Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITEREATURE

This chapter presents some related information to enhance and to enrich

the content of the study. It contains the necessary information about the evaluation

of the said particle size distribution using sieve analysis.

Conceptual Literature

This segment presents the theoretical information related to the studies,

which have been the basis of this evaluation.

1. Rocks

A rock is defined as a solid naturally occurring mass of consolidated mineral

matter, made up of two or more minerals and can also contain organic compounds.

Rocks occur in different shapes, colors, weights, strengths, sizes, and texture.

Rocks also change from one form to another and differ from one region to another

because of the rock cycle.

1.1 Types of Rocks

Rocks formation takes different processes. Their formations are classified

according to the rock types since the processes involved normally results in a
characteristic relationship between the mineral grains. Rock formations, therefore,

are in three basic groups which include igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

1.1.1 Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks form from the cooling of magma – molten materials in the

earth’s crust. From the terminology itself, igneous means from fire or heat. Molten

materials are found below the earth crust and are normally subjected to extreme

pressure and temperatures – up to 1200° Celsius. Because of the extreme heat

levels, igneous rocks do not contain organic matter or fossils.

The molten minerals interlock and crystallize as the melt cools and form

solid materials. In the long-run, the melt forms a cool hard rock made up of crystals

with no open spaces and don’t exhibit any desirable grain alignment. The rocks

may be made up entirely of one mineral or various minerals, and their sizes are

determined by the cooling process.

Igneous rocks are of two types, intrusive and extrusive. Intrusive igneous

rocks are formed when the magma cools off slowly under the earth’s crust and

hardens into rocks. Gabbro and granite are examples of intrusive igneous rocks.

Rapid cooling results in smaller crystals while slow cooling results in large crystals.

Intrusive rocks are very hard in nature and are often coarse-grained.

They are also sometimes referred to as plutonic rocks. On the other hand,

extrusive rocks are formed when molten magma spill over to the surface as a result

of volcanic eruption. The magma on the surface (lava) cools faster on the surface
to form igneous rocks that are fine grained. Examples of such kind of rocks include

pumice, basalt, or obsidian.

1.1.2 Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are secondary formed materials since they are made up

from the buildup of weathered and eroded pre-existing rocks. In precise,

sedimentary rocks are formed from sediment deposits. Every rock grain initially

separated from other rocks. Tiny debris from rock masses and eroded mountains

together with soils, sand, and other granite pieces are normally washed from

highlands to low areas.

After many years, these materials finally settle down through the process of

sedimentation. Some may accumulate under water and others on the lower areas

of the land. As the materials move, they are smoothened and rounded by abrasion,

and they settle down by leaving pore spaces between the grains which make them

achieve their distorted shape.

The compaction effect due to the weight of the piling layers of materials

reduces the porosity of the rocks formed and intensifies the cohesion between the

grains. At times, fossil fuels and organic matter may settle within the sediments

leading to cementation.

Cementation is the gluing of the rock pieces together either by salt

compounds or organic matter. When these materials eventually harden, they

produce sedimentary rocks. Examples of sedimentary rocks include mudstone,

limestone, sandstone, and conglomerate.

 1.1.3 Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks form out of other rocks. They are predominantly

sedimentary or igneous rocks that have undergone changes as a result of extreme

pressure and heat. The name defines the formation whereby ‘meta’ means change

and ‘morph’ means ‘form.’ Large tectonic movements and magma intrusions create

earth movements and subsequently cause the rocks to move and shift.

In turn, the movements subject other rocks to extreme pressure and heat

which contributes to changes and assemblage of some minerals. The changes

typically modify the rock’s crystal type and sizes and may also subject the rocks to

further radical changes. Metamorphic processes come about at heats between

150° and 795° Celsius.

Heat from magma and the heat from friction along fault lines is the major

contributor of heat that brings about the rock changes. Even though the rocks do

not actually melt, some mineral groupings redistribute the elements within the

original minerals to form new forms of minerals that are more stable at the new

temperatures and pressures. As a result, the original rocks are transformed into

metamorphic rocks.

