘ecupation authorities was indispensable, and, thanks fo the Ger ‘man-Soviet pact, that was no longer beyond the bounds of possb- ity. That, 2 least, was the calculation of the communist, who thereupon set about try thei lack Here are two examples of ‘The Chureh andthe associations the steps that they took: the alway workers atked Abetz for an ‘audience with the German authors, o gt permission for their dssalyed trade union to regume its actives and to obtato the restcation of ther premize® With a similar purpose the Parisian leaders of the Friends of the Soviet Union addressed an appeal to ‘Monsieur le Gouverneur mille’, taking cate to assure him of their ‘deepest consideration’ The poley fa retura to operating {i broad daylight, without however dismantling the partys apparatus, left Dlr certain latitude of Interpretation which he ‘was understandably ken to exploit. The situation looked relatively | promising following the harsh repression that the Republic had {nfleted and that Vichy war keen to prolong. The party would be thle to exploit the poll vld produce by the defeat aad prseat ites the defender of 1 population gravely aflaed by the Aiorganination ofthe economy And it would beable to do thie openly thanks to the protection of an occupying power that wat Seking ways of weakening the Preach government. In Moscow, In Contrast the dlscussions with Abetr had been greeted with aque, particularly by Thores, who was fearful of being compromised. A Feturn to broad daylight by all meant, but not at the cost of ‘erifcing the partys Sdentity and withthe esk of being reparded lies of the occupier From his postion atthe centre of this ast Ducow saw things rather diferenty, but war nevertheless Wary. (Once dlacursiont had started it seemed dificult not to await ‘Abetr's response, which was then delayed until 23. August. By then Moscow had ordered all contact to be broken off “The communist moves ofthe summer of 1940 were part and parcel of the party's policy to make the mort of any means possible, ‘whether legal ot legal, and its istnet to bate for power what ‘ver the cteumetances, Franc’ defet and the Genman-Sovies pact ‘pened up the perspective, considered desirable In both Pars nd ‘Moscow, of reanimating the part, restoring certain weight, If not dominance, toi and ~ who coud tll ~ poably the chance to Dotiate a peace. In 1915, after al, to ensure the survival of his regime, Lenn had ceded important terres to Germany. These ‘were undeniably pois of accommodation, but the communist ‘Temained on the qui vive and their form of accommodation, unlike ‘ther forms, was atleast free of any ideological connivance. Further ‘more they held an unusual trump card, am underground apparats that rendered any argument of ingtutional defence irrelevant, Once ‘this eplode was over the French Communist party pursued ts ath 23Accommodations fon its own, becoming a target for general repression, since from (etaber 1040 onwards the Germans give the Pench police a fee hand, The German stack on the USSR, the following June, caused the French Communist party to swing into the general armed rugge against the occupying power “The Germans seemed to provide an umbrella under which to shelter loom Viehy: and the communists were not alone in seeking cover beneath ft The associations of war veteranr aid ikewise, once Pisin had abrorbed them all nt the Legon Prange des Combat ‘ants His decision was not to the king of he leaders of some ass Gations, who now found their positions under threat and were, bids, distlusioned with the polis ofthe new regime. Abetz for ‘i part was against the idea of any onanizaton that encompassed both annes and tht might provide support fr Vie. So he oe the [MBE to tan the implantation ofthe Legion inthe occupied 2ane and twauthorze the operations ofthe lose separate onanzations there ‘This whole ffir sgpleased Peain, who could sce wat the German were playing fr (a satus quo that fours them’) and ‘continued to feminate against the veterans’ leaders involved (Ata fovernmentl level, cannot tolerate peivate moves hat undermine my authority’)? she veterans bad preferred the protection of the ‘covapying power tthe fasion desired by thelr own government. from that time on. Vichy blocked the funds of the former asec! stone ao hey were let Wwithno altermative but to accept German ‘money i they were to continue thelr activites and resume publish lng tae news sheet Abts soon came toe that these ales were flit use to him: the membership war impressive (5 milion im the occupied zone). bute judged it to have lle internal cobe- Son." That war his way of deloring the ‘marshalsm’ ofthese Cleles and their howtlity to any political action rected agnnet Pétain, When it became known Ut one ofthe veteran lenders Rivllet, ad joined Déat's RNB peter broke out within his “ssciton, and he war forced to dare everyone that his ation bad been purely personal." The only advantage to Abe turned out to be a negative one, namely that form af unlfcation under the segs of Vichy had buen prevented Similar moves were made by the (ade esis, with similar ‘sult, Abet, always on the look-out for souster weights to the ‘eve regime, inevitably took an inerest fn workerr”asocitions, given that Vichy had dsslved thelr confederations and was mow” 24 ‘The Church and the associations lng towards the esablahment of its own kind of orpnistion (although at happened, his di ot come about unt he atu St apy when ks abou carer wax prosulatd). Once spi, the trbaany crete prstre on the recent mary: Abs cared ‘Earl was centile authorise the tide ions before theft fon which he Beloved to be imminent ~ of singe orgmtion {Siac to ae hk pl ution fo the sce wae would promote an image of Nal Germany asthe protector of Sorted Thngh tbe'wade unions be apnoea be oorite oiler the workers compenstont to make up for the EScnomic restitions tha they were tering” winter bene ‘hldrensglayochonorpnied leur actives ll of which be Proposed opener y coneating the possess of Jews and She ality atheros fred eperestons in Vichy that wold dtenage the play of calabraion sd, above al, thoght Cade ‘sion might turn nto a politcal force that would be impoesible to contol In December 1940 ater many dawursons they even~ telly gave way. but Samed trae none a vl servant i der to avoid snagonising, Vichy which probit them. The ‘horse trade unions would have to promise to limi hemscves {defending the rca and profesional interes of thet members. Seventeen CETC federations tnd twenty Sve federations of the CGT fs wel a thre independent rade ulons, requested and received Schoreaton to function. ‘Ar withthe war eters war at hard for Abts to preven the cseton of single organization controled by Vichy. But that Ss stout al he achieved. Ar he sf the authored trade sions, Which It would be necenary to regroup then fuse ubder the Sicetion of eae men, were to etnpass diseinted wording Clas and steer it ovards chorion, athe ee ane ecsargiog the rerutnnt of welattary workers fr Gonasny™ Hace te ‘rious trade union files he CGT the Grtiany the profer onal te enlong eed oo) proved umlling tw ive Up he particular Mentos sud oppond te mee to tnaigunt them ‘Tis even fled inthe cave ofthe CGT federations which were szlt between those who approved of the presence of Beli in the {vernment and thon who opposed "Ph collaboration te enc wat very much inthe Mcrty bere