MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS

Chapter Summary
Anything that has both mass and volume is called matter.

Particles of matter have space between them.

Force of attraction between particles of matter keeps the particles bonded together.

There are three states of matter – solid, liquid and gas.

Matters which have fixed volume and shape are called solids.

Matters which have fixed volume but indefinite shape are called liquids.

Matters which have indefinite shape and volume are called solids.

The process of change of water into vapor is called vaporization.

The temperature at which a liquid boils is called its boiling point.

The change of vapor into water because of decrease in temperature is called condensation.

The change of liquid into solid because of decrease in temperature is called freezing.

The change of solid into liquid due to increase in temperature is known as melting.

Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a body during the process without change in
temperature of the system.

The process in which a solid changes into vapor without changing into liquid and from vapor
changes into solid without changing into liquid is known as sublimation.

The change of liquid into vapor without reaching at its boiling point is called Evaporation.

Factors affecting the Evaporation are; Temperature, Pressure, Surface area, Humidity in air and
Wind speed.

The phenomenon of mixing of particles of different substances together is known as diffusion.

Diffusion takes place from higher concentration to lower concentration.

States of Matter
There are three states of matter – solid, liquid and gas.
Solids
Matters which have fixed volume and shape are called solids. For example - stone, wood, brick,
ice, sugar, salt, coal, etc.

All metals are solid except mercury and gallium.

Properties of solids
 Solid has fixed volume.

 Solid has fixed shape.

 Solid has high density.

 Solids are heavy.

 Solid does not flow.

Liquid
Matters which have fixed volume but indefinite shape are called liquids. For example - milk,
water, petrol, kerosene, alcohol, oil, etc. Since liquid can flow, it is also called fluid.

Properties of liquid
 Liquid has definite volume.

 Liquid has no definite shape.

 Liquid gets the shape of container in which it is kept.

 Liquid cannot be compressed much.

 Liquid has less density compare to solid.

 Liquid is lighter than solid.

 Liquid flows and hence is called fluid.

Gas
Matters which have indefinite shape and volume are called gases. For example - air, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon-dioxide, etc.
Properties of gas

 Gas has indefinite shape

 Gas has no fixed volume.

 Gas gets the shape and volume of container.

 Gas fills the container completely.

 Gas has very low density.

 Because of low density gas are light.

 Gas can flow easily and hence are called fluid.

Cause of different physical states of matters

The physical states of matter depend upon three main factors:

 The force of attraction between particles.

 The space between the particles.

 The kinetic energy of particles.

Solid:
 The force of attraction between the particles of solids is very strong.

 There are minimum spaces between the particles of solids.

 The particles of solids have minimum kinetic energy.

Because of great force of attraction particles of solids are closely packed together. This makes
the space between particles of solids almost negligible. The lowest kinetic energy of particles
does not able to move the particles of solids.

Hence, the great force of attraction and least space between particles of solids and lowest
kinetic energy of particles keep the particles at fixed places. Because of the combination of
these characters matter exists in solid state.

Liquid:
 The force of attraction between particles of solid is strong but less strong than solids.

 The space between particles is more than that of solid but not too more.
  The kinetic energy of particles is greater than solid.

Strong force of attraction keeps the particles of liquids packed together. But the force of
attraction between particles of solids is less strong than that of solid. Because of this particles
of liquids are loosely packed compared to solid. The kinetic energy of particles of liquids is
greater than that of solids.

Because of more space between particles and more kinetic energy than solids the particles of
liquids slide over one another. These characters make a matter to exist in liquid state.

Because of slide of particle over one another liquid can flow.

Gas
 The force of attraction between particles of gas is almost negligible.

 The space between particles of solid is greatest.

 The particles of gases have greatest kinetic energy.

Because of negligible force of attraction the particles of gases are loosely packed consequently
there are lots of spaces between their particles. Because of greatest kinetic energy the particles
of gas move with high speed.

Because of negligible force of attraction between particles and greatest kinetic energy the
particles of gas have always tendency to escape out.

Because of these characters a matter exists in gaseous state.

Thus, these can be concluded that:

 A matter exists in solid state because of greatest force of attraction between its particles
which makes the particles closely packed.

 A matter exists in liquid state because of less force of attraction between its particles than a
solid, which makes the particles closely packed but allow to slide over one another.

 A matter exists in gaseous state because of almost negligible force of attraction between its
particles, which is unable to keep the particles bonded together.

Other states of matter

Plasma and Bose-Einstein Condensate(BEC): fourth and fifth sate of matter

Plasma and BEC (Bose-Einstein Condensate) are considered as states of matter other than
solid, liquid and gas. These are known as fourth and fifth states of matter.
Plasma: It is considered as the fourth state of matter. Plasma is similar to the gas. Particles of
plasma are made of free electrons and ions.

Plasma does not have a definite shape or a definite volume unless enclosed in a container.

Plasma may be defined as an electrically neutral medium of positive and negative particles.

Plasma is one of the most commonly occurring states of matter in universe. Plasma occurs
naturally in the stars. All stars are made of plasma. Because of the presence of plasma stars
glow. Plasma is formed because of nuclear fusion in stars. Our sun glows because of presence
of plasma.

