Professional Documents
Culture Documents
(Ayuste's Group) 1) A Complete Gut and Segmentation Complete Gut
(Ayuste's Group) 1) A Complete Gut and Segmentation Complete Gut
(Ayuste's Group) 1) A Complete Gut and Segmentation Complete Gut
● Organ System
○ Highest grade of organization
● Organization
○ Working of organs as one unit to perform function/s
(Chai’s Group)
EXTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS
NONCELLULAR COMPONENTS OF METAZOAN ANIMALS
● 2 IMPORTANT NONCELLULAR COMPONENTS
○ Body fluids
○ Extracellular structural elements
BODY FLUID
● 2 FLUID COMPARTMENTS
○ Intracellular space (within the body’s cells)
○ Extracellular space (outside the cells; e.g. blood plasma, lymph, interstitial
fluid (tissue fluid)
■ Many invertebrates have open systems, however, with no true
separation of blood plasma from interstitial fluid
EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
● Supportive materials of organisms
● Provide mechanical stability and protection
○ Connective tissue (well developed in vertebrates but present in all
metazoa)
○ Cartilage (mollusks and chordates)
○ Bone (vertebrates)
○ Cuticle (arthropods, nematodes, annelids and others)
● In some instances, they also act as storage depot of materials for exchange
between cells and interstitial fluid
● Serve as a medium for extracellular reactions
Epithelial Tissues
● Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines of organs and cavities.
○ Functions
■ Functions as a some type of barrier and protective function and that
is certainly the case
■ Helps to protect against microorganisms.
■ Epithelial tissue functions to absorb, secrete, and excrete
substances
■ Epithelial tissue also has a sensory function as it contains sensory
nerves in areas such as the skin, tongue, nose, and ears
○ Classifications
■ Simple Squamous Epithelium
● Single layer ;Composed of flattened cells that forms
continuous lining of blood capillaries, lungs and other
surface
● Allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration
■ Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
● Short and box like cells; found in organs that are specialized
for secretion and absorption
■ Simple Columnar Epithelium
● Looks like a simple cuboidal but they are taller and they
have a elongated nuclei
● Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other
substances; ciliated type propels mucus
■ Stratified Squamous Epithelium
● Consist of more than one layer
● Specialized to withstand the mechanical stresses which
protects underlying tissues in areas prone to abrasion
■ Transitional Epithelium
● stretches readily and permits distension of excretory system.
Connective Tissues
● Serves various binding and supportive functions
● Composed of relatively few cells, many extracellular fibers, and a ground
Substance
● The internal structure of a connective tissue is called extracellular matrix
● Connective tissue: proper and specialized connective tissue
○ Two Types of Proper Connective Tissue
■ Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
● Holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other
underlying tissues
● Contains Fibroblasts and Macrophages
● Fiber types include collagen and elastic fibers
■ Dense Connective Tissue
● Forms tendons, ligaments and
Fasciae
● Arranged as sheets or bands of tissue surrounding skeletal
muscle
● Extremely long, tightly packed together, little ground
substance
○ Types of Specialized Connective Tissues
■ Cartilage
● Semirigid form of connective tissue composed of a firm
matrix containing (chondrocytes)
● Cushion between bones and easily damaged
● Chondrocytes are located in lacunae
● Composed of collagen and/or elastic fibers
● Lacks blood supply
● Hyaline cartilage – found on joint surfaces, contains no
nerves or blood vessels
■ Bone
● Strongest of vertebrae connective tissues
● Rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton
● Composed of calcified matrix containing salts around
collagen fibers
● Lacunae contain bone cells, called osteocytes
● Tiny network of channels called canaliculi
● Continuous remodeling
MUSCULAR TISSUE
● Most abundant tissue in the body of most animals. Originates in mesoderm.
