CAVABILITY

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© Copyright 2003. Australian Centre for Geomechanics (ACG), The University of Western
Australia. All rights reserved. No part of the content of these course notes may be
reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form without the prior written permission of the
Australian Centre for Geomechanics, The University of Western Australia.
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The information contained in these course notes is for general educational and informative
purposes only. Except to the extent required by law, The University of Western Australia/
ACG, Richard Butcher and Dempers & Seymour make no representations or warranties
express or implied as to the accuracy, reliability or completeness of the information
contained therein. To the extent permitted by law, The University of Western
Australia/ACG, Richard Butcher and Dempers & Seymour exclude all liability for loss or
damage of any kind at all (including indirect or consequential loss or damage) arising from
the information in these course notes or use of such information. You acknowledge that the
information provided in these course notes is to assist with you undertaking your own
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acting in reliance on the information contained therein.
 Contents
! Basic caving theory
! Caving stress cycles/ bursting
! Types of caving
! Cavability assessment/ DEESA Method
 Basic Caving Mechanics

! 3 part caving process

! Develop area big enough to cave
! Cave initiation
! Cave propagation
Pre-caving

ACG Advanced Geomechanics Course, April 2003

Modified from Guest, 1982
Cave Initiation

ACG Advanced Geomechanics Course, April 2003

Modified from Guest, 1982
 Initiation Mechanisms

! Taylor (1980)
! Tensile failure
! Shear failure
! Compressional failure
Initiation Mechanics/ Tension

Butcher, 2000
Tension continued

Butcher, 2000
Tension continued

Butcher, 2000
Shear Failure

Butcher, 2000
 Caving Initiation Conditions
! Taylor (1980)
! Joint density (combination of flat and sub vertical joints)
! Magnitude and orientation of principle stresses
! High lateral stresses in strong rock inhibit caving
! Low confining stresses allow tensile failure
! The important of rock strength increases as the number
of joints decreases
! Compressional failure of the rock decreases as the rock
increases
Propagation

Butcher, 2000
Modified from Guest, 1982
Caving Zones (Duplancic & Brady 1999)

Duplancic and Brady, 1999

Caving Stress Cycle

Hamrin, 2001
Caving Stresses

ACG Advanced Geomechanics Course, April 2000

 SLC/Block Cave Stress Cycles
Number of cycles

SLC

Stress
Block cave
Stress drop at propagation

Time

Butcher, 2003
 Caving Stresses

! Related to area needed to cause caving

! Stress increase after 50% above area
! Stress at maximum at area required for caving
! UC/PRE-BREAK CRUSHING AFTER CAVING AREA
 Hydraulic Radius

Area of undercut/ SLC pre-break

Hydraulic radius =
Perimeter
 Hydraulic Radius
! Fluid mechanics
! Origins unclear
! MASSMIN 2000 pg 35 to 38
! Shape has a major influence on cave
! HR is a shape factor
! Round or square shape good for caving
! Rectangular bad shape
! In caving, HR is normally the req caving HR
! HR is related to rock mass quality or experience
 Caving Stresses

! Different stress regime

! Increases and decreases over time
! Stresses decrease after cave propagation
! SLC soft cave depth cut-off 1000m
! BC soft depth cut-off 1500m
! HR>28 difficult after 1000m
! SLC de-stressing 2 year cycles
! Critical HR +10% ore reserve draw
! Pit subsidence
Drift damage, 1K Depth, MRMR 35-45 HR 28

ACG Advanced Geomechanics Course, April 2003

 Rock/ Strain Bursting
! Stress increases as undercut is
developed
! Stresses increases further
before propagation
! Perimeter stresses increase
with area undercut and height
of undercut
! Rock/ strain burst damage
greatest before propagation
! Rock bursting related to caving
! Rock bursting related to
management of caving process
 Rock Burst Cave Prone Caves

! > 300- 400m

! High tectonic stresses
! Mountains
! MRMR >35
! Difficulty in propagating the cave
! Rapid rates of advances of pre-break/UC
! El- Tiente 1976
 Rock Bursting
! Fractured zone exists around the
cave
! 50m from the cave face
! As the cave propagates this zone
increases
! Fracture zone increases due to
stress relaxation
! During this stage, areas up to
500m from cave effected
! Strain bursts can occur in places
like crusher, plats, cribb rooms
! Strain bursting, ejection

