From Feudalism to Capitalism

 
Feudal society was a very rigid, hierarchical society.
 
At the top = King. He bestowed fiefs or estates on a number of lords
(nobility).
Below that there was nobility -> Dukes, earls, barons, knights
 
Every feudal lord paid homage to his overlord. The entire
relationship from top to bottom was one of allegiance. No vassal
owned any land; he only held the land of his overlord. He
recognised no authority but of his overlord.
 
In times of war, each lord demanded military assistance from his
vassal.
 
Each feudal lord had its own soldiers. He collected taxes from
everyone in his fief and also performed judicial functions.
 
This entire system was hereditary. The lord's eldest son demanded
allegiance from his father's vassals. Thus, lord's sons were lords,
while sons of vassals would always remain vassals. Nobody could
jump the hierarchy.
 
There was always a battle of influence and power between King
and nobility. Many times a feudal lord would become more powerful
than the king and try to topple the regime. Thus, King was always
wary of his crown.
 
Peasants = largest and lowest section of the society. All the lands
were cultivated by them. Lords never did any work.
 
The economic basis of feudalism was small-scale holdings of
peasants. The production was for local use by families of peasants
and lords. The needs of other manufacturing goods such as cloth
and agricultural implements were met within the village. Overall,
feudalistic societies were self-sustaining societies with little or no
trade with anyone outside of such society.
 
Since, the commodities were produced for self consumption, there
was no incentive to raise production capacity, and consequently, no
need to adopt better practices. Also, since, goods were bartered,
reinvestment was not an option.
 
Rise of cities, exploration of the world and emergence of joint stock
company led to emergence of merchant class and mercantilism
(accumulation of precious stones in exchange for goods). Increased
use of money meant that money could be reinvested, which was
important in emergence of capitalism.
 
The merchant class wanted to break free from closed feudal
economy because that is where there economic interests lied. More
open economy meant more trade and more wealth for the
merchants. The kings also supported merchants since weakening of
feudalist structure could finally tilt the power struggle between the
king and the nobility in the favour of the former.
 
All of the above led to the emergence of capitalism.
 
====================
 
Marxism
 
In order to survive, man must produce food and material objects. In
doing so he enters into social relationships with other men. Thus,
production is a social enterprise.
 
Production involves technical component known as forces of
production, which includes technology, raw material and scientific
knowledge employed in the process of production.
 
Each major stage in the development of the forces of production will
correspond with a particular form of the social relations of
production. The relations of production are the social relationships
which men enter into to produce goods. Example: in feudal society,
relationship between lord and vassal and the set of rights, duties
and obligations that make up such relationship. In industrial society,
the relationship between employer and employee.
 
Taken together, forces of production and social relationships of
production form the economic base or infrastructure of the society.
The other aspects of society (such as political, legal and
educational institutions, values and belief system) are largely
shaped by infrastructure. These are referred to as Superstructure. A
major change in infrastructure will therefore produce a
corresponding change in the superstructure. Superstructure justifies
inequality and tries to maintain status-quo.
 
Marx maintained that with the possible exception of pre-historical
societies, all historical societies contain basic contradictions. These
contradictions involve exploitation of one group by another. For
example - in feudal societies, lords exploit their serfs; in capitalist
societies, employers exploit their employees. This creates a
fundamental conflict of interest between social groups since one
gains at the expense of another. This conflict of interest must
ultimately be resolved since a social system containing such
contradiction cannot survive unchanged.
 
The idea of contradiction between forces and relations of production
may be illustrated in terms of infrastructure of capitalist society.
Marx maintains that only labour produces wealth. However, much of
this wealth is appropriated in the form of profits by the capitalists,
the owners of the forces of production. The wages of workers are
well below the value of wealth they produce. Also, the forces of
production are privately owned, despite the fact that production is a
collective operation.
 
Marx says that these and other contradictions would eventually lead
to the downfall of the capitalist system.
 
=============
 
Social Stratification
 
Social inequality -> refers to existence of socially created
inequalities.
Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. It refers
to the presence of social groups which are ranked one above the
other, usually in terms of amount of power, prestige and wealth their
members possess.
 
Those who belong to a particular group or stratum will have some
awareness of common interests and a common identity. They will
share a similar lifestyle which to some degree will distinguish them
from members of other  social strata. The Indian caste system
provides an example of social stratification system.
 