Plasma TV got its name because of presence of plasma in it. Plasma is also found in
fluorescent light or neon sign. Plasma is formed when electricity is passed in a fluorescent tube
or neon sign, which makes them glow.

Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

It may be considered as fifth state of matter. Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein were
predicted about this state of matters, that’s why it got its name as Bose-Einstein Condensate
(BEC).

Plasma and BEC are has opposite characters. Plasma is a super hot and super excited atom
while Condensate has super cool and super unexcited atoms.

BEC has been obtained by cooling the vapor of rubidium-87 at super low temperature by Eric
Cornell and Carl Wieman on June 5 1995. After sometimes Wolfgang Ketterle also obtained
BEC from sodium-23 at MIT, USA. Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle got Nobel Prize in Physics for
this achievement in 2001.

Change of States of Matter

Matters can be changed from one state to another state. A solid can be changed into liquid and
a liquid can be changed into gas. Most of the metals, which are solid, turn into liquid on heating
and turn into vapor on further heating.

The change of state of matters depends upon mainly two factors:

 Temperature

 Pressure

Effect of temperature on states of matter:

 Solids change into liquid with increase in temperature. (Solid → Liquid)

 A liquid changes into gas by increase in temperature. (Liquid → Gas)

  Gas changes into liquid by decrease in temperature. (Gas → Liquid)

 liquid changes into solid by decrease in temperature. (Liquid → Solid)

Example: Ice is solid, water is liquid and vapour is gas.

On increase in temperature ice changes into water. On further increase in temperature water
changes into vapor.

Ice → Water → Vapour

On decrease in temperature vapor changes into water. On further decrease in temperature

water changes into ice.

Vapour → Water → Ice

On heating the particles of a solid get more kinetic energy and they start moving rapidly. On the
other hand heating increases the space between the particles. When the kinetic energy of
particles and space between them become similar to the liquid, the matter fulfills the condition
of arrangement of particles. In this condition a solid changes into liquid.

On heating the particles of a liquid gets more kinetic energy and they start moving more rapidly.
The increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles and inter-space between
them increases. The increase in kinetic energy and space between the particles the force of
attraction between particles decreases. When the kinetic energy of particles of liquid and space
between the particles increases and force of attraction between them decreases enough, the
particles of liquid start moving with great speed. In this condition the particles of liquid attain
the arrangement similar to gas and liquid changes into gas.

Water (a liquid) changes into ice (a solid) at 00C. Water changes into vapour (a gas) at 1000C.

The change of solid to liquid is called melting. The change of liquid to gas is called the
vaporization. This happens because of increase in temperature.

The change of gas into liquid is called condensation. The change of liquid into solid is called
freezing. These takes place because of decrease in temperature.

Effect of pressure:
Solid: There is no effect of pressure on solids.

Solids are non compressible, i.e. solids cannot be compressed as there is no space between
their particles which could allow compression.

When the pressure is increased on a solid, it is deformed and finally broken.

Liquid: There is no effect on pressure on liquid.

Liquids are non compressible, i.e. liquids cannot be compressed since there is not enough
space between their particles to get compressed.

Gas: The volume of gas decreases with increase in pressure.

Since there is lot of space between the particles, gas is highly compressible. Large volume of
gas can be compressed to a small volume. Because of this nature high compressibility, gas is
transported easily after compressed to a small volume in cylinders.

Natural gas is compressed to small volume and packed in cylinders. It is used widely as fuel to
running vehicles. Because of compression it is called Compressed Natural Gas or simply known
by CNG (Compressed Natural Gas).

Oxygen is compressed and packed in small cylinders, which is used to save life in hospitals.

On increasing more pressure gas turns into liquid.

The liquefaction of gas by increasing of pressure:

In general condition, the particles of gas are far from each other. They move independently and
rapidly in all directions. There is lot of space between the particles of gas. The force of
attraction is negligible between the particles of gas. Because of these characters gas can be
compressed a lot.

When pressure is applied on the gas, its particles come closer to each other. After applying high
pressure, the particles of gas come very close to each other that they start attracting each
other. The space between the particles of gas also decreases with increase in pressure. While
applying high pressure a lot of heat is evolved, which was using by the particles of gas in
movement. So, while applying high pressure to compress the gas, temperature is keeping low to
overcome with the heat released. As they come closer, they lose kinetic energy. Finally they get
closely packed at a certain high pressure, at this stage they get bonded with each other and
turned into liquid.

This process is called liquidation or liquefaction of gas.

Petroleum Gas is compressed to small volumes. At more pressure it turns into liquid, after that
it is packed into cylinders. This is used widely as fuel to cook food in households. Compressed
petroleum gas is commonly known as LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) since it turns into liquid
form.

Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, helium, etc. are compressed to liquefy and used for many
purposes. Liquefied oxygen is used as propellant in spacecraft rockets. Liquefied oxygen is
used for industrial and medical purposes also. Liquefied oxygen is of blue color.

On further increase in pressure, gas turns into solid.