Metamorphic rocks formed from direct magma heating and intrusions are

termed as thermal or contact metamorphic rocks. Those formed as a result of

widely distributed pressure and temperature changes induced by tectonic

movements are known as regional metamorphic rocks. Examples of metamorphic

rocks include marble formed from limestone and slate formed from shale.
2. Minerals

Minerals are defined as solid, inorganic, naturally occurring substances with

a definite chemical formula and general structure. Almost all chemical elements in

the Earth's crust are associated with at least one mineral. They vary in color,

hardness, density, crystal form, crystal size, transparency, composition, location,

and abundance. Some minerals are radioactive (uranophane), while others are

magnetic (magnetite). Some are uncombined elements, such as gold, silver, sulfur,

bismuth, copper and platinum. Certain minerals, such as fluorite (calcium fluoride),

glow with a vibrant luminescence after exposure to ultraviolet light. Feldspar (a

potassium aluminum silicate) and quartz (silicon dioxide) are the most abundant

minerals found in the Earth's crust.

3. Particle Size Distribution

Particle size distribution is an index (means of expression) indicating what

sizes (particle size) of particles are present in what proportions (relative particle

amount as a percentage where the total amount of particles is 100 %) in the sample

particle group to be measured. Volume, area, length, and quantity are used as

standards (dimensions) for particle amount. However, generally, the volume

standard is apparently often used.

The shape of almost all particles cannot be simply and quantitatively

expressed as "spheres" or "cubes." Particles are complex and irregular shapes,

and their particle size cannot be directly defined. This is why the indirect definition

"sphere-equivalent diameter" is used. Under this definition, when a certain particle

is measured based on a certain principle of measurement, the particle size of the

measured particle is expressed by the diameter of a spherical body that displays

the same result (i.e. measurement quantity or pattern).

3.1

4. Sieve Analysis

Sieve analysis is an analytical technique used to determine the particle size

distribution of a granular material with macroscopic granular sizes. The sieve

analysis technique involves the layering of sieves with different grades of sieve

opening sizes. The finest sized sieve lies on the bottom of the stack with each

layered sieve stacked above in order of increasing sieve size. When a granular

material is added to the top and sifted, the particles of the material are separated

into the final layer the particle could not pass.

4.1 Methods of Sieve

Throw-action

Figure….. shows how a throw-action sieving works. The vertical throwing

motion is overlaid with a slight circular motion which results in distribution of the

sample amount over the whole sieving surface. The particles are accelerated in

the vertical direction,meaning they are thrown upwards (Methods of Carrying out

Sieving Analysis, n.d.).

Horizontal
 In horizontal sieving, the sieve stack moves in a horizontal circles in a plane.

Their horizontal orientation means that only a few disoriented particles enter the

mesh and the sieve is not blocked so quickly. The large sieving are enables the

sieving of large amount of sample, for example as encountered in the particle-

sized analysis of construction materials and aggregates (Methods of Carrying out

Sieve Analysis).

Tapping

In tapping sieving, a horizontal circular motion overlies a vertical motion

which is created by a tapping impulse. These motional processes are characteristic

of hand sieving and produce a higher degree of sieving for denser particles (e.g.

abrasives) than throw-action sieve shakers (Methods of Carrying out Sieve

Analysis, n.d.).

Sonic

Figure… shows that the particles are lifted and forcibly dropped in a column

of oscillating air at a frequency of thousands of cycle per minute. Sonic sievers are

able to handle much finer dry powders than woven mesh screen (Methods of

Carrying out Sieve Analysis, n.d.).

Wet

A wet sieving process in set up like a dry process.

Most sieve analyses are carried out dry. But there are some applications

which can only be carried out by wet sieving. This is the case when the sample
which has to be analyzed is e.g. a suspension which must not be dried; or when

the sample is a very fine powder which tends to agglomerate (mostly < 45 µm) –

in a dry sieving process this tendency would lead to a clogging of the sieve meshes

and this would make a further sieving process impossible. A wet sieving process

is set up like a dry process: the sieve stack is clamped onto the sieve shaker and

the sample is placed on the top sieve. Above the top sieve a water-spray nozzle is

placed which supports the sieving process additionally to the sieving motion. The

rinsing is carried out until the liquid which is discharged through the receiver is

clear. Sample residues on the sieves have to be dried and weighed. When it comes

to wet sieving it is very important not to change the sample in its volume (no

swelling, dissolving or reaction with the liquid).