There is a tendency for members of each stratum to develop their
own subculture, that is certain norms, attitudes and values which
are distinctive to them as a social group. When some members of
society experience similar circumstances and problems which are
not common to all members, a subculture tends to develop. For
example - it has often been suggested that distinctive working-class
and middle-class subcultures exist in western industrial societies.
Similar circumstances and problems often produce similar
responses. Members of the lowest stratum where there is little
opportunity for the improvement of status tend to have a fatalistic
attitude towards life (humara to kuch nai ho sakta!). This attitude
becomes part of their subculture and is transmitted from generation
to generation.
 
Subcultures tend to be particularly distinctive when there is little
opportunity to move from one stratum to another.
 
Social Mobility -> movement from one stratum to another. It can be
upward or downward. Stratification systems which provide little
opportunity for social mobility may be described as closed. Those
with relatively high rate of mobility = open.
 
In closed system, an individual's position is largely ascribed. Often it
is fixed at the birth and there is little he can do to change his status.
Caste is an example of closed stratification system. An individual
automatically belongs to the caste of his parents and spends his
rest of his life in that status. By comparison, social class, the system
of stratification in industrialist societies is an open system.
 
A person's position in stratification system may have important
effects on many areas of his life. It may enhance or reduce his 'life
chances'. Life chances includes everything from chances to staying
alive to first year after birth to the chance to view fine arts, chance
to remain healthy, chance to complete education and so on.
 
Functionalist view of social stratification
 
Functionalists assume that there are certain basic needs or
functional pre-requisites which must be met if society is to survive.
They also view social stratification in this light.
 
Common values -> stratification system -> stability and order in
society.
 
Common values or value consensus = a general agreement by the
members of the society concerning what is good.
 
Stratification derives from common values. In other words, the
common values become the criteria on which a person is judged
and then placed in some form of rank order (stratification). Those
who perform successfully in terms of society's values will be ranked
highly. Ultimately, stratification system helps maintain order and
stability in society as it provides the justification of inequality in
society.
 
Stratification is both inevitable and functional for society
• Stratification is inevitable because it is derived from shared
values which are a necessary part of all social systems.
• It is functional because it serves to integrate various groups in
society. In complex industrial societies, each group specialises
 in particular activities, and these groups must coordinate and
cooperate if society is to succeed. Inevitably, some groups will
wield more power and influence, but this has to be justified.
Otherwise, there would be no cooperation. This justification
comes from social stratification.
 
Marxist view of social stratification
 
Functionalists takes an integrative view of social stratification, i.e.
they see stratification as a contributing factor towards stability and
order in the society.
 
Marxian perspective is opposite. They regard stratification as
divisive rather than an integrative structure. They see it as a
mechanism whereby some exploit others rather than a means of
furthering collective goals.
 
From Marxian perspective, systems of stratification derive from the
relationships of social groups to the forces of production.
 
In all stratified societies, there are two major social groups: a ruling
class and a subject class. Example
• Master and slave in ancient society
• Lords and serfs in feudalist society
• Capitalists and wage labourers in capitalist society
 
The power of ruling class derives from its ownership and control of
the forces of production. The ruling class exploits and oppresses
subject class. As a result, there is a basic conflict of interest
between two classes. 
 
The subject class is made up of majority of the population and
whereas the ruling class forms a minority.
 
A class is a social group whose members share the same
relationship to the forces of production. For example
• In feudal era, there are two main classes: feudal nobility who
own the land and the landless serfs who work the land.
 • In capitalist era, there are two main classes, the bourgeoisie or
capitalist class which owns the forces of production and the
proletariat or working class whose members only own their
labour which they hire to the bourgeoisie in return for wages.
 
Marx believed that Western society had developed through 4 main
epochs
1. Primitive communism
2. Ancient society
3. Feudal society
4. Capitalist society
 
Primitive communism is represented by societies of pre-history
(hunters and gatherers) and provides the only example of classless
society. In these societies, the land and its products were
communally owned. The men hunted and woman gathered plant
food, and the produce was shared by the members of the band
(subsistence economy). Every member was producer and owner,
and thus, there was no class.
 
Emergence of Classes -> Classes emerge when the productive
capacity of society expands beyond the level required for
subsistence. This occurs when agriculture becomes dominant mode
of production, i.e. only a section of society is needed to produce the
food requirement of whole society. Thus, many individuals are freed
from food production and are able to specialise in other tasks. This
led to exchange of goods between various communities, and was
accompanied by development of system of private property and
accumulation of surplus wealth.
 
Private property and accumulation of surplus wealth forms the basis
for development of class societies. Some are able to acquire the
forces of production and others are therefore obliged to work for
them. This is where the exploitation of the subject class by ruling
class starts.
 