Its unit is the muscle fiber, specialized for contraction
○ 2 TYPES OF STRIATED MUSCLE
■ SKELETAL MUSCLE
● Occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates
● Composed of extremely long, cylindrical fibers
● Voluntary muscle (vertebrates)
● May be controlled by both stimulatory and inhibitory nerve
activity (invertebrate)
■ CARDIAC MUSCLE
● Found only in vertebrate heart Shorter cell
● Only one nucleus per cell Involuntary muscle
● Obliquely striated muscle - a third striated muscle type
■ SMOOTH MUSCLE
● Occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates
● Cells are long and tapering, each contains a single, central
nucleus
● Most common type of muscle in invertebrates
● Serves as body-wall musculature and surrounds ducts and
sphincters
● Surrounds blood vessels, intestine and uterus. Involuntary
muscle
● Sarcoplasm - unspecialized Cytoplasm of muscles
Myofibrils - contractile elements within fiber
NERVOUS TISSUE
● Reception of stimuli and conduction of impulses from one region to another.
○ TWO BASIC TYPES OF NERVOUS TISSUE
■ Neuron
● Basic functional unit of the nervous system
■ Neuroglia
● A variety of non- nervous cells that insulate neuron
membranes and serve various supportive functions.
(Jena’s Group)
SKELETAL SYSTEM
SKELETAL SYSTEM
● Supportive system
● Surface for muscle attachment
● Protection for vulnerable body organs
● Framework of the body
● Blood Production
○ Types of Skeletons
■ HYDROSTATIC SKELETONS
● Found in soft-bodied animals
● Consists a fluid-filled cavity called coelom
○ Worms
■ Septa- separate body into different
compartments
■ Setae- hair-like bristles that anchor the
segments
○ Arenicola
● Muscular hydrostats- composed of incompressible tissues
that remain at constant volume
○ Elephant’s trunk
○ Tongues of mammals
■ RIGID SKELETONS
● Consist of rigid elements (inflexible)
● Muscles are jointed and so they are attached
● Two types: Exoskeleton & Endoskeleton
○ EXOSKELETON
■ Promotes loco motor functions
■ Provide sites for muscle attachment
■ Provide counter forces for muscle movements
○ ENDOSKELETON
■ Must be periodically molted to make way for an
enlargement replacement
■ Differs in complexity, shape and function
NOTOCHORD
● Semi rigid supportive axial cord
● Composed of large and vacuolated cells
● Surrounded by layers of elastic and fibrous collagen sheaths
● Stiffening device
CARTILAGE
● Connective tissue
● Soft pliable tissues that resists compression
○ Jawless fishes and Elasmobranchs
Types of Cartilage
● Hyaline
○ Clear glassy appearance located in many joint surfaces
○ Composed of cartilage cells called chondrocytes
○ Surrounded by firms, complex protein-carbohydrate gel interlaces with
meshwork of collagen fibers
○ Forms cartilaginous skeletons
● Elastic
○ Similar to Hyaline cartilage but the
fiber is predominantly elastic
○ More flexible
● Fibrous
○ Numerous collagen fiber bundles
are present
○ Often arranged in herringbone
pattern
BONE
● Living and growing tissue
● Two principle components:
○ Collagen – protein that provides framework
○ Calcium Phosphate – mineral that strengthens and hardens the
framework
Types of Bones
● Endochondral/ Replacement Bone
○ Develops from cartilage
○ Cartilage is destroyed in the process of calcification
○ The cartilage is the reabsorbed, leaving the bone in its place
● Intramembranous Bone
○ Develops directly from sheets of embryonic cells
○ In tetrapod vertebrates, it is restricted mainly to bones of the face, cranium
and clavicle; the remainder of the skeleton is endochondral bone
● Spongy/ Cancellous Bone
○ Consists of an ope (interlacing framework of bony tissue) oriented to give
maximum strength under normal stresses and strains that the bone
receives
○ Filled with red bone marrow
○ Found in the ends of long bones, as well as the pelvic bones, ribs, skull
and vertebrae
● Compact Bone
○ Bone usually develop first as spongy bone, but some bones, through
further deposition of bone matrix, become compact
○ Dense, appearing solid