aod the dso of lesdcte to ene x contr of wadeustosepropegnda svon fo be ‘ached to the BNE underlined thi parting o fhe ways. Boden ars‘Accommodations the last analysis, the trade unions were handicapped by thee ‘Weakest acording to the Germans, In th sprig of 1o4t dere ‘were only 4o0000 members In the occupied zone Workers were turing sway from organizations that the ban on arkes and the wage freeze had stripped of power, contrast tothe leaders ofthe asocations of war veteran, the made unionist” decison to request authorastion from the Germant twat not made in defiance of Vichy, which had not yt decided what to do about them. Through the mediation of his chic! adviser, rldeval, Belin payed an active role in angling for authorizations In doing so he was motivated by his desire to retain Influence over bis colleagues and not tallow the workers ofthe occupied mone to dei into communism, He may also have hoped to implant pene ‘who favoured his own concept of professional organization, which twat under challenge fom the regime's corporat ing. As forthe leaders of the trade unions themselves, ther motivations were very diver They all favoured making thelr presence fle order £0 Save posts and postions, and chey all weleomed the margin of manoeuvre visdve Vichy that the occuplery tolerance offered therm, None of them wanted to lave the fld fre fr the comm ‘ats apsinet whom thy had struggled ercey inthe pat, Ths wat paricalarly true of the trade unions of the exCGT, whose leaders Ent ide the mort of the ropreson of coumunien during the phoney war, ars means to recover position lst in the wake of 9x6, and to sete old scores, But beyond that, chee was a parting ofthe ways erween the callabrainist minority and a restant minority which put tet ‘on the map in November 1040, with is Manifesto of Prench trade Snioniem's profession of faith nthe vals of democracy and fee tae unionism, The manifesto was distributed in the form of 3 ‘Grou, to which the occupying power turned a Blind eye so a 10 Undermine Vichy Between these t extremes was an indcierminate, ‘mass of opinion probably aot much in favour of + German victory bt suflentiy anxious to secure 2 place inthe new professions! ‘order to provide a measre of support fr Laval. On May Day 1942, | the leader of eighteen ex-CGT federations addressed a public appeal | to im, speaking of reconllation between diferent peoples con- | demning the assassinations of German soldiers and looking forward toa nem, pated Europe’ in which the honour and vital ntererts of France’ would be respected.” [Abet' polices presented serous temptation. In February 1941, 216 ‘The Church andthe associations [André Delmas the secretary general of the national trade union of ‘Rhool teachers dissed by Vichy requerted authorination for his Grganlztion in the occupiod one” At fst the Iden was loked Upon favourably by the occupers, who were keen t oppose the ‘rica of Vichy and were hoping t0 win the sympathy of teachers; then It was dropped, for fear of creating tension with the Pench government, Delmas, who was discret im public but in private manifested certain sympathy fr Germany and collabora lon" continued to interest the embassy which, lathe autumn of Tost, pressed Vichy to find im a place in the trade union of teaches that It was then thinking of cresting. Delmss regarded the Germans as both protectors and Who might Belp to tricnate French palit, up unl the trang pot of 1942 when he ‘ule tiptoed away om the publi tage. Unlike the communists the war veterans andthe trade unions, the Catholic Church never sought refuge under the occupiers umbrell Ut it defended it nterests ina fashion that made it, too, accom- ‘modating, As 2 socal and spiral f not politcal, power it was ‘isponed to be ort to Nazism, but it was a the sae time inked ‘wits the new regime considerably more strongly thn was required by its wadiion af obedience tothe entabliahed power Ils true that ‘the pois of the repime surpassed all expectations: programme for schools that brought God back iato the casstooms and offered funding for private (.e. Church) schools; measures to boost the family, remore randards of behiviour and encourage a return tO the land, thereby falling long-standing Church aspirations and an futhorttian ideology that wrote of the mistakes of the pre-war [peiod (the bishop of Dax declared in February i941, fo us, the ‘rly acursed year was not the yer of our external defeat, but the [ear of our internal defeat, 1936 "Inthe new France he Church ‘elscovered the principles by which ie wae defined: authority and ierarhy. shepherds guiding thelr Nock. Tn rallying to Viehy. did 2 other churches in Raly abd Germany had done, by acepting a flictatorship so long arf promised to safeguard their rights and liberties, This aceptance was more than a lie deluded, based ona ‘ecogition of common enemies, the realty of paral comvergences nd s tenacious hope of reerablishing a Christan society. "a defeated France the Chureh fl had the wind in it sll in ‘the carly days atleast. The politica and soc forces hostile tot had tlisapeared, removing much sorely fle competion. Catholics Were a7‘Accommatations present inthe government and were paying an iportant rol a ew inettone fn parca soc ot chara rasa [Av the grassroots Neve a resurgence of pity war fling the Churches Parent wer ocking to fee eduction, which nceaed it share in primary scholing fom 1.7 por cent t0 256 per cet ewes 1995 and 94 sad hosing rom 49 per cent | toss per cent the Sguce ae tho forse ad 94a)" ily, | Gatole youth movements were in fall expen, comping fi 1194123 lion out of oa f 2.3 millon young people i youth asinions"* All thir suces wav comedy momento dis. uit, pertialary under Darla, when brakes were applied to ad abaling andthe quezion of single youth ssecaton woe ‘ase, Inthe summer of 14 he bshop spoke a he emetic {25 leghunate power ang "bat no eadaation tn Speer they trbade pres to Balt posdone as leaders nthe Ligon Fratpaue des Combatant The Church woo nd Ye at | ofp opinion aad was sasiou to escn todas fc But {tachment o Fen the mun of destiny. rained sll enough {0 witha any to On allaboration the Church remained exreely dec and at no point gave the goverment its sproval publicly av «body One | Gr wo ste prelate offered the" support after Moot the atop of Arts and Verdun, and aboye al ol arn! Bailar, wth i the flowing yea aves Wasa tothe ugg gant Cconaine, tn ope calibro “tl aa oe ‘uring reir. 1 fered a serious chance forthe fate of the ‘Santry i ale, i would be bud oo “aig int evil even ‘wore than thor hat have fen spon st up to nw = Not on ot {hese preter had a fvourable It slone 2 udatary word forthe Scupler All were concerned that their sport sald be renon- SBie tnd conditional collaboration wa the leer evil and hed To Bring lasting peace Alls dep concen rina puis a3 wy that wan strongly cine by some peers of the Caolc ‘Rous of Lile who denounced she flows acratv: eter leat sccpted athe hope af a internal renewal or hal wiry, ‘wih the ik os conto a exer plea or “The sence of the oppor echelons of the clergy ws prompted by dota reasons as wel by pit. Calabrian ined & regime whore Ideology had been condemned by the Tope and ‘aint which Preach bishops had preached during te honey STHe Thay vere aso lfuenced by 2 desire otto Stat public ‘The Church andthe associations pn an tite om tn ren ‘gunn gneve