Marx believed that the class struggle was the driving force of the
social change. ("The history of all societies up to the present is the
history of the class struggle"). It was the class struggle that allowed
societies to evolve from ancient to feudal to capitalist. For example,
capitalism developed from the struggle between feudal aristocracy
and the emerging capitalist class.
 
Marx believed that basic contradictions contained in a capitalist
economic system would lead to its eventual destruction. The
proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie and seize forces of
production, the source of power. Property would be communally
owned and, since all members of society would now own the forces
of production, there would be no class (leading to emergence of
classless society). This society is referred to as communist society.
 
Communist society will contain no contradictions, no conflict of
interest and will therefore be unchanging.
 
'class in itself' and 'class for itself' -> a 'class in itself' is simply a
social group whose members share the same relationship to the
forces of production. Marx argues that a social group only fully
becomes a class when it becomes a 'class for itself'. At this stage its
members have class consciousness and class solidarity. Class
consciousness only arises when its members realise the true nature
of their exploitation, and once it happens, they overthrow the ruling
class through collective action.
 
Weberian view of social stratification
 
Weber formed a three-component theory of stratification in which
social difference is determined by class, status, and power.
 
Class
• According to Weber, class is person's economic position in the
society, based on birth and individual achievement. Weber
defines class as a group of individuals who share similar
position in a market economy and by virtue of that fact receive
similar economic rewards.
• Those who share similar class situation also share similar life
chances. Their economic position will directly affect their
 chances of obtaining things that are desirable in the society
(e.g. quality education and housing).
• Weber's classification of class in capitalist society is different
from that of Marx (who classified class in capitalist societies
into two: bourgeoisie and proletariat). Weber identifies
following groupings in a capitalist society
a. Propertied upper class
b. Propertyless white collar workers (managers,
administrators and professionals who receive higher
salaries because of their demand for services)
c. The petty bourgeoisie
d. Manual working class
 
Status
• Class = unequal distribution of economic rewards. Status =
unequal distribution of social honour.
• Occupations and styles of life are accorded differing degrees
of prestige or esteem by members of the society.
• Although in many cases, status and class are interlinked, there
are situations where status and class are independent of one
another.For example: a poor Brahmin may not have much to
show for his economic wealth, but still have high social honour
(and thus status) in the society. Poets or saint can possess
immense influence on society, often with little economic worth.
 
Power
• Power refers to a person's ability to get their way despite the
resistance of others. For example, individuals in state jobs,
such as an employee of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, or
a member of the United States Congress, may hold little
property or status, but they still hold immense power.
 
Indian caste System
 
Indian caste system is based on two broad philosophies of Dharma
and Karma.
• Karma = adhering to your occupational caste.
 • Dharma = If you perform your Karma right, in next birth, you
would be born into higher caste.
 
Hindu society in traditional India is divided into 4 main strata or
varnas
1. Brahmins (priests and scholars)
2. Kshatriyas (political rulers and soldiers)
3. Vaishyas (merchants)
4. Shudras (Further divided into labour and Menial. The menials
are untouchables and considered as polluted)
 
Each caste is divided into jatis or sub-castes, which in total number
many thousands. Jatis are occupational groups - carpenter jati,
goldsmith jati, potter jati and so on.
 
Caste is an ascribed status since caste membership is acquired by
birth.
 
Castes are ranked in terms of ritual purity. Higher castes are
considered more pure and less polluted, whereas lower castes are
considered less pure and more polluted.
• The Brahmins or priests personify purity, sanctity and holiness.
They are the source of learning, wisdom and truth. Only they
can perform the most important religious ceremonies.
• At the other extreme, untouchables are defined as unclean,
impure and polluted. They must perform unclean and
degrading tasks such as disposal of deal animals. They must
be segregated from members of the case system and live on
the outskirts of villages or in their own communities in the
middle of paddy fields. Their presence pollutes to the extent
that even if the shadow of an untouchable falls across the food
of Brahmin it will render it unclean.
 
In general, higher strata in the hierarchy is associated with higher
prestige and power. Inequalities of wealth are usually linked to
those of prestige and power.
 
There are many rules in the Indian caste system which caste
members must adhere to:
1. Endogamy -> Every member of a caste or sub-caste is
required to marry within their own caste. Any violation of this
results in excommunication from one’s family and caste.
2. Occupational restriction -> every caste is associated with a
particular occupation which is members are required to follow.
3. Every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regards
to diet. There are two types of food: Pacca (food prepared with
Ghee or Oil) and Kachcha (food prepared with water).
According to the castes, only certain kinds of foods can be
exchanged between certain castes. For example, a Brahman
can accept only Pacca food from a Shudra, but Kachcha food
can only be accepted from a person of one’s own caste or of a
higher caste.
4. Social interaction between castes -> There are strict barriers
when it comes to the mixing of a superior caste with an inferior
caste.
 