Carbon dioxide is gas turns into solid on high pressure. Solid carbon dioxide is known as dry-
ice. It is also known as ‘Cardice’ or ‘Card ice’.
Dry ice is used in the storage of food.

On decrease in pressure liquefied gas turns into gas. Solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) turns into
gas without changing into liquid on decrease in pressure and increase of temperature.

Unit of Temperature:
Temperature is measured in Degree Celcius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin.

Fahrenheit: Before the end of 20th century Fahrenheit was used as unit to measure the
temperature. The scale of Fahrenheit was named after, the physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit.
Fahrenheit is written as “0F” and read as degree Fahrenheit.

320F (Thrity two degree Fahernheit) has been defined for the freezing point of water.

2120F (Two hundred tweleve degree Fahrenheit) has been defined for the boiling point of water.
Fahrenheit was replaced by Celsius.

Degree Celsius: The unit of Celsius is named after the Swedish Astronomer Anders Celsius,
who developed a similar scale. Untill 1948 Celsius was known as Centigrade. The word
centigrade comes after the Latin word ‘Centum’.

Degree Celsius is written as “0C” and read as degree Celsius.

00C (zero degree Celsius) has been defined for the freezing point of water.

1000C (hundred degree Celsius) has been defined for the boiling point of water.

Degree Celsius is replaced by Kelvin. Moreover, it is used widely even today in clinical as well as
laboratory thermometer.

Kelvin: Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature. The symbol of Kelvin is ‘K’. The Kelvin scale is
named after the physicist William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin.

The scale of Kelvin is used widely because of its many advantages over degree Celsius. In
Kelvin temperatures are written in positive usually.

273 K is defined as the freezing or melting point of ice.

373 K is defined as the boiling point of water.

At Kelvin scale -273 K is considered as the absolute zero temperature.

Degree Celsius - Degree Fahrenheit - Kelvin

Conversion Formulae
Process of change of states of matter:
 Vaporization

 Condensation

 Freezing

 Melting

 Sublimation

 Evaporation

Vaporization:
The process of change of water into vapor is called vaporization. When water is heated after
reaching at 1000C water starts boiling. At this temperature water turns into vapor.

Since, water boils at 1000C, hence 1000C is called the boiling point of water.

Boiling Point: The common definition of boiling point is, the temperature at which a liquid boils
is called its boiling point. Different liquid boils at different temperatures.
Condensation:
The change of vapor into water because of decrease in temperature is called condensation.
Condensation is the reverse process of vaporization.

When the temperature of vapor decreases it changes into water, this process is known as
condensation.

Distilled water is manufactured by the condensation of vapor. The process of making of

distilled water is known as distillation. In distillation first water is boiled to vaporize and the
vapor is cooled, i.e. condensed to get distilled water.

Freezing:
The change of liquid into solid because of decrease in temperature is called freezing. Water
change into ice because of decrease in temperature, in other words water freezes into ice
because of decrease in temperature. Water freezes at 00C.

Melting:
The change of solid into liquid due to increase in temperature is known as melting. Ice, which is
a solid melts, i.e. changes into water at 00C.

Latent Heat
When water is heated up-to 1000C it starts boiling and changes into vapor. But we see that even
after continuous supply of heat temperature does not rise above the 100C while boiling of water.

Temperature supplied after 100C to boiling water is used to change the water into vapor and
temperature of water does not rise.

On the other hand we see that when heat is supplied to ice, temperature does not rise above the
00C, until all ice melts. In this process also the heat supplied to ice after 00C is used to change
of ice into water and temperature of ice does not rise.

Heat is used in these processes without rise in temperature is known as Latent Heat.

The latent heat is used in change of states of matter, such as from solid to liquid or from liquid
to gas without rising in temperature.

Hence, Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a body during the process without
change in temperature of the system. This happens while change of state of matter meaning a
phase transition. Example: Melting of ice, boiling of water.

The particles of solid and liquid are bonded together with great force of attraction, because of
which a matter exists in a particular state. When we supply heat to a solid or liquid, the heat is
supplied without come in notice is used to break the force of attraction between particles and
this heat is not used to increase the kinetic energy of particles. Since, kinetic energy of particles
do not increase we do not see any rise in temperature of the system.

The word "latent" is derived from the Latin word "Latere" which means "to lie hidden". Joseph
Black introduced the term Latent heat around 1762.

Types of Latent Heat:

 Latent heat of fusion

 Latent heat of vaporization

Latent Heat of Fusion:

When solid changes into liquid, the head required changing the state without rising in
temperature is called the Latent Heat of Fusion.

The change of solid to liquid state is an endothermic reaction as heat is required in it. The
reaction in which heat is supplied or used is called endothermic reaction or process.

Let us take the example of melting of ice.

When heat is supplied to melt ice, temperature does not rise from 0 0C even after continuous
supply of heat till all ice melts. After melting of all ice temperature starts rising. The additional
heat is required to melt the ice without coming into notice is the latent heat of fusion.

The latent heat of fusion of ice is the energy which is used to change the state of ice (solid) to
water (liquid).