ts nt rei Posto pak of ny petive ES tw ph plier’ Gray suchas Menigor Cher In EE wee and lar betwen. The mo common potion sod reictne ery let tolenve te mater a Peas anda add By Gar Monte” Inf ol ov ben avr 2 acc sppcvl for the reine’ Internal poles to dap roel for Bent one So the tndeney wes for he ergy 1 Spee cert he mame felon or ply ab ened — [sR thr was encouraged by a ceria eclopal omverpnce Sukie polls escaping poner When heme of te Dion Diu thnecn cpap ocr the norte the Setup thy dnorret hat number of bhopsapprewed SAUDE sede ptt fearon Sean communis The wide spect sent the mere opin he Chars ol nein the FEISS The tishp af vrdondesard"On his ajo a see wath you te tank yom the btm fy he Beep ocncy. who sald ie roped ‘perv claire aoe Mupeicl by te conguror = cxpese_ is ‘fcarver Geom scores foreman ie Exe ingen clube called Laval a rod ree Tee Eha tucnn fo the oman anger ad decared tha the Te of Monae were tne test pose tion fo the Fahy sen hn Pane ed ot bt em hand ‘inn he este of uch tend dr ang. arly suprising ta a ino approved of collboration, Cet Who had dealings with the oceupution services were no doubt a Thy fic there tee foe Cae rt the alc site TEA Atk enn the pr pit of Sane Monee who wat ubtitcalt othe pet of beooig Doro Pan ad ren CUTER thom he omlered fo sim i prot aan he ‘hog oteaBenbing ends dedarng tha would be ob hing {Fife bombs tl onthe asa, oak i py” No more than st tee cnet ein ‘eppoted auonomlt opstions (Cats and Perc wee sealer the Paris pres (he Revd Gores). But higher proportion See tawure to in defence of Chitin ciliates ane "avon: or went log wt he Badeing of he rep ot SH to Ren veo they oe don bly. rae mo doi oly minor tat wr fa, ta thee ones wasceraiiy nt fr nas fm he sverpe ie taken a9‘Accommodstions » by the clergy ven if they didnot give cllaboration thelr approval, Suny of them sopprtd tiniest when they denounced Goa, lism apd resistance encourged the Rede, steed te inaogus ton ofa German Instat, erated mass onthe eeason ofthe sunverary ofthe LVE et fcnted atthe funerals of calabors, omits is particular men ofthe lice Trust and bodies without lying int bat in loo order the cadres of Ctl Talowed Pin, Things would no doubt have bees dierent had the occupying ower sacifsted the fll force ofits hntny towards the Chek fram the art. On this point Abetz was every bi commited {he Sn October 15a, he reckoned that the war the Church ‘ould be Nazism's most powerful enemy There would be no more Joes left in. Burope he wrote, comurunimn Would have Rees "The cardial feared reprisals om the part of the occupers and he ‘ears were Jastifed. Upon his intervention, the Germans agreed erste thor arered but warned that further arrests would follow ifthe clergy dd no keep qe about the STO and put sop tothe “The Church andthe associations anti-German activites oft youth orpanizatiens. The Church was ‘Ibo ready to exert presrure cam be seen fam Is negotiations over the sending of alinners to Germany. Sabard did not bette to warn the embassy that unless agreement wa reached the Church might centuat ts hori to the STO, wheter concession onthe part tf the Germans would make posible to overcome the opposition tf part of the cesgy”” The Germans did indeed reuse t0 be ovelatory, but Subard’s theste remaized 4 dead leer All the Shine, this air did show that the Church was capable of taking ‘Sion wen its ow interests were at state The bishops decided 54 body tha wenty priests should secretly depart for Germany. twas 2 gesture thatthe churches in both Belgium and Holland were not trling to malke™ and it seems reasomble to regedit as an attempt to compensate forthe absence of cendembation ofthe STO on the part of the Church of France ‘Suhard’s prudent in was not unsonnectd with hs own personal view of the cont, In 1943, he made scornful remarks about the [Americans in the presence of 3 German diplomat.” A few days before the allied landings, he wrete im his notebooks As the com fice continues, It gives each of the belligerent lis that they fear land that make them ght agalst adversaries whom, deep down, they would like to have ar ales” Later he went oo to say “The United State my well become the most intolerable power the world has ever Known. According to Abetz, he several Emes suggested “that beciow of the bolshevic danger thats becoming increasingly threxening, Germany ought to aim for an centnte with Bagland’.”” ‘Bren if other opinions end attudes existed at the top of the church hierarchy, they peaduced no practi effects. Admittedly. the Church of Prance gave 20 ofa support to the polices of Collaboration, It even abrained from repeating the Pope's conden tation of conmmuniat, Ir dignitaries certaialy showed prudence in their relations with the couplet Nevertheless, throughout those ‘ck years it remained sent on the sore of Nazism, which the Pope had condemned, and also on the score of the crimes ofthe tcccupying power ~the executions of hostages the deportations of| hove who rested, the pereection of the Jews ~ breaking that ‘lence only (and to minimal degres) on the subject of the STO ‘While publi opinien was evolving from hostile passivity towards {itive ejection, the Church remained unmoved playing Into the ‘ecupler hands though both ie silence and Is recommendations nasAccommodations | otobedience. ts efor to discipline the fathfl did prove effective, | Ene inthe Sire two year from the tne of the armistice wp unt | September 1943, out ofthe 329 teachers arrested by the German {uthorites only two eame from fre (Church) eduston, 2nd only four out ofthe 339 pupls"” te covert defenot ofits own Satererts ~ ‘the Church for stelf stone’ you might say, to return to Maurras formula ~ party ‘explaing its pradence: Wat all that had been achieved with such pain to be allowed to be destroyed? Yet the Church of Belgie, fespte its prudence and its tenacious defence of is own poston, war more dicrlminating ato the limite of what could be accepted [recogaized the occupier as de acto power to which obedience twas due ‘withia the linits of iteratonal convestions. Cone (quently it did protest agnnet the STO and draw attention to the ‘compatibility berween Nani and Chrsianity apd alo excom- tmuniated Degree. the collaborstonist leader" In France, the fristence of the new regine muddled all the cardx The Church feqarded this av its hitrie chance to recover 3 central place in french society. Ite attude towards the occupying power wa con sequently dicated by its attachment to a rege that Was Isell| ‘dependent upon its tsocaion with the conquer. A distorted Image ofthat conquerer and his intention, lever self promoted ands tacit but rel ideological connivance, particulary onthe sere ‘of communiam, further determined the behaviour of the French lay. ‘Aer 1943, the upper Church hlerarchy knew that a defeat for ‘Germany was probable and that chete could hardly be aTature for the regime Buti stil remained stached to Fétain and continued ss prudent as ever vied-is the occupiers The hope of a compromise peace 4 pacife transition when iberation came, and order main: ined tp antl tht polar partly explais fs loyalty to Pes [Above ll, however the prelates were bound by their own particu lar values and mental atitade. It war not only the Germans and Vichy that resistance challenge: tals threatened the foundations of authority leet withthe result that the Church was