Brumleve and Maier, 1981

 Rock Bursting
! Bursts occur with cave propagation
! High levels of seismisity before propagation
! Mag of up to Richter 3.6
! Large caves have up to 6 large bursts if not managed
! Seismic events during propagation are shear related
 Common Areas for Bursting
! 20 to 40m from cave face/front
! Strain bursting and rock ejection
at breakaways/ intersections up to
500m from cave
! 100m below the cave
! Large excavations with 50m from
ore body
! Pillars between conferencing cave
fronts
! Before propagation

Photo courtesy of Jubilee Mines NL, Cosmos Nickel Project, W.A.

 Rock Burst Prevention Strategies
! Mesh walls/ backs of intersections/
large excavations 500m from cave
! Cone bolt intersections/ breakaways
! Install yielding support within 40m
from propagation face position
! Reduce block cave draw rates
<2000 /tons/day before
propagation
! Reduce block cave/ SLC pre-break
advance rates below 3000m2
/month
! Propagate the cave first
! SLC < 45m vertical/m/yr
! Mine towards the solid
 Cave Propagation
! The cave has worked
! Stresses have reduced
! Burst hazards are less
! Signs

Butcher, 2000
Modified from Guest, 1982
 Signs of Propagations

! Surface subsidence
(Photo courtesy
of Newcrest Mining)
 Cavability Assessment
! DEESA method
! Do you have a project ?
! Experiential assessment
! Empirical assessment
! Structural assessment
! Analytical or numerical assessment
! Results from all stages must check
! Ore body hydraulic radius
! Critical hydraulic radius
 Experiential

! Common sense check

! Checks MRMR adjustments
! Is MRMR stress adjustment 1
! Two types of caves
! Soft caves MRMR <45 = HR 19-25
! Hard caves MRMR >45 = HR 35-50
Empirical Assessment

Laubscher, 1994
 Empirical
! Second pass
! MRMR 1990 correlation
! Data 45, 45 Zone
! 45 MRMR, HR 45
! Away from caving/ transition line
! Structural triggering
! True structural nature not accounted for
! Impact of back stresses are estimated
 Challenge
! MRMR system challenged
! Trueman & Mawdley (2003)
! ICS project
! Northparkes experience
! Data did not check out
! Adjustments questioned
! No justification above MRMR 50
! Depth cap of between 500- 1000m
! K < 2 for a 1000m
! New system proposed based on Mathews method
! Which graph do you use 1989, 1994 ?
Mathews Graph

Trueman and Mawdesly, 2003

 Mathews / MRMR Graph
! MRMR stability graph does have limitations
! All empirical systems have limitations
! As much experience as empirisms in MRMR method
! MRMR method has worked since 11 years
! Mathews graph used MRMR data for caving line
! Mathews method untested
! Jr values can lead to major differences in results
! Probability contours questioned
 Mathews Method
! Advanced caving knowledge
! Defects in the MRMR system
! Limitations of the MRMR system
! More data in transitional zone
! Isoprobablistic contour concept
Mathews Caving Graph

Trueman and Mawdesley, 2003

 Structural Cavability

! Joints and stresses

! Impacts of major structures
! Impacts of joint variability
! MRMR 20% HR adjustment
! Deterministic analysts
! ‘J’ Block
! CHaSM
MRMR Structural Adjustment

Laubscher, 2000
 Structural Cavability

! Joints and stresses

! MRMR 20% HR adjustment
! Deterministic analysts
! ‘J’ Block
! CHaSM
Plan of Cave Back

Butcher, 2000
Structural Cavability

Butcher, 2000
 Numerical
! Model effects of stress regimes
! Impacts of cave front advance
direction
! Sensitivity runs for stress and
materials
! Shape of undercut/ pre-break
for caving

Brady and Brown, 1994

Numerical

Butcher, 2000
 Numerical

! PHASE 2
! FLAC 2D & 3D
! UDEC, 3DEC
! Parameters:
– Stresses
– RMR
– Mesh sizes
 Cave Stall

! Design:
– Hard ore body zones
– MRMR check every 100m vertically
– BC block height 2 x footprint width
! Stall removal:
– Footprint extension
– VCR blasting
– Hydro fracturing
Cave Stall

Butcher, 2003