CH 8: Macrocells

The models presented in this chapter treat the path loss associated with a given
macrocell as dependent on distance, provided that the environment surrounding the
base station is fairly uniform. In consequence, the coverage area predicted by these
models for an isolated base station in an area of consistent environment type will be
approximated as circular. Although this is clearly inaccurate, it is useful for system
dimensioning purposes.
8.2 DEFINITION OF PARAMETERS
The following terms will be used in defining path loss models in this chapter and are
illustrated in Figure 8.1:
 Figure 8.1: Definition of parameters for macrocell propagation models

The basic definition of a macrocell is that hb > h0. Although buildings are not the only
obstructions in practice, they are usually by far the most significant at typical
macrocellular frequencies. In practice, base station heights are around 15–35 m if a
mast is used, or around 20 m upwards if deployed on a building rooftop. The effective
base station height may be increased dramatically by locating it on a hill overlooking
the region to be covered.
8.3 EMPIRICAL PATH LOSS MODELS
The two basic propagation models (free space loss and plane earth loss) examined in
Chapter 5 plus the more detailed obstruction loss models described in Chapter 6
account, in principle, for all of the major mechanisms which are encountered in
macrocell prediction. However, to use such models would require detailed knowledge
of the location, dimension and constitutive parameters of every tree, building and
terrain feature in the area to be covered. This is far too complex to be practical. One
appropriate way of accounting for these complex effects is via an empirical model. To
create such a model, an extensive set of actual path loss measurements is made, and an
appropriate function is fitted to the measurements, with parameters derived for the
particular environment, frequency and antenna heights so as to minimize the error
between the model and the measurements.
The simplest useful form for an empirical path loss model is as follows:

where PT and PR are the effective isotropic transmitted and predicted isotropic
received powers, L is the path loss, r is the distance between the base station and the
mobile and K = 10 log10k and n are constants of the model. K is called clutter factor,
and n is known as the path loss exponent.
Figure 8.2: Empirical model of macrocell propagation: the dots are measurements
taken in a suburban area and the line represents a best-fit empirical model.
8.3.1 Clutter Factor Models
Measurements taken in urban and suburban areas usually find a path loss exponent close to 4,
as in the plane earth loss, but with a greater absolute loss value – i.e. larger K. This has led to
some models being proposed which consist of the plane earth loss, plus (in decibels) an extra
loss component called the clutter factor, as shown in Figure 8.3. The various models differ
basically in the values which they assign to k and n for different frequencies and environments.

Figure 8.3: Clutter factor model.

Example 8.1
Calculate the range of a macrocell system with a maximum acceptable path loss of 138
dB, assuming hm = 1.5 m; hb = 30 m; fc = 900 MHz and that path loss can be modeled
for this frequency and environment using the plane earth loss plus a clutter factor of
20 dB.
Solution:
The plane earth model of Eq. (5.34) is now modified to the following empirical model:
Lemp = 40 log r - 20 log hm - 20 log hb + K
where K is the clutter factor [decibels]. Equating this to the maximum acceptable path
loss and rearranging for log r yields:

Hence r = 103.78 ≈ 6 km.

8.3.2 The Okumura–Hata Model
This is a fully empirical prediction method, based entirely upon an extensive series of
measurements made in and around Tokyo city between 200 MHz and 2 GHz.
Predictions are made via a series of graphs, the most important of which have
since been approximated in a set of formulae by Hata. The thoroughness of these
two works taken together has made them the most widely quoted macrocell
prediction model, often regarded as a standard against which to judge new
approaches. The urban values in the model presented below have been
standardized for international use in International Telecommunications Union
[ITU]. The method involves dividing the prediction area into a series of clutter
and terrain categories, namely open, suburban and urban. These are summarized
as follows:
• Open area: Open space, no tall trees or buildings in path, plot of land cleared for
300–400 m ahead, e.g. farmland, rice fields, open fields.
• Suburban area: Village or highway scattered with trees and houses, some
obstacles near the mobile but not very congested.
• Urban area: Built up city or large town with large buildings and houses with two
or more storeys, or larger villages with close houses and tall, thickly grown trees.
Okumura takes urban areas as a reference and applies correction factors for
conversion to the other classifications.
Okumura’s predictions of median path loss are usually calculated using Hata’s
approximations as follows:

The model is valid only for 150 MHz ≤ fc ≤ 1500 MHz; 30 m ≤ hb ≤ 200 m; 1 m < hm < 10 m and
R > 1 km. The path loss exponent is given by B/10, which is a little less than 4, decreasing with
increasing base station antenna height.
8.3.3 The COST 231–Hata Model
The Okumura–Hata model for medium to small cities has been extended to cover the
band 1500 MHz < fc < 2000 MHz:

8.3.4 The Lee Model

The Lee model is a power law model, with parameters taken from measurements in a
number of locations, together with a procedure for calculating an effective base
station antenna height which takes account of the variations in the terrain.
8.3.5 The Ibrahim and Parsons Model (London Model)
This method is based upon a series of field trials around London. The method is not
intended as a fully general prediction model, but as a first step towards quantifying
urban propagation loss. The city of London is divided into squares with 0.5 km in a
side. Each square is assigned three parameters, H, U and L, defined as follows.
•Terrain height H is defined as the actual height of a peak, basin, plateau or valley
found in each square, or the arithmetic mean of the minimum and maximum heights
found in the square if it does not contain any such features.
•The degree of urbanization factor U is defined as the percentage of building site area
within the square which is occupied by buildings having four or more floors.
•Land usage factor L is defined as the percentage of the test area actually occupied by
any buildings.
The model is given as:
8.4 PHYSICAL MODELS
Although empirical models have been extensively applied with good results, they
suffer from a number of disadvantages:
• They can only be used over parameter ranges included in the original
measurement set.
• Environments must be classified subjectively according to categories such as
‘urban’, which have different meanings in different countries.
• They provide no physical insight into the mechanisms by which propagation
occurs.
Examples of physical models include:
1. The Allsebrook and Parsons Model
2. The Ikegami Model
3. Rooftop Diffraction Model
4. The Flat Edge Model
5. The Walfisch–Bertoni Model
6. COST 231/Walfisch–Ikegami Model
Only the Flat Edge and Walfisch–Bertoni Models will be discussed.
8.4.4 The Flat Edge Model
In this model, the situation is simplified by assuming all of the buildings to be of equal
height and spacing. The geometry is shown in Figure 8.8, illustrating the following
parameters: distance r1 from the base station to the first building [m], and elevation
angle α of the base station antenna from the top of the final building [rad].

Figure 8.8: Geometry for the flat edge model

The excess path loss in this model is expressed as:

Lex = Ln-1Lke
where Lke accounts for single-edge diffraction over the final building and Ln-1
accounts for multiple diffraction over the remaining n - 1 buildings.
The factor Ln-1 is a function of the parameter t, and may be estimated from the
prediction curves in Figure 8.9.

The field at the top of

the final building
eventually settles to a
constant value as the
number of edges
increases. This
number, ns, is given
by:

Figure 8.9: Flat edge model prediction curves for elevated base antennas:
curves relate to t varying from 0 to - 1 in steps of 0.1.
8.4.5 The Walfisch–Bertoni Model
This model can be considered as the limiting case of the flat edge model when the
number of buildings is sufficient for the field to settle. The excess path loss in this
model is expressed as:
8.6 COMPARISON OF MODELS
Table 8.3 shows the exponents of path loss variation predicted by each model. Thus a
–2 in the hb column means the model predicts that path loss is inversely proportional
to the square of the base station antenna height.