dlssuaded| trom distancing itself fom the French and German authorites. A parallel of interests existed, which sow ha far les to do with political aspirations and was connected far mare withthe desperate ‘Protection of the values pon which the ecleiartic inettion was founded, "No clearer testimony to this could be found than the insistence 236 “The Church andthe associations th ohh nse mon of nS kl wh eee eer gee ace eae roe pie ce pee 3 oe 2 oe olga re tee ele eee ea cee arn bd ec eet Becca mE oat comm lg secre hs scene et ce ee ey cto ee raed te en ated Beemer eee ae sien nae reas wale oe So ce aces gon sect rge eer maar ee st rae ct ascnesee wie Sie ee ee Are et Sis toe teeter aed s oe ee eae ee eon cm a tiers ee ne ee ued Se eer mer cramer ane wes ain Se ty aac rr en aes setae a715 Business leaders [Sm all cy to ph up the atte ofthe Church as ‘agunst that of the employers, as there were two such very diferent worlds. At the liberation, the Iter were rested. mich ‘more harshly than the former, with polite, socal and national ‘grudges all combining to condemn them as pillars of Vichy, ex Ploters of the working clas, profers fom the occupation if not positive allies ofthe occupying power Employers ax & group were pillored several of che most prominent were sent to pisom, Sub quent nitionaliztions seemed just punishment for thei eallective “unworthiness, The resentment aaint them stemmed frm the trials lndergone by a severly poverty-stricken working class the group ‘the hardest hit by German lbour requisitioning and whove sense ot social Injustice had been sharpened by all the pivaions eect seal i sharpened by all the pr y ‘Asa group the employers, like the Church and the army, con- stituted repository of authoritarian values the restoration of which Ina seemed within reach. Acately consiout of their prevoptives and imbued with an extremely paternallstic sense of responsiblity fod s mentality more patrimonlal than entrepreneurial, French ‘employers had been shocked by the social movement of £936 that had followed hard upon the great depression, Tel agreement with ‘the new repime wat prompted at three levels! was 2 foregone ‘conclusion onc the ater had affirmed the need for strong author ity and signalled its intention to estore the social eles to the forefront ‘of public life; it was easly established on the Basi of 2 revaluttion of business in which the work thor would match that of the motherland and the family: andi was encouraged by the lex of| 8 new organization of social relations, controversial in design but at Busines leaders | which the workers representation would be limited, trade union sutonomy would be chested, and rikes would be banned “However, the employers’ world lacked the fine simplicity ofthe ‘Church and, even more its powerful identity. Cleavages were as umerous at interests were diver There waa great tance separ Ling those whose ony thought was to keep thelr heads above water snd those engage in major business daly whos calculations were based on a long-term view: and between these two poles were many ‘intervening gradations The only common denominator ws deste {or busines to prosper for ullitarian aim, and pragmatic reasoning ‘Although large majority of employers approved of theregime, ntl ‘id, nor were all of them im agreement on every point" A certain sovcapals eetorle used on ocasion even by Peain ~ measures ‘sich tthe dissolution ofthe Comit dee forges symbole as thi may Ihave been: the law on linited companies aad the Labour Charter of ‘Work allactsome teeth on edge. Albovesll the plicy af eallaboration | engendered doubts and prompted criticisms more or less rapidly ‘depending onthe none. Like the Church, the employers 35 2 group ‘neld back from sing openly agaist the occupiers right to the end ‘nthe other hand, they did distance themseves from Vichy 5 soon as the hardening pois of the oceuplers began to harm ther interests ‘Anxiety about the aftermath of the beaton di not outwelgh the ‘exice to be delivered from oceupation snd alts constraint ‘The executives ofthe organization commitees (omits rgoize ‘on: COs) constituted the mos prominent section ofthe employers ‘group daring this period” 1 was they who manifested the Incressing power of employee and demonstrated the Sn cf ther place in the new regime, They alo found themselves Playing 2 crucial mediatory role in relations with the ocrupation Suthortes and hence in cllbortion, When they set sboat thir {ask right after the disaster of the defeat, hey did ot yet realize uite how difical would be. “The committees cane into being in Augutt 1940 in an economy severely disrupted by the dees duopanized by the frontiers ‘rawr between one zone and another cut off from mast of its fexternal contacs, and weakened by the tribute exacted by the ‘cecupying power Committed to its vision ofa strong and limited State, the new rege chose to harness the privat economy tothe ‘generation of the country The immediate task sighed to the ‘committees was to cope orth penury and, #0 this end, group 29Accommodstions together Sms in the sme branch of business, report on what means {production were avalible and oranize the ditibtion of rw ‘meri In the mid-term thee role wast oganie the econony by providing cadres and discipline (bth key concepts forthe rege) {nd aso by rationalising and modernizing I. Thi i where the Intlesce ofthe technocrats made felt fet, a did the spit of voluntrsm that Was later to Infuse the india polices of the post-war period. In 1940, the guiding idea was to prepare businesses for competion ina German Europe by promoting otentes between French rms, making methods more efficent, and encouraging applied research "The commitee were placed in the hands of leading employers ‘most of them the heads of major firms, many of whom hed held ‘sponsible postions inthe prewar wade azoistons They give younger, less welrknown men a chance to come to the fe managers in thete fortis such at Prange Leiden on the CO for Automobiles and bieyces, lacquer Gueratd fom insurance, Pierre Pucheu fom the mechanical engineering industis, These were men who had already bees supporters of an orginzed economy before the war and who now soa tel spurs and were subsequenty given post inthe goveramens A citle comprising afew hundred busi ‘est leaders Was thus enrusted with a roe of conlderable impor tance. The CO's benefited fm 2 delegation of public power that fabled them to impote dus upon thore unde thee control and to propose sanctions The contol exercised by the sate sctmed limited in comparison to thei, even though the state dia otceable by the tur of he year. Authors in region A noted that tren Industrials hitherto favourable to cllabration now seemed Stove reserved"? iis quite truc tha speculation onthe advantages cof economic cllaboration for Trance im general and for Individual ‘Sens in particule had by now become tnashionable Cl orders tad been replaced by military one By the time the eee wat Inunched the Germans were in no doubt a to the negative sate af sind ofthe employers world, whore atitude was hardened by the Sous of thew the ening of pbb opinion, a the 'As to orders, different branches of industry were in unequal demand and were In need of them to varying degres. Collie or fxampl, were producing fora market in which demand fr exceeded tupples Their managers were malng the mor ofthis situation