The quantity of heat required to convert I kilogram of solid to liquid without any change in
temperature is called Latent Heat of fusion.

The heat required is measured in joules (J).

3.34 x 105 joules of heat is required to convert 1 kilogram of ice into water at its melting point.
Thus, the heat of fusion of ice at its melting point = 3.34 x 105 joules.

Latent Heat of Vaporization:

When liquid changes into gas because of rise in temperature, the heat required changing the
state without rising in temperature is called the Latent Heat of vaporization.

The change of liquid to gaseous state is an endothermic reaction as heat is required in it.

Let us take the example of boiling of water.

Water boils at 1000C. When heat is supplied to water temperature does not rise after 1000C
even after continuous supply of heat. The heat supplied at this stage is used to change water
into vapor and hence does not come into notice. The additional heat is required to change the
water into vapor without coming into notice is the latent heat of vaporization.

The latent heat of vaporization of water is the energy which is used to change the state of water
(liquid) to vapor (gas).

22.5 x 105 J energy is required to convert 1 kilogram of water into vapor. Hence, the latent heat
of water is equal to 22.5 x 105 J per kilogram or it is written as 22.5 x 105 J/kg.

Different liquid has different latent heat of vaporization.

Sublimation:
The process in which a solid changes into vapor without changing into liquid and from vapor
changes into solid without changing into liquid is known as sublimation.

Generally solid first changes into liquid and then changes into gas because of rise in
temperature. But there are many substances, which change into gas without changing into
liquid and changes into solid from gas without changing into liquid. Such substances, which go
under sublimation, are known as sublime.

For example; camphor, naphthalene balls, ammonium chloride, iodine, dry ice, etc.

The solid obtained after cooling of the gas of sublime is called Sublimate. The process of
cooling of vapor of sublime to get sublimate is also known as ‘sublimation’ although it is also
known as deposition.

When camphor is heated it changes into vapor without changing into liquid. When the vapor of
camphor is cooled it changes into solid without changing into liquid.

Sublimation in everyday life:

The dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) turns into vapor without changing into liquid and is
considered as sublime. Because of this property dry ice is used to give the illusion of smoke or
cloud on the stage in movies and stage shows.

Naphthalene balls are kept with cloths and documents to protect them from insects. Since
naphthalene balls go under sublimation, hence it changes into vapor without changing into
liquid and its vapor prevent the insects to come or stay in cloths or documents. This protects
the documents and cloths to get destroyed.

We usually see that the size of naphthalene balls decrease gradually and finally disappeared
when they are kept in open. This happens because of sublimation of naphthalene.

Naphthalene balls are used in toilets also as disinfectant and air freshener.
EVAPORATION
The change of liquid into vapor without reaching at its boiling point is called Evaporation.

Evaporation takes place only at the surface of liquid while vaporization takes place on the
whole mass of liquid.

Evaporation takes place even at room temperature also. Evaporation speeds up with rise in
temperature.

When water or other liquid is left in open, gradually its volume decreases. If you left some water
in a pot in open, after two or three days water disappears. If the water left in garden or in a open
balcony, it disappears quickly than kept in a room. This happens because of evaporation.

Process of Evaporation
Molecules at the surface of water, when exposed some temperature, their kinetic energy
increases. Because of increase in kinetic energy those molecules become able to overcome the
force of attraction between the particles of liquid. After getting required kinetic energy and
decrease in force of attraction, they escape in the air in the form of vapor. Additionally those
kinetic energy get some of the required kinetic energy from their neighboring molecules also
because of which the temperature of the adjacent molecules decrease, which finally result in
decrease of the temperature of surface of liquid.

Factors affecting the Evaporation

 Temperature

 Pressure

 Surface area

 Humidity in air

 Wind speed

Temperature
Evaporation increases with increase in temperature and decreases with decrease in
temperature. This means rate of evaporation is directly proportional to the temperature.

With increase in temperature the particles of liquid at surface get required kinetic energy to
overcome the force of attraction and escape in air quickly. Hence, the increase in temperature
increases the rate of evaporation.
Pressure
Evaporation decreases with increase in pressure and increases with decrease in pressure. This
means the rate of evaporation is indirectly proportional to the pressure.

Particles at the surface of liquid require more kinetic energy to escape in air when there is more
pressure over it and hence rate of evaporation will decrease. While if there is less pressure over
the surface of liquid, the particles would require less kinetic energy to escape in air and hence
rate of evaporation will increase. Therefore, increase in pressure slows down the rate of
evaporation and decrease in pressure speeds up the rate of evaporation.

Surface Area:
Evaporation increases with increase in surface area and decreases with decrease in surface
area.

Since evaporation takes place at the surface of liquid only, hence if the more surface of liquid is
exposed to atmosphere more particles will receive the required temperature to get the required
kinetic energy to escape in air. Therefore, evaporation takes place more rapidly with larger
surface area. This means rate of evaporation increases with increase in surface area and
decreases with decrease in surface area.