Air -Jet

Air jet sieving machines are ideally suited for very fine powders which tend

to agglomerate and cannot be separated by vibrational sieving. The reason for the

effectiveness of this sieving method is based on two components: A rotating slotted

nozzle inside the sieving chamber and a powerful industrial vacuum cleaner which

is connected to the chamber. The vacuum cleaner generates a vacuum inside the

sieving chamber and sucks in fresh air through the slotted nozzle. When passing

the narrow slit of the nozzle the air stream is accelerated and blown against the

sieve mesh, dispersing the particles. Above the mesh, the air jet is distributed over

the complete sieve surface and is sucked in with low speed through the sieve
mesh. Thus the finer particles are transported through the mesh openings into the

vacuum cleaner. (Methods of Carrying out Sieve Analysis, n.d.).

Types of gradation

Dense gradation

A dense gradation refers to a sample that is approximately of equal amounts

of various sizes of aggregate. By having a dense gradation, most of the air voids

between the material are filled with particles. A dense gradation will result in an

even curve on the gradation graph.

Narrow gradation

Also known as uniform gradation, a narrow gradation is a sample that has

aggregate of approximately the same size. The curve on the gradation graph is

very steep, and occupies a small range of the aggregate.

Gap gradation

A gap gradation refers to a sample with very little aggregate in the medium

size range. This results in only coarse and fine aggregate. The curve is horizontal

in the medium size range on the gradation graph.

Open gradation

An open gradation refers an aggregate sample with very little fine aggregate

particles. This results in many air voids, because there are no fine particles to fill
them. On the gradation graph, it appears as a curve that is horizontal in the small

size range.

Rich gradation

A rich gradation refers to a sample of aggregate with a high proportion of

particles of small sizes.

Types of sieves

Woven Wire Mesh Sieves

Woven wire mesh sieves are the most widely used test sieves for all types

of laboratory sampling and particle size analysis. They are made with only the

highest quality materials and are available in diameter sizes of 38, 100, 150, 200,

250, 300, 315, 350, 400 or 450 mm as well as in 3, 8, 12 or 18 inches.

Woven wire mesh sieves can be supplied with aperture sizes ranging from

125 mm down to 20 microns in full and half height versions. They are available in

frame materials of either brass or stainless steel.

Electroformed Sieves

Electroformed sieve mesh is normally produced using a nickle support

base. Other electroformed sieve mesh materials such as copper and gold are also

available. Because of the high comparative cost of electroformed sieve mesh

sieves, they are most often used only where very tight tolerances are required. If
the sieves are calibrated with glass spheres they can be used as reference sieves

or as a master calibrating sieve stack.

Opening sizes can range from 5 microns to 2,000 microns, and can be

made for an 1 micron increment. Electroformed sieves are available in standard

inch and metric round frames. The openings can be of various shapes - standard

shapes include round, square, slotted or hexagonal.

Perforated Plate Sieves

Perforated Plate Sieves are constructed through a process of stamping

holes in a sheet of thin metal. The size and shape of the holes are controlled by a

die. These dies can be produced with a variety of shapes to deal with special

grading needs for materials such as coffee and grain. They are normally used for

openings greater than one millimeter in size. These have openings from 1.16

millimeters to 5.0 millimeters.

Related Studies

The research study conducted by Kumara, Hayano and Ogiwara (2012)

entitled "Image Analysis Techniques on Evaluation of Particle Size Distribution of

Gravel" evaluated the particle size distribution of gravels by image analysis

technique using ImageJ, and on particular conditions some differences of

gradation curves were observed by sieve analysis and image analysis.

 According to Ujam, and Enebe (2013) on their research study entitled

“Experimental Analysis of Particle Size Distribution using Electromagnetic Sieve”

analyzed the particle sizes of powders and granular distribution of particles GARRI

(cassava flour), a local agricultural product (cassava flour) of Nigeria, by using an

electromagnetic sieving machine that transforms electromagnetic energy to

mechanical energy to increase the amplitude of oscillation and reduce the time of

sieving. An electronic microscope served as instrument to evaluate the different

particle sizes.

The research conducted by Tsutsumi (2006) on his study entitled “Wet Fine

Particle sizing and Separating Apparatus” was related to the art of sizing and

separating solids from liquids or slurry, more particularly, the study is related to the

art of screening particulate materials by utilizing motorized means to cause a

screening apparatus to vibrate and lead to greater efficiency of separation. The

machine has been used to size and separate particles having a size of from about

8 mesh (3 mm) to about 400 mesh (38 microns).

A study was conducted by Ballman, et al. (2004) entitled “Screening

Machine with Acceleration Modification”. Their study is concerned on separating

or classifying particles of matter of different sizes. In screening machines of the

type described, a screen is mounted in what is often called a “screen deck” which

includes a supporting peripheral frame around the perimeter of the screen. The

screen deck may include one or more screens may be woven, an aperture plate

or another design. Typically associated with screen deck are other material

handling elements which are moved with the screen and form walls or partitions
above or below the screen and directing them to appropriate outlets. These

elements may comprise a top cover and a pan beneath the screen.

In a research study conducted by Lugatic, et al. (2001) entitled

“Development of an Alternative Sand Sieving Machine”, the main parts of their

design comprised of the sieve assembly, main frame, drive assembly, and base

plate. The sieve frames provide enclosure to the sieving assembly and hold the

breaker sieve, a primary and secondary sieve, and a discharge trough. Main frame

holds the parts of the machine and has three divisions: the sieve support, the drive

frame, and the stand. The drive assembly performs the significant function of

inducing oscillating motion of the machine.

In their testing, they investigated the effects of different volume of sand in

sieving rate. Three tests were done to determine the sieving rate of the sand

sieving machine. Also, they determined the distance of throw of the body wherein

the desired time of sieving process is dependent upon. In determining the distance

of throw, they used the experimental method, that is by actual measuring the

displacement of the body with respect to a reference point during operation. The

results of their study showed that when the capacity of the machine decreased,

the distance of throw increased, thus providing faster sieving process. Their

conclusion is that sieving rate depends on the extent of the movement of the

machine or the distance of throw, which serves as the basis of production. It was

recommended that modifications in main frame size and weight are encouraged to

make the developed sand sieving machine more functional and for added

portability.
 De Torres, et al. (2003) in their research entitled “Development of an

Alternative Multi-Purpose Grain Sorting Machine”, developed a machine that

separated different grain materials through screening process. They used an

oscillation motion of sieving for the prototype where the feed materials are rocks,

pebbles and sand. The machine had a box style bed having sieve plates at the

bottom surface. They came up with some conclusions and the recorded the

following:

1. The rate of sieving process is based on the rate of agitation caused by the

oscillation and the feeds placed for processing. The disparity is based on the

surface of the material and its range of sizes stone and pebbles are smooth but

big enough to bring out the long range of screening. Most of sand particles are

undersized materials and this brings out fast screening. An increase in sieving time

is brought about by the feed. The strength of the sieves or screens is affected by

the amount of the feed passed into the machine.

2. The efficiency of the machine is based on the efficiency of the size. The rate

of sieving process affects its efficiency. At small amount of feeds placed against

the sieve, particles tend to hop rather than drop though the angle of slope is

enough to separate the grains. The result is also based on the amount of feed

placed into the machine.

The effects of sieving time and sieving load was investigated by Shergold

(1966) in one of his study entitled “Study of Grain Size Measurements”. Tests were

carried out with 14-,52 and 200-mesh sieves. Using samples of sand specially
prepared to allow 50% by weight of each sample to pass through the appropriate

sieve. Table 1 shows the result in using the 200-mesh sieve.

Table 1

Relation of Sample Weight and Percentage Retained on Sieve

Sample
Sieving Time
Weight

(g) 5 10 20 40

Percentage retained on sieve

500 83.6 80.7 76.5 73.8

250 67.2 64.3 67.6 57.8

125 58.6 58.0 55.2 53.2

62.5 56.6 55.0 53.2 52.3

The results of Shergold’s study showed that the smaller the sieve aperture,

the greater the effect of overloading, the greater the discrepancies between the

results for different loadings. Moreover, the study showed that although in general,

there is no end-point for sieving, the approach to the true percentage is quicker for

small sieve apertures.

Since it is evident that a reduction in sample size is more effective than prolonging

the sieving, Shergold recommended that the sample should be as small as is

compatible with convenient handling, 100-150 g for coarse sand and 40-60 g for

fine sand with a sieving time of nine minutes. Furthermore, the study presented

different factors that determine the probability of a particle passing through a sieve
aperture. These factors include particle size distribution of the powder, the load of

or the number of the particles on the sieve, physical properties of the particles,

method of shaking the sieve, dimension and shape of the particles, and the

geometry of the sieving surface. The study also presented variables hat determine

the size distribution given during a sieving operation. These variables include

duration of the sieving, variation of sieve aperture, and wear.

Synthesis