○ Found in long bones in arms, legs or other bones in which strength is
needed
○ Forms shell around spongy bone
Ribs
● Separates the muscle segments
● Improves the effectiveness of muscle contractions
● Facilitates our breathing
(Alth’s Group)
INTEGUMENT
Integument
● Outer covering of the body; protective wrapping including the skin, hair, setae,
scales feathers, and horns
● It belongs to the tissue group epithelium
● Separates the body from the environment for certain purposes: bacteria
prevention, protection from predation, protection against UV rays (sun),
thermoregulation, and can also be used in mating
Invertebrate Integument
● Many unicellular eukaryotes have only the delicate plasma membrane for
external covering, such as a paramecium, other developing protective pellicle
○ Pellicle
■ Protective covering of some protozoa
■ A semi-rigid structure that transmits the force of cilia or flagella to
the entire body of the protozoan as it moves
○ Cuticle
■ It is the non-cellular, hardened or membranous protective covering
of many invertebrates
■ Consists of chitin and proteins in rigid plates that a flexible
membrane links together
○ Epidermis
■ Rests on the basement membrane
■ A single layer of ectodermal epithelium
● Examples:
○ Snails, slugs, oysters, and clams are protected by a hard shell made of
calcium carbonate secreted by the mantle, a heavy fold of tissue that
surrounds the mollusc's internal organs
○ Spiders, insects, lobsters and shrimp have bodies covered by an external
skeleton, the exoskeleton, which is strong, impermeable, and allows some
arthropods to live on land
○ The exoskeleton is composed of layers of protein and a tough
polysaccharide called chitin, and can be a thick hard armor or a flexible
paper-thin covering
Animal Coloration
● Integumentary color is usually produced by pigments
● In many insects and some vertebrates, especially birds, certain colors are
produced by the physical structure of the surface tissue which reflects certain
light wavelengths and eliminate others; colors produced this way are called
structural color and they are responsible for the metallic hues in the animal
kingdom
● Pigments (biochromes) are more common than structural colors. this is an
extremely varied group of large molecules that reflect light rays
● In crustaceans and ectothermic vertebrates, these pigments are contained in
large cells with branching processes called chromatophores
○ Mature chromatophores are grouped into subclasses based on their
colour (more properly "hue") under white light: melanophores
(black/brown), xanthophores (yellow), leucophores (white), and
cyanophores (blue)
● The most widespread of animal pigments are the melanins, a group of polymers
responsible for earth-colored shades most animals wear. These are found in
melanophores
● Most vertebrates are incapable of synthesizing their own carotenoid pigments
but must obtain them from plants
● Two entirely different classes of pigments called ommochromes and pteridines
are usually responsible for the yellow pigment in molluscs and arthropods
● Green colors are rare; they are usually produced by yellow pigment overlying
blue structural color
● Iridophores, another type of chromatophore, contain crystals of guanine or
some other purine rather than pigment. They produce a silvery or metallic effect
by reflecting light
Cope’s Rule
● Discovered by Edward Cope, a paleontologist in the 19th century
● The observation of the animal size growing larger as time passes by
● Not all organisms grow larger over time
Why the size of animals increased over the years and the advantages of being
large.
● improved ability to hunt prey or to survive predation
● greater reproductive success
● increased intelligence
expanded size range of acceptable food
● decreased annual mortality
● extended individual longevity
● increased heat retention per unit volume
Why is the surface area to volume ratio bigger in smaller animals and vice versa?
What are its implications?