and ‘were mining low-producing seams to el low-grade coal, keeping bck the better material inorder to eableto taken competion ater 27Accommodations hea at eigen bat a at to the rms on contrat sng proton fll con ‘idea fos tives cul uri any oth Goa eae tracts Not all employers were facing eg iis. (an rr ented uci vung be fetes Pore emer to servis oops fe pores their psomal nandard of living and their socal positon and furthermore ~ in the ery days least = ih the prospect of intr looming, they cited to wish to protec thelr workers. ‘German orders mae pntble fr then eget ng apn aod toon tbe wortlog at All pec. A sume of Betts feeaed the traction of these odes sling price cleulted in overvalued ‘mars in sme cases, the solo of technolo experie at ven mancfacuring scree from German cent anew forthe Doct to mearar upto thc denande 0d, rss the emu of Tost om geeanterd deliveries coded canter end opal food supplies for factory canteens. Al this ae partly ela forthe larger frm whch could explo seboontacting by Provide Ing wor toa mans om ari ae he subcontractors to Sind these by ter ow mea Ax shortages Incremed, and thousands of Sets were‘orced to dose a2 rerlt ff the programme of concentric sd the roquaeng ofthe ‘Skoor rts German orders bere quite Seely we “The atmorpher inl added encoxragenet cou Be ia 194 After the uphenvae of war andthe def, eonom ea king up apn ‘and seemed toe returning to normal. In sas [ctr the pre-war level of production wat even ated (or Samiciom, al ge sd elect eqepecnt) German pwr ae tit peak peace vemed jot ound the corner and he Vien reine tran ofering lgimaton and encourgenest. Seal wonder the Teupiew detected 1 mest youre aude towards calabria Shout the employers working for hem. However should be Ferenbesed tat was dtecible only ina minty ater ‘Seman order id not neces siglysopport fling ints tine, “fren purely the fre! of busines en parely a log plenty of dindvantages were alpine The et ofthese orders was to fe as Iwi cents the french marketplace het i might prove iffelt {o restore To fem engaged in prodacing. war materle they brought the ik of being bombed. Often they wee ot eve aly ‘rotable, particularly when they followed one ar another i coptane of industry rap succsion, with erie of ileent specations hat det ‘Be to mais tonsantalertons in manfacuring methods? ‘Bhowe alc the presiounee ofthe suation sould never bef ‘ARE wat woulda furure Goan Boope Be le? Many busines eeeare afcied by thse and sla concer: indole ctl toward verses mares ad toe for whom 3 Grmin ‘Siar spel grees compeson; employes i the peoibited ne, ‘Who Bol thc worsening ofthe ot for rate ana kes hose RG tamaged bythe conqueror for intanee nthe tee indy, SESE in blessed, loned sod exhausted. all wonder that EIST Wendl ld ot lk favourably upon ter the ae iy power or even Vichy, wiser his conserva ne Teer Te came went for meh ike Schneider, who te German orieasdeprved al is ranches in Europe. , ‘eh Salute exproned aie recnce in many ways | THe Shel forseelesdvnce into which te Germs rad 8 sa. ee up ate of teow money as pose in ilo | Gin gjpe! rity wed to wiimine ny sigan of voluntary coxpers= TOR TES peagest fal who were song supporters of Peas up | ath pun seeped el supine tats 2 Geran wae unde nT factrin™ Eaced wit els inrodhce Feel they demonted the rete revert’ THU themida oamo ing | ae pene any ony ite rere oflbou, ves 8 seating sous wen aaderemplyment was widerprend. In ths ae ee ac end fie te armament verve drow atenon | {She anon sate mind ofthe major of indus wo | ‘Gerace not to extend their contrbaton to the German eat | TescSy yond watever war absolutely newsry to the survival trance" Raton athe requis of lbour began, they tok ative sachs letend tet workers partly out of eireprencral el ISEree, bat ab out of pasos apd concern for soil peice. ihe vant nctor working for Gemany, tt and awkward vente TRUE between amply aod worker. The 15000 odd fms of See ployed ooze workers to which Sgue should beaded see eee bend nota opr cent fe aie eesti (93) Most ofthese workers benefited from ee fa fm de SEO fact that prompted continuous requests rrelcymen Gem young ne who preferred to work for Germany Seem rth thas beyond the Rhine. This wety sanctioned by oo‘Accommodations expediency of which nobody was particularly proud, di nt prevent ‘working-ass cams from bulding up landestiney preparing the ‘way fora fture wave of seal militancy inthe wake othe liberation. Most industrlaiats took on German orders a2 stop-gap in acor- dance with busines loge, But ina situatonchareteriaed by shrink Ingactivty, many constants and gest uncertainty, which dd no, to besure, exclude the dese to makes profit and swish to manage the far with an eye to the possibility of a Geran victory sme stood ous By reason oftheir manifest reed or sel, or Beaute they agreed tothe establishment of durable links with German partners 13 the it of those two cases, secking out the ccupir ar a let cou learly be eritcined az unacceptable behaviour Im rnelple there was a clear distinction between aceptance and vllcaton. In Pra Uc, however when fe came to orders the lve between the tio as cally Breed, Hagerness was manifert when industialts resorted {advertising in, for example the Parser Zeitag I would be tedious tolls the dozens of firme gute apa fom nightclubs and retaur- sots which rented advertising space there on continuoas basis that dally strove eo bring \hemacves to the Germans’ attention, the Inaorty of them mechanic engineering firms steelworks and pubs le contruction companies And who but» German cllestle coal luabeth Arden have been adacesing when she sessed that het Products were thre Ues less expensive than abroad? ‘The situation wat even ceaer when orders were weleomed sgredily, leading to a firm's productve apparatus being extended 4nd is french: cliente belng dumped? or when industrialists ‘ecermined to keep thelr factcies running whatever the cost act ally offered to manufacture military mate. Louis Renal who ‘ould not have cared less about hs works being requisitioned, ‘ould not bear tose hs machine tole sent. To prevent this: in carly 19¢3 he declared himself prepared to mapufucture armoured supply carriers or even tanks. ‘Only one thing cont, me and my ‘actory’ he std n connection with the Relive, “Letshers doa €0 they ao wie "7 Inthe second cs, a Pench industrialist would become associated with a German partner, that ir to say he might se up + company ‘with mined expt form a consortium to bul factry or came ‘oan agreement over the explolation of patent," o establish some ‘other Kind of durable lik Tn 194, a muimber of age deparment ‘Sores ~ Printemps, La Samaritsine, Les Nouvelles Galeries nego: 250 Captains of industry sited with German counterparts (arstadt rwepe and Werte and, In some eaten concluded agreements over thei tual ueof craral purchasing agencies e was not a matter of covering tamediate Beeds the contact Between La Samaritaine and Heri eyecied that it world become valid only when the peace treaty was Signed, what these people ad in mind was deitely longterm (ollaboration and, of course, a speedy German victory ‘A umber of large fmr exablished longterm lnisons of thls kind. The inate t should be sud, always came frm the Ger ‘man side often from 1G Farben, the manmath chemicals company. Unlike the thousands of other indusralate accepting, German orders, here the parties already knew each other, in some caer from years back, mol from having taken part in international ‘entnis or eatels Te was German pressure that made the Preach {overnment take part in these negotiations; and the entrepreneurs ‘Welcomed this af most of them found themselves in poston of ‘weakness. With not only markets, but also branches, holdings and licence agreements abroud, they had suffered from the collapse af thelr exports and external revenues, Furthermore atleast some af thelr factories were situated in the eceupled none or In other ‘ountrles now occupied by Germany, The triangular situation of| the firms, Vichy, and the Germans nevertheless worked out gute ‘ferenty for different companies depending on the attuder of the industrialists involved “The case of Michelin wil serve san example of a firm that chowe to repale the advances ofthe Germans, even fis meant diverging ‘rom government policy. Inthe summer of 941, the unreliablty view of the situation that was not ll the diferent from Tabvee's exept that fe ws secompanied by another sentiment. 