After rain roads are dried up quickly than pot holes. This happens because of increase in
surface area of water. On roads water is spread over a large area, because of that large area of
water exposed to atmosphere, and evaporation of water takes place quickly resulting in quickly
drying of the roads. While in pot holes less water surface is exposed to air because of that less
water area could come in contact with air and receives less temperature, resulting in delayed
evaporation. That’s why water dried from road quickly than in pot holes.

Wet clothes are spread up over the laundry line to get them dried up quickly. More surface area
of water exposes to the air because of spreading of clothes this speeds up the rate of
evaporation and clothes are dried up quickly. On the other hand if wet clothes are left even in
the sun without spreading, they take more time to get dried because of less surface area
exposed to air. That’s why wet clothes are kept spread over laundry line to get dried up quickly.

Water kept in a plate evaporates quickly than water kept in a tumbler (glass). This happens
because in plate more surface area of water exposed to atmosphere which receives more heat
and evaporates quickly. While in a glass less surface area of water exposed to atmosphere
because of that less molecules of water receives heat from the atmosphere and evaporates
slowly compare to the water exposed with large surface area.

Hence, rate of evaporation increases with increase in surface area and decreases with
decrease the surface area.
Humidity in air and Evaporation
Evaporation decreases with increase in humidity and increases with decrease in humidity
present in air. This means rate of evaporation is indirectly proportional to the humidity present
in air.

Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in air. In weather reports, which are published in
news paper or given on the TVs channels, the humidity percent is given, which shows the
percent of water vapor present in air.

Because of more water vapor present in air the water holding capacity of atmosphere
decreases which decrease the rate of evaporation. If air is dry then it can holds more water and
thus in dry air rate of evaporation increases.

This is the cause that our cloths get dried up quickly in summer and winter than in rainy season.
Because in rainy season there is more water vapor present in air, which decrease the water
holding capacity of atmosphere resulting in decrease the rate of evaporation and our cloths do
not dry up quickly in the rainy season.

Our sweat does not dry up quickly in rainy season. Because of that we feel uneasiness because
of damp. This is because of higher percent of humidity present in air decreases the rate of
evaporation in rainy season and our sweat does not evaporate quickly and we feel uneasy
because of damp.

Wind Speed and Evaporation:

Evaporation increases with the increase in wind speed and decreases with decrease in wind
speed. This means rate of evaporation is directly proportional to the speed of wind.

Speedy wind propelled away some of the particles of water with it which speeds up the rate of
evaporation. That’s why speedy wind speeds up the rate of evaporation.

We see that wet cloth is dried up quickly in a windy day since the wind speeds up the rate of
evaporation.

The wet clothes are given jerks before hanging them on laundry line because by giving jerks
some of the water droplets propelled out. This reduces the presence of water in the wet cloths
and they dried up quickly.

Evaporation in everyday life:

a. Water from the surface of oceans, seas and other large water bodies evaporate
continuously as they are exposed to atmosphere. The water vapor because of
evaporation rises up in air and cumulates in the form of cloud, which makes the
rain. Hence, evaporation is one of the essential parts of water cycle. Thus we can
say that evaporation is one of the most natural phenomena for us.
 b. In summer days sweats come out to regulate the temperature of our body. The
sweat evaporates because of increase in surface area and getting the temperature
from atmosphere. This is resulting in decrease in temperature of skin and finally
our body, which gives relief to us in hot days. Sweating is a natural mechanism to
keep cool the surface of our body in hot days. This is the cause that with increase
in temperature our body sweats a lot especially in hot summer days.

c. Water is kept in earthen pots to keep them cool. Earthen pot has lot of pores. Water
kept in earthen pots evaporates from the pores of pots, which cools the
neighboring molecules of water. This process continues and whole of the water
kept in the earthen pots become cooler. Hence, water is kept in the earthen pot to
keep them cool for drinking purpose.

d. Wet clothes on the laundry lines are dried up because of evaporation.

e. Sea water has lot of salt. Sea water is left in shallow pond. The water evaporates
gradually because of heat of sun leaving the salt in the shallow pond. These salts
are collected and used for with food after purification.

f. Evaporative coolers are widely used in hot summer days. In evaporative coolers,
dry air is blow over husk saturated of water. From the surface of husk water is
evaporated resulted in cooling of husk. The water particles at the surface of wet
husk evaporate and cool the rest portion of wet husk. Air blown from the cool husk
is sent in the room, which cools the roo

Diffusion in Matters

Diffusion:
The phenomenon of mixing of particles of different substances together is known as diffusion.
Diffusion takes place because of the movement of particles of matters.

Diffusion is a natural process. The mixing of different gases in air is a natural process that
takes place continuously.

Diffusion takes place from higher concentration to lower concentration.

Diffusion comes from Latin word "diffundere". The meaning of "diffundere" is "to spread out".

It was Robert Brown who discovered the random moment of particles of matter. Albert Einstein
developed the theory of Brownian motion based on the discovery of Robert Brown.

Diffusion takes place in solid, liquid and gases.

Diffusion in gas:
Diffusion takes place most rapidly in gasses.
The particles of gas have more kinetic energy due to that they move with high speed. Because
of the movement of particles with high speed gas diffuses most rapidly.