● SURFACE AREA = the outside part or uppermost layer of the body
● VOLUME = amount of space that a substance or object occupies (internal
contents of the body)
● As animal becomes larger, the body surface increases much more slowly than
body volume because surface area has the square of the body length. Whereas
volume (and therefore mass) increases as the cube of body length (e.g. polar
bears and foxes)
○ Polar Bear
■ great deal of central mass and very few appendages. (They don’t
have large ears)
■ SMALL SA:Vol RATIO
■ Internal volume is greater than their surface area
○ Fox
■ have very large ears (appendages), and are very lean (not fat)
■ = BIG SA:Vol RATIO
■ = Bigger ears increase surface area, leaner body decreases
internal volume
TWO SOLUTIONS
● To Fold or invaginate the body surface
○ allowing body surface to become large without an increase in internal
complexity (e.g. flatworms)
● To develop internal transport system
○ shuttle nutrients, gases, and waste products between cell and the external
environment (e.g. Circulatory System)
ANIMAL MOVEMENT
- Is an important characteristic of animals
§ Fundamental mechanism
Actomyosin System
* Cilia and Flagella – composed of other proteins thus, are exceptions to this rule
AMEBOID
- Crawling movement used by some types of cells and unicellular organisms that
have no set structures for mobility
Ameboid Crawling
Pseudopod Extends
- Hydrostatic pressure forces actin subunits in the flowing endoplasm into the
pseudopod
- Assemble into a polymer network of Actin filaments
- Creates a contractile force that pulls the cell forward behind the extending
pseudopod
CILIARY
Ciliary Movement
- The microtubule doublets are connected to each other and to the central pair by
a complex system of MICROTUBULE-ASSOCIATED PROTEINS (MAPs)
- DYNEIN – pair of arms extending from each doublet and acts as a bridge
between doublets
FLAGELLUM
- Whip-like structure
- Longer than a cilium
Exceptions in Structure
Muscle Performance
Slow Oxidative Fibers
Fast Fibers
Muscle Movement
- Transversely striated
- For the movements of the trunk, respiratory organs, eyes, mouthparts, other
strutures
2. Cardiac Muscle
- Transversely striated
- For the involuntary autonomic and hormonal control of the heart (regulate heart
beat)
3. Smooth muscle
- There are instances where both functional and structural features are combined
- Fibrillar Muscles – found in the wings of insects, contracts at 1000 beats per
second
-- far greater than vertebrate skeletal muscles
- Muscles shorten only slightly every downbeat of the wing
- Since it’s elastic, it recoils which means it doesn’t need much neural signals
(One signal = 20-30 contractions)
STRIATED/SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Made of muscle bundles or fascicles
Control of Contraction
- Calcium binds with Troponin in the Actin which makes the Myosin attach itself to
the Actin then contraction (pulling/slide) occurs
Neuromuscular Junction
- Reason why movement is occurring in us
1. The neurotransmitter ACH (acetyl choline) is inside the axon terminal. It binds
with calcium.
2. Acetyl choline exits the neurotransmitter via exocytosis and is now transferred to
the synaptic cleft.
3. Acetyl choline attaches itself to a receptor (in the muscle) thus, making sodium
and calcium enter the muscle freely.
4. Calcium and sodium travels around the muscle via the gap junctions (in the
muscle).
5. An action is produced.
EXCITATION CONTRACTION COUPLING
- Tropomyosin - is a protein involved in skeletal muscle contraction. It helps
control when a muscle contracts and when it doesn't.
- Troponin - attached to the protein tropomyosin and lies within the groove
between actin filaments in muscle tissue
Unstimulated Muscle
- Shortening does not occur because thin tropomyosin strands surrounding the
actin filaments lie in a position that prevents the myosin heads from attaching to
actin
3 Main Sources:
· Relatively abundant
· Quickly mobilized
Ø During exercise, blood flow to the muscles, although greatly increased above
resting levels, can’t supply oxygen to the mitochondria rapidly enough to
complete oxidation of glucose.
Anaerobic glycolysis
- A process that doesn’t require oxygen; without this, all forms of heavy muscle
muscular exertion are impossible
Main points:
- Lactic acid accumulates in the muscle and diffuses rapidly into the general
circulation
- The muscles incur an oxygen debt because accumulated lactic acid must be
converted to pyruvic acid, which is fed into the Krebs cycle via conversion of
Acetyl-CoA
Vince’s Group
Triplobalstic
● Body wall develops from 3 germ layers- ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm
● Mesogloea is absent
● Coelom is present
Diploblastic
● Body wall develops from 2 germ layers- ectoderm and endoderm
● Mesogloea is present
● Coelom is absent
Radial Cleavage
-Cleavage is regulative
Spiral Cleavage
● Cell division has occurred where cells are not aligned directly over each other but
at an angle.
● blastopore becomes the mouth
● The body may become acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, or coelomate. If a
coelomate is present, it is made via schizocoely.
ECDYSOZOANS
(b) Nemerteans (ribbon worms), Mollusks (chitons, gastropods such as snails, slugs,
nudibranchs, bivalves like clams and oysters, cephalopods like squids and octopus),