7 do not know wha the future hola, but Ido not despate™ “Although he repeated hs rearone fr opposing Febyee. in the end blgch decided to give him a free had."A dere not to provoke 3 break and to deal taetully with his colleague, whose argoments were forcing him on to the defensive ate probably reasons enough Far his decision, tn 1943, he was to fnd tha taking everything inte ‘onsiderstion, nae tolerable colce The periodical wet cw ‘way, not without changing ie form Sn 1342 and being renamed ‘Melanges histoire scale. The sccupying power with other fn fy kept a no more than data eye oni In returning to falar work he contributed to the periodical under a pseudonym), Bloch Scems to have found 9 icker of comfort im his Beak tas, But before long the rerstance was absorbing all hie energes In 794) he went underground. In 1944 be was arrested, errr thes shot By consenting to his ows elimination, Bloch made it pole for the periodical to reappear At the liberation, his martyrdom gave 2 ‘moral guarantee, The past Wat sow seen in a new datrted per Specie by yeople whe were professional historians, and who ‘timitely” are not always the best equlpped when fe comes 19 ‘immediate history, Febere wanted to go tack tothe Ye st Ler ‘Annaler and seo to obtan Some paper In both cases. he had to |Jasity the publishing ofthe ecidical under the ocpation. The Minister of Information happened to be Jacques Sousell a member of theeitoril commie. "Tam etain,Febvrewrote tht, cat all 1 need do ie present this twotad wish t Ineques Soustelle forthe Miniter of information to bestoeboth athorinstion a paper upon the Annales which, alone o all the French strc peetoieal for four years publicly maintained the spirit of "belte”, with the callboration, right to the en, of Mare Bloch hinge ‘et us pass over the altogether gratuitous dig at theater period- foals, The competitive apne that had prompted Feber fo resume publlion was certainly not dead. He now represtated that pub- ye Ineletuale and el preservation leation under the occupation 25 an ato defiance, claiming that the ‘eriodicl had been ‘one of the most vibrant centres of intellectual Tesitance othe oppression’. And this was a clam that he supported bby refering to Bloch martyrdom, the resistance credentials of| several members of the dtr board, and even the change of title fn toga, which be explained by a dete to clude "Vicky's rosrip- tions regarding pevouical** On tis pol the truth ~ simpler and less glorious was that the occupying power had indeed impose paper restrictions and Febvee's periodic alongwith many others Bt been a vietim of hi But far from Ie being persecuted by Vichy, 2 commission for scholarly pevodials set up by the Ministry of| National Bducation under Bonnard ad, im May 1943, Imluded ein {ist of pableations for which authorization to appear was "argeatly ‘quested’ 1 wae when the response to this request turned out to evncgeve tha Febvre had decided to switch t the tle of Mélanges which wae Bot affected by the paper restrictions ‘Al signs of the heseatons and unceraiter of the time were ‘ctcay the past ae presented inthe best pose light, where fevesary withthe adition of few extn touches‘ and motives ‘were transformed. In 1941, Febvre had forseen a lasing pecad of ‘Mbjugetion and had considered ie advisable to adjust tot. He had vated to keep hs period going, ust as Jllt had wanted to save Bis laboratory: It was @ preoccupation that was shared By many toners of business, one that involved an effort to preserve not tality and pre-war atmosphere in rderto render the preset less farsh and t light the way fo the fture and that contained no hint i symp forthe conqueror Nevertheless his decision fo epublsh father than to stand by certain valuer and principles, and the Fesuling fHendly aryanization were not without signifcace. To She estat thatthe decision took shape when the outlook was one ffs probable though eerily undesirable, German domination, i oie downto acceptance ofthe prospect of fume which there ‘would be mo more Jews aCommitment nce. But what be sd touched upon one ofthe most profound Cais of Nazim. Driew war not alogelier mistaken about the \Eerkly destructive suicidal character of the movement that had fascinated him. ast Conclusion Arms bz Burpee ese 3 va page tae ‘ected mis af people. There wat no precedent for the ‘Phenomenon inthe occupations that had punctuated story ance ‘he French Revolution. The fat is that this occupation had been diferent. Nai Germany had imposed a heavy yoke and had reduced the ccupled peoples to wretchedness, The weight of is Jackboot had become incresingly crashing It had exterminated wllions of peopl, leaving behind it Auschwitz as a symbol of modern barba- fy Furthermore it had set out to annihilate ll modern \Solopies, Uberalism, democracy socaiom, communism and eventually Cie Sanity Ht bad Infinged the rights of mations by attempting to Seipose the domination of a mamtersace tht would exercise the power of lie or death over them. It ix not surprising tat those who, ih one way oF another, sssodated themselves with this force {hat was uot simply a national occupier but ls reine implement Ing 1 polly of ideslogies! hegemony should have brought dowa retribution una themselves. Trance was the ist Uberstod country to demand a reckoning. ‘Afer an extre-judical pure that claimed 6000 to gos victims. the Judicial purge began by investigating yav020 cases and ended by Dssng fentence upon tag individuals Sghtly under 50000 of| these Teena prison teaence of the 6763 condemned to death 767 were executed, plus an equal number who had been sentenced {fo death by mltary tibunae, Slightly over joooo others were ‘ripped of thelr cv rights. There wat also 2 profesional purge, ‘pecially in the administration, in which a least 25000 people ‘were penalized. In all about 10000 trench people were probably {Mfected In one way of another* 49Conclusion othe ‘his purge which contributed to te Sing of the image euteiches GRESE oy" enuiping and singling out + group Ser rte upon whch the ealectvefeinge of te SEGRE sere ten concenated and vented, thereby purging the Ties mbigules snd uncertainties that bad characterized TEN ied vo an amnesty designed to bring peace through the SERRE Sta hanafl ot tenes, Bot fom the 19708 onward he'ege or