Example: Mixing of gases in air.

Smoke coming out of factories is seen only near the mouth of chimneys. After rising high it
mixes up with air and vanishes out. This happens because of diffusion of gases.

Diffusion in liquid:
Diffusion takes place in liquids. The rate of diffusion is less in liquid than that of gases.

The particles of liquid have enough movement because of kinetic energy for diffusion. When
two liquids are kept together they are mixed because of the diffusion.

For example; When salt solution is kept in water this makes whole the solution salty after some
time. This happens because of diffusion in liquids.

Diffusion in solid:
Diffusion takes place with slowest rate in the case of solids. The rate of diffusion is almost
negligible in solids.

Since the particles of solid have lowest kinetic energy so they do not move. Hence, diffusion
takes a long time in the case of solid.

Example – Some time we observe that the marks of chalk on the black board could not be
wiped out easily after a long time. This happens because of the diffusion of particles of chalks
with the particles of black-board and marks of chalk could not be wiped out.

Alloys are the mixture of two or more than two metals. Alloys are possible to get prepared
because of the diffusion of solid into solid. Bronze, steel, brass are the examples of alloy.

Diffusion in everyday life:

 We get the smell of our favourite food sitting in the drawing room even when the food
is being cooked in kitchen. The vapor coming out from the food reaches to us because
of diffusion in air and we get the smell of food.

 We get the smell of burning incense stick sitting far from it. When an incense stick is
burnt, the incense present in it vaporizes because of heat. The vapor coming out from
the incense stick mixes with air and reaches to us.

 In similar way we sense the good or bad smell from a distance.

  When sugar is added in water, it is mixed because of the diffusion. The particles of
sugar collide with the particles of water because of their continuous movement. And
finally they are mixed together because of diffusion.

 Carbonated drinks are prepared by the diffusion of gas in water. We notice a hiss sound
when the cap of bottle of a carbonated drink is open, the hiss sound comes because of
the diffused gas coming out of water. Soda, Soft drinks (coca-cola) etc. are the
carbonated drinks and prepared mainly because of the diffusion of carbon dioxide in
water.

 Aquatic animals take dissolved oxygen in water while breathing. Aquatic plants
synthesize their food under water because of the dissolved carbon dioxide in water.
These gases dissolved in water because of the diffusion.

Temperature and Rate of Diffusion:

The rate of diffusion increases with increase in temperature and decreases with decrease in
temperature.

Diffusion takes place because of the movements of particles of matters. The increase in
temperature increases the kinetic energy, which increase the speed of movement of particles of
matter. The increase in the speed of movement increases the rate of diffusion.

Example: We do not get the smell of cold food from a distance while we get the smell of hot
food from a distance. Because smell coming out from the cold food in the form of gas do not
have enough kinetic energy to cover more distance. But when food is hot the vapor coming out
from it moves more rapidly because of more kinetic energy and reaches to us even if we are at
a distance from it. This shows that temperature increases the rate of diffusion.

Question 1: Which of the following are matter?

Chair, air, love, smell, hate, almonds, thought, cold, cold-drink, smell of perfume.

Answer: Chair, air, almonds, and cold-drink are matters.

Explanation: Things that occupy space and have some mass are called matter. Since chair, air,
almonds and cold-drink occupy some space and have some mass, so these are matter.

Question 2: Give reasons for the following observation: The smell of hot sizzling food reaches
you several meters away, but to get the smell from cold food you have to go close.

Answer: Smell of anything comes because of gases emanating from the given thing. The smell
reaches to us because of diffusion of gas. The rate of diffusion increases with increase in
temperature. This happens because of higher kinetic energy due to higher temperature. That is
why smell of hot sizzling food reaches to us from several feet. On the other hand, the kinetic
energy of gases emanating from cold food is low because of lower temperature. Due to this, we
need to move closer to a cold food to take its smell.
Question 3: A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. Which property of mater
does this observation show?

Answer: Water is also a matter. We know that particles of matter have space between them. In
case of fluids, the space between particles is large enough and due to this it becomes easier for
a diver to cut through water in a swimming pool.

Question 4: What are the characteristics of the particles of matter?

Answer: Characteristics of the particles of matter:

a. The particles of matter are very small.

b. The particles of matter have space between them.

c. The particles of matter are moving constantly.

d. The particles of matter attract one another.

Question 5: The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density. (Density = mass /
volume) Arrange the following in order of increasing density
air, exhaust from chimneys, honey, water, chalk, cotton and iron.

Answer: Air < Exhaust from chimneys < cotton < Water < Honey < Chalk < Iron

Explanation: Air is the mixture of gases. Chimney exhaust is also a mixture of gases; along with
some heavier particles, such as ash. This makes the density of chimney exhaust more than air.

Cotton is a porous solid and which has lot of air trapped within pores. This makes its volume
more than water. Therefore, it is less dense than water.

Question 6: (a) Tabulate the differences in the characteristics of states of matter.