Restriction on caste mobility
• Caste is basically a closed system of stratification.
• Birth in a particular caste confines a person to staying in this
caste and restricts and individual’s mobility up or down the
hierarchy.
 
How has caste system perpetuated over so many years?
• Traditionally, caste system was of stratification was legitimized
through classical Hindu religious texts. Rig veda describes
how caste system came into existence: Purusha is referred to
as Cosmic Soul. At the time of grand sacrifice performed by
gods, Brahmins came out of Purusha's mouth, Kshatriyas from
his arms, the Vaishyas from his thighs and Shudras from his
feet.
• Another justification derives from theory of Karma -> This
concept rationalizes the caste system based on birth. It
supports the argument that people of the lower castes have to
blame themselves for their troubles and low status because of
their bad Karma in their past life. Also, your present thoughts,
 decisions, and actions determine your future life events. This
plays a huge role in the prevention of people revolting against
the caste system.
• Reincarnation together with theory of Karma bolsters caste
oppression. It (a) justifies injustice and (b) deflects hopes of
progress from this life to a "next life". For the people on top of
the caste system (the Brahmins), reincarnation justifies why
they get the privilege of high-class birth. Those privileges were
earned through virtuous behaviors in their past lives, and a
privileged birth proves that one deserves privilege. For the
people on the bottom, the Shudras and the untouchables,
reincarnation justifies why they suffer for their low birth. They
must have earned their suffering through sinful acts in past
lives. In order to avoid a low-caste birth in their next life,
Shudras must lead virtuous life this time with no acts of
deviance towards the caste system.
• In a way, caste system has acted as an integrator of the
society. It has efficiently organised the Hindu society without
giving any chance to class frictions and factions.
 
==========
 
Jajmani System
 
The Jajmani system is a system of exchange of goods and services
between the members of different caste. Those who serve are
known as kamins and those who get these services are referred to
as Jajmans.
 
Jajman = patron
Kamins = client
 
It developed during the medieval period and continued till modern
times in the rural society.
 
It is a traditional jati-based division of labour in which traditional
caste performed various functions for upper caste and received
grain in return.
 
It consists of set of traditional rules about exchange of products and
services between number of different castes. In other words, each
caste has specific commitments towards others. In fact, Jajmani
system is a system of economic, social and ritual ties among
different caste groups in a village that bound them together.
 
Some important feature of Jajmani system are
1. Jajmani relations are permanent
a. a jajman cannot remove his kamin at his will. His difficulty
will not be in dismissing him, but in finding a substitute.
b. Through this system the farmers and those who had
landed property were assured of required essential
services and on the other hand those who did not have it
were assured of livelihood. In this manner, the village
economy was maintained in a balanced manner.
2. Jajmani system is hereditary
a. If father has done a job for a particular family son would
also do it.  On the other hand if a family has been served
by the father it would be obligatory for the family to
employ the son for that job.
b. When a person has no son and only a daughter, then the
rights is passed to the husband of the daughter.
3. Barter system -> The exchange of services is not based on
money but on barter system. The serving family gets things in
exchange for the services rendered by it; though in some
cases they may also get money. As a matter of fact, the
relationship between the ‘jajman’ and 'kamin' is not one of the
employer and servant. The jajman looks after all the needs of
his ‘parjan’ and helps him whenever it is required.
4. Peace and security
a. As a result of Jajmani System, the farmers were assured
of the services while the kamin were secured of their
livelihood. This kept them free from worrying about
employment.
5. Differences in scope of work -> The work of the Kamins was
not confined to one family if it were so, they would actually
starve. Most of these Kamins had such a job to do that they
 could do it for a large member of families. This made their
livelihood possible.
 
Some advantages of Jajmani system are
1. The occupation being hereditary, it provides security of
occupation to the kamin.
2. It provides economic security as the ‘jajman takes care of all
the needs of kamin.
3. It strengthens the relationship between jajman and kamin,
which is more personal than economic.
 
Important changes that influenced Jajmani system are as follows
1. Industrialisation -> with the growth of industries, chances of
getting new employment have increased. This made the
kamins to leave their caste occupations and migrate to urban
areas. As a result, the jajman lost the services of the kamin.
2. The rigidity in the caste system decreased, which made
possible for kamins to take up new opportunities of
employment.
3. Spread of education
4.  Losing of powers by the caste councils and Village
Panchayats. The Village Panchayats are deprived of their
traditional roles.
5. Abolition of Jagirdari system and introduction of land reforms
have also contributed