the pst Doce iereningly enced: now the pure GeePawed sed growth of rnpicons encouraged by the SSeSuoe of lng standing slvion or 2 longstanding He. PO BeceD or epee of crimes enpunishe, accountability su ‘Seaty identified nd french peopl hat had been besirched a Semi the murky waters of the period. Atetio now focused Lyon the Jerscuton ofthe Jews andthe new sensitivity to aman SRR bat bad taken over fom mains and the major ideologies Bored wo thn yr Hack ge a end voy ‘realy everyone who bad lived through ‘cir sopnnbe fr historias to ty either of hese wo age sity hav to remember thn accommodation epular PRESEN. Ta tow any oxcupaton, wher ceria points or interac of SEER Se"Nheviably ceatd and some adjustment c the new Sturn har tote mde hes daria expan ot ot ‘incon purely by dn coast ually finds some more oF (Sa and Tala Casein shared cere and By comsructing ‘Sovrs of accommodation that Unk ocepirs and ocd ‘pelt and make I possible forthe machine fo continue fo ope SSE'TRE french, with thet selon pas are wel paced o we. ‘ind that tore can be no domination without 2 mini degree of "epsnce however foe and tha divisions and verging ite {SEW subjugated sce are bound to play int the hands of Hjetaldomiaton. Besides ie would not be fat systematically © Iie eters positive or a aeative conouton to the peso seh ScSttommedaon. afer the Nan xtastophe the Germans — SP'E Say rate those Icky enough to find themselves inthe sone ‘ped bythe west Aller ~ reckoned that It was 1 thet ‘Seater to cer nto associ with tht onquerots and together (Seblch the basis for anew sate “Aedes forms and acoporats dees that ned 12 rr concusion be distingulehed so that they are not all muddled together. The rst form is structural one imposed by the need to ave publ services that continue to function and an economy that doesnot collpe. ‘This Is all the more inevitable when the society Involved is diversi fed, the division of labour is highly developed, and Interests and sectors are deeply interconnected. Once an oocupier seeks to exploit ‘the economy fo his own needs, choices forthe last of evils cannot be avlded, choles in which survival for the national community ‘must be weighed apne asetance given to the enemy, aetance ‘thanks to which that enemy might win is war and perpetuate i ‘domination, These are panfal agonizing choix, withthe sales ways tipping tothe sume sid towards the stronger party, but ‘would be hard to avoid them, given that an entire soeety cannot take to the magus ae an Individual can, But such an adaptation ‘Should atleast involve calculating one's concessions as precisely a5 possible, abstaining from ancipating the cccuple’s demands aod, ven more, fom adopting polls that commit he eountry’s future ‘That is what most af the French did; how eould they have avaided doing a ‘But with some people accommodation went further I ook on 2 aiberate character went beyond minimal adaptation, and Involved iniatives that betrayed a desire for closer tes or some fgreement. Such behaviour amounted to providing, directy oF Site material ot moral assistance fr the occupiers polices. ‘These people didnot simply make the beet of the otupation; they tried to adape to the cceptr in two distinct ways: The At emay bbe described at opportunist accommodation, for want of 4 eter term. It occurred within certain limit, with one oye always kept fon how the situation was developing, and was chiely motivated by a desire to defend or promote Interests of ether a personal or 2 corporative nature, in situation of uncertain outcome. But i meant going more than halfway to meet the enemy and his polices as when people entered into socal relations with him, hose to produce or work for him, to fequent his propaganda entres or learn his language, to adjust tothe framework impored by hm, even though other choices were posible nd abstention tnvolved no great sacridee. The term oppartuniam does fot meth that this pursuit of one's own interes was secestarly purely cynical or regardless of values Although most ofthe accommods- ton in this exteory may not have been primarlly prompted by polltico-deolgiel motives, these were olen present In some srConelusion se om ing a ed tae x tes send x debt como vat te wide “hse dane reereap es a hie hoviorats alcneohin ac ecco oie os facet petty en rn ely coir deta ya Sere nn wal op ey Ce reece ny iit caer at ey se pea tet nocd in et eterna so ct pa ie “he ty ge ee Sapa ad seer Os Sei ee Seed ee a es cia enact and patie ec A the Herat, the fence of Sn see enero ed ene spent eget ord Seen Sena Tete set jeri en scam cettotye s arr tenet rer it aprtene at ton ee ores dha tts ty sn re oc a ek Se rornrarie Sota Satara aa er eee oe ee ames Sais Sreetgars asia oes Warne aret Stars ey cee rae Gian teeta wat cnr ecco isabel tr ete ecarnmennes melee eam tit 2iPe ‘aed that te not counting all the labour further up the ee ae ea manne Peon eae gent ae oe rnd ma tondnrat ninety eee 4 Conetisoa this id make a remarkable contributon a the evel of infomation, Symbolism and both the poi nd the armed struggle pare iy im helt months Coloration cealy aid include pola! accommodation at dened above and athe same tine smears of opportuni accommaton. xt fom am iccletal pinto view there reno Impersiveteron for drawing the cea demarcation line within this cond extepry of callabraion i oy paral level” The level of what was Considered actionable Would vary qrrtclay in roltion to the pala forces presen, 0 doubt {he communists would bave se considrably lower than other Ieisot the horns atk say whether hee shoud ave bern ‘ore pulshmento lesa horns perspective i ule simp Efe rom thao tae who cared eu the purges. onsder he ‘ae of the people who se sboulesraing Gera, parla the ‘Geoman Insite: was this collaboration or not? Acoring tothe ‘le lad down in the prge and from the pot of wew of liberal lain which each cae mus be Judged on i own meri wih a pariclaremphars lid on fotenton, rach behavior could be gered as providing no immediate ato the enemy, gute apart {fam the water of easing wheter sich sd war ntended by thowe involved: However fom strats perspective, tere cou te nothing more sguicent than that moveeat towards the ost irs language nothing mere trezing then the every, ambi ‘x fre forme of fench rode’ ajurtment fo the presence of {he ocupir “atthe cd of this eagulry J would at any rate appear that dsibernte voluntary sccammodstion extended well beyond the ‘irl of thone panied inthe purge eis understandabie that its ‘widespread nature ~ paradonicly enough fle more strongly with the pusing of ne posibly Becure the extent of Peta popas Iasy becane mote and more shocking = shoul, over the pos Swe yar have ven ie to suspicions Ye tx worth repeating nce pent major of French people had no ath aaberation nd swoted none a tnd that they id behave worth even If their ncetainy and pasty inthe fs two pers allowed 4 ‘certain tte hone who we venturing fre owards 6 ‘odstion. Many Hench people sruredly Hved through Kind of prlonged phoney war fom 13 toil the ope that thee ountry would Be spared as mach a+ posite: thelr mem of ‘ier tals and thelr sense of he national weakoes are expla 46s‘conclusion tion enough. But, however inti, el walt fr bration was toe coon fen. Tobe a he a honourable oto be one mot Sceuty dubonoursle Sad pment he el of opin fr ine tek ann Sef regation or srpison, many mins of re ns se did go along with the government’ policy of collaboration. rool go along steno. Jat the level of behaviour, several bundred thousam = ota ent to work forthe osupls or ought fo an FoRieabers tee if not hundreds of thmands eed to learn am Nuage ended he curl evens they onganted 0 eked ai ronan ahbtins or ve te bo flrs pres tie ly port met ctnes of thounnds held deftly postive opinions ox sceehake and sae expresed these rug folic miliary saree hese people ce from every ao 1, with the sae cs songl represented cei roles. Proportional TENPRoo ened nthe inary te moc flan css were Sess see, by ren both titted ss sib Tevet by trudge let over fom he peewee period ween othe tuo Rath which peplled many them 0 ene nen an adminis or enteprenearal apa sce Sea re ar sake fer them, rjecan of scomeodation at Tone cotly on ear wee rete " undgsand the widespread nature o he phesomenon, we sant take into acoust the eodlons that determined iin this ‘Zipang over coccpaton condtons that operated lt parti: ISIfo0 in tes oyu The it conan Fao ce Aches evrything es he ply that the ocapler opts fr Shc nenupie ws marks out the playing feld and Kicks off. By Ratings of Foland, with thea of dostoying' 2% ely 8 Plat aor non Ment the Nae payed my “inp cooperation on the pat of tr ohana advance omc by cone ey adopted a ply fete eal cha cers eres ert ouble than ln the ater socded ‘Germanic’ counties of Westra Barepe “Te second coaonng factor ses fom the detatvs tht xt aknives hat are cevomecrbed by people's ssesment of Se conqucrrs power and she They dun of iy dominate, la by cr vow of heir pomsbeberore ith reped tthe Hip the prospect thing donation iagely expan the ‘Sights to the imperial youe that war encountered ip the 464 Conclusion ‘Buropean empires resignation, or even acceptance, encouraged by ‘te advasagee beought by the conqueror, Which sn part compen [ted for his domination, Im the case of France between 1940 and 1044 the ft thatthe war wa continuing all around i wae bound (ofr hope, and this acted as a check on widespread resignation ‘bs tothe second polnt if Prance had had the Soviet Unn a= > neighbour ands potential lberator, a the peoples of Eastern Europe {id i ould prota have been far more prone to poltalacom- tmodation. The prospect of Hberaion by the Sovits we viewed ‘ult dtferently from the possible arrival of the Anglo Saxons “The third conditioning factor the depre of cohesion tha exists within the occupied soctety. A socety’s receptiveness othe policies ‘fhe oocupler anit daposition towards secommodation ae ikely| to be preter it ir a sate of ere rr divided apna eel French society, Ike the caer Buropeaa sates accupled by Naz (Germany was feaght with tension and these weakened its putvitc rejection of occupation, eventhough the fundamental value of tht ‘ejection was forthe mom par recaelzed, ass shown byte sw 2nd widespread realization that the fact of cccupation called fora articular pattern of belaviur ~ the observance of a code of fondue for exceptional ier ‘Some of those tensions were of social nature and went beyond sere fecling of eesentnest between diferent categories or ayes fPeiey. We bave already noted the serous elfcts that can be [produced by the plenostenon of sodal fragmentation ao wes: ened civic and national reactions in consequence of dificult soi ‘rndiions, Inadequate education, oF 2 subordinate position, al of ‘Which erode people's ably to reject collaboration wits the occupier sd encourage them fo ratp at aby opportunity to prof om the ‘Stustion. The same attede can be fortered by confice between ‘ne national lyalty andthe protection of ones persna tees Other tensions were paisa aspirations fer renewal, authoritarian tim, antisommunism, and antieenitsm made people shorsihtedly (detect postive aspect to Nasi, Te aticnaio tat had Been at the source of mort ofthese atiudes was weakened by the recog ton of paral soliariy withthe ccruplr inthe struggle agains fermmon Enemies This wis endosey thas the case of cllabors ont went so fara to encourage the Ade of rebullding the mation ‘ith thea of the conqueror Finally, there were eter tensions that Jad to do with paca, a senae ofthe country’s weakness and 2 desize to preserve French Dlood, which made people regard an 465Conetuson ‘enforced unfcation of the continent as necessary of oven deiabe. All these elements were already present belare the defeat. They summed even grater weight when Vichy highighed aed sane Sone them. “Art pursued its poly of cllbortoa che reach sate ae only sme grave conceaions inorder to achieve am ilsery regeneration euperate Panes roveregaty and rear sanding i the midst of war that had no end in sight and was ssaming world de proportions; n its desire to perpetuate ts regime Italo drew coset ind closer to the occupier ven if Is slogan was Prance for iself Alone, the end rel of policies was to tur tito a stepping Stone for the ciminal activities of Nanna. ‘The oceuper ‘might Dewsitly have managed to depot a8 many Jews by giving direct ders tothe French pole, 8 did in the countries whore gover>: ‘ments were established In London, But the fact rma at Vichy lene hand by earning ia oeign Jews, denaturaicing some French Jews and arresting lews with French national, TK should ot be imagined, however, that, without Vichy, there ‘would have been no callboratio, French society possessed mtchan- Isms ofits own for accommodatin. But the French stat did confer a legitimacy upon them exerting an iauence that, without being luteguivecl was heavily negative. When ove compres the sitar so wih hat eter oped coun i Wes Hope ‘merges despite the diversity of thelr pars =u ones that i reepet of marked form of politcal sccomenods- ton ~ membership of edllabrationet groupe or combatment tht Lavoved wearing the Geran usiform France comer athe Beton ofthe sale The existence of the French state and above all the popularity of Pétain probably had a delecing eet fm many cases the support given to Petsin may have prevented ore adic esmtnent. On the other hand, in its behaviour Breach Solty does seem to have been ore proge to Opportanietaccomsmolatnn for in this area the existence of Viehy had the opposite eter, Tending encouragement to interest in Rect of defence or promo. lon, Although the other occupied societies af Wesers Buspe produced more supporters and ecruts for cllaborionist, they the same time provide exampler of civil resistance the like of whlch are got to be found la Rance: the Amaerdam svike in fipport of the Jews and n Holand and Norway the movereats ‘of refusal to cooperate on the part of academics andthe medical ‘rofsson, rec" There constituted demonstrations of opposition to 466 vactusion gh oe Nan’ tempat me tone unde ccpaton te line wherein anc he ech se fate tee by dtd open son ae Ys fecal eta 7 {nth memories ef rnc pop fo «cette Roe “aad by he cooing deck nt ee Tors tenes Sf modem haere The emere ee Bee Mod Wer overured the gortus image eh erat te es ‘ad nt only ede in iy Botha do produced sd ie ‘nines of rbulation. The deat of 940 topple te onenenn ance and paved the wy fo seine or ck akan sone wien soled in ny the ata a at I ook Ply overt satin ote sa ef the que oho wae tated plnen pny oe She hata itr, epinon hd sen ery tec sc ne cide ms es snoctine dover who they sly re He his ee ek sity fo dos Rane aa pats tal pas ee Sotho ect tesa tems dere ge ae one rebel general and al sacs maby sree