Answer:

Solid Liquid Gas

Definite shape Indefinite shape Indefinite shape

Definite volume Definite volume Indefinite volume

Maximum force of attraction between Less force of attraction Negligible force of attraction
particles between particles between particles

Particles are closely packed Particles are loosely packed Particles are highly loosely packed

Cannot be compressed Can be compressed to some Can be compressed to a large

 extent extent

Kinetic energy of particles is Kinetic energy of particles is Kinetic energy of particles is very
minimum medium high

Particles cannot move rather vibrate Particles can slide one over
Particles can move freely
one over another another

Highest density Moderate density Least density

Cannot flow Can flow Can flow

Question 7: (b) Comment upon the following: rigidity, compressibility, fluidity, filling a gas
container, shape, kinetic energy and density

Answer: Rigidity: The greatest force of attraction between particles and close packing of
particles make solids rigid. Rigidity is one of the unique properties of solids. Because of rigidity,
a solid can resist from getting distorted. Because of rigidity a solid has definite shape and
volume. Rigidity is negligible in fluid and gas.

Compressibility: Compressibility is one of the most important characteristics of gas. Because

of lot of space between particles, a gas can be compressed to a great extent.

Liquid and solid cannot be compressed because of the least space between their particles.

Fluidity: The ability to flow is called fluidity. The less force of attraction and more space
between particles make liquid and gas to flow. That’s why liquid and gas are called fluid.

Filling of a gas container: Liquids do not fill a gas container completely, while gases fill the gas
container completely in which it is kept. This is because the particles of gas can move in all the
directions.

Shape: Solids have fixed shape. Liquid and gas take the shape of the container in which they
are kept. This happens because of less force of attraction and more kinetic energy between
particles of liquids and negligible force of attraction and highest kinetic energy between
particles of gas.

Kinetic energy: The kinetic energy of particles of solid is the minimum. They only vibrate at their
fixed position. The kinetic energy of particles of liquid is more than that of solid. But they can
slide above one another. The kinetic energy of particles of gas is the maximum.

Density: The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density. The density of solid is
highest, of liquid is less than solid and of gas is minimum.

Question 8: Give reasons

(a) A gas fills completely the vessel in which it is kept.

Answer: The force of attraction between particles of gas is negligible. Because of this, particles
of gas move in all directions. Thus, a gas fills the vessel completely in which it is kept.

(b) A gas exerts pressure on the walls of the container.

Answer: Because of negligible force of attraction between particles of gas, the particles of gas
have the highest kinetic energy. These properties enable the particles of gas to move in all
directions and hit the walls of container from all sides. Because of this a gas exerts pressure on
the walls of the container in which it is kept.

(c) A wooden table should be called a solid.

Answer: A wooden table has fixed shape and fixed volume, which are the main characteristics
of solid. Thus a wooden table should be called a solid.

(d) We can easily move our hand in air but to do the same through a solid block of wood we
need a karate expert.

Answer: Since, air is gas, so its particles are loosely packed and there is negligible force of
attraction between its particles. Because of that we can easily move our hand in air.

But wood is a solid, so the force of attraction between its particles is greatest. The particles of
wooden block are closely packed. That’s why we cannot move our hand through a solid block of
wood. However a karate expert can exert required pressure to break the great force of
attraction of the particles of a solid wooden block.

Question 9: Liquids generally have lower density as compared to solids. But you must have
observed that ice floats on water. Find out why.

Answer: During freezing of water, some space between the particles of water is left vacant with
some air trapped between them. These empty spaces having air in them makes the density of
ice; lower than that of water. That’s why ice floats on water.

Question 10: Convert the following temperature to Celsius scale.

(a)300 K (b) 573 K

Answer: (a) Temperature on Kelvin scale = Temperature on Celsius scale + 273

Therefore,

Temperature on Celsius scale = Temperature of Kelvin scale – 273

Hence, Temperature on Celsius scale = 300K – 273 = 27⁰C

Answer: (b) Temperature on Kelvin scale = Temperature on Celsius scale + 273

Therefore, Temperature on Celsius scale = Temperature of Kelvin scale – 273

Hence, Temperature on Celsius scale = 573K – 273 = 300⁰C

Question 11: What is the physical state of water at
(a) 250⁰C (b) 100⁰C

Answer: (a) Since, water boils at 100⁰C, thus it is in gaseous state at 250⁰C.

Answer: (b) Since, water boils at 100⁰C, thus at 100⁰C water is in transition phase, i.e. in both
liquid and gaseous states.

Question 12: For any substance why does the temperature remain constant during the change
of state.

Answer: During the change of state of any substance, the heat supplied or released is utilised in
phase change. Such heat is called latent heat. So, the temperature of any substance remains
constant during the change of state.

Question 13: Suggest a method to liquefy atmospheric gas.

Answer: Atmospheric gas is liquefied by increasing pressure and decreasing temperature.

Question 14: Why does a desert cooler cool better on a hot dry day?

Answer: Desert cooler works on the basis of evaporation. In hot and dry days the moisture level
is very low in atmosphere which increases the rate of evaporation. Because of faster
evaporation, cooler works well. That’s why desert cooler cool better on a hot dry day.

Question 15: How does the water kept in an earthen pot (matka) become cool during summer?

Answer: Water from porous wall of earthen pot evaporates continuously, which lowers the
temperature of water kept in the earthen pot.

In summer moisture level is very low in the atmosphere, which increases the rate of evaporation
as evaporation is inversely proportional to the moisture level in atmosphere. That is why in
summer water kept in earthen pot becomes cool.

Question 16: Why does our palm feel cold when we put some acetone or petrol or perfume on
it?

Answer: When acetone or petrol or perfume is poured over palm, it evaporates quickly as these
are volatile liquids. The evaporation lowers the temperature of palm and our palm feels cold.

Question 17: Why are we able to sip hot tea or milk faster from a saucer rather than a cup?

Answer: When hot tea or milk is kept in a saucer, the liquid is exposed over a larger surface area
as compared to in case of the liquid being kept in a cup. The larger surface area enables the
faster cooling. That’s why we are able to sip hot tea or milk faster from a saucer rather than
from a cup.

Question 18: What type of clothes should we wear in summer?

Answer: We should wear cotton cloths in summer. Because cotton cloths are good absorbent
and they absorb sweat excreted in summer. Because of evaporation of sweat from the surface
of cotton cloth, we feel colder and comfortable.

Solution of NCERT Exercise

Question 1: Convert the following temperature to the Celsius scale.
(a) 293 K (b) 470 K

Answer: (a) Temperature in Celsius scale = Temperature in Kelvin scale - 273

⇒ 293 K = 293 K – 273 = 20⁰C

(b) Temperature in Celsius scale = Temperature in Kelvin scale - 273

⇒ 470 K = 470 K – 273 = 197⁰C

Question 2: Convert the following temperature to the Kelvin scale.

(a) 25⁰C (b) 373⁰C

Answer: (a) Temperature in Kelvin scale = Temperature in Celsius scale + 273

= 25⁰C + 273 = 298 K

Answer: (b) Temperature in Kelvin scale = Temperature in Celsius scale + 273

= 373⁰C + 273 = 646 K

Question 3: Give reason for the following observations.

(a) Naphthalene balls disappear with time without leaving any solid.

Answer: Naphthalene ball is a sublimate and a sublimate turns into vapour without changing
into liquid. Thus, naphthalene balls disappear with time without leaving any solid.

(b) We can get the smell of perfume sitting several meters away.

Answer: Perfume turns into gas at room temperature. The vapour of perfume travels up to
several meters because of diffusion. That’s why we can get the smell of perfume sitting several
meters away.

Question 4: Arrange the following substances in increasing order of forces of attraction

between the particles – Water, Sugar, Oxygen.

Answer: Oxygen < Water < Sugar

Explanation: Oxygen is a gas, thus force of attraction is negligible between particles. Water is a
liquid, thus force of attraction between particles is more than liquid and less than solid. Sugar is
a solid, thus force of attraction between particles is greatest.

Question 5: What is the physical state of water at (a) 25⁰C (b) 0⁰C (c) 100⁰C
Answer: (a) At 25⁰C – water is in liquid state.
(b) At 0⁰C – water is in solid state.
At 100⁰C – water is in transition state, i.e. in liquid and gas both.

Question 6: Give two reasons to justify;

(a) Water at room temperature is a liquid.

Answer: At room temperature:

 Water has definite volume, but not definite shape as it takes the shape of the container
in which it is kept.

 Water flows at room temperature.

(b) An iron almirah is a solid at room temperature.

Answer: An iron almirah is a solid at room temperature because:

 It has definite shape.

 It has definite volume.

Question 7: Why is ice at 273K more effective in cooling than water at the same temperature.

Answer: At 273K ice requires more latent heat to melt into water, while water at 273K requires
less latent heat; to come to the room temperature. So, ice at 273 K is more effective in cooling
than water at the same temperature.

Question 8: What produces more severe burns, boiling water or steam?

Answer: Steam produces more severe burns than boiling water, because steam has more latent
heat than boiling water.

Question 9: Name A,B,C,D,E and F in the following diagram showing change in its state.

Answer:
A – Heating - Melting
B – Heating - Vapourisation
C – Cooling – Condensation - Liquefaction
D – Cooling – Freezing
E – Sublimation
F – Solidification

Question: Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. Comment.

Answer: The movement of particles from low concentration to high concentration is

responsible for the diffusion in liquids and gases. In the case of osmosis the particles move
from the low concentration to high concentration through the semi permeable membrane, this
happens because of diffusion. Hence, osmosis is called a special kind of diffusion.

Question : Classify the following into osmosis/diffusion

(a) Swelling up of a raisin on keeping in water.

(b) Spreading of virus on sneezing.
(c) Earthworm dying on coming in contact with common salt.
(d) Shrinking of grapes kept in thick sugar syrup.
(e) Preserving pickles in salt.
(f) Spreading of smell of cake being baked throughout the house.
(g) Aquatic animals using oxygen dissolved in water during respiration.

Answer: (a) Osmosis, (b) Diffusion, (c) Osmosis, (d) Osmosis, (e) Osmosis, (f) Diffusion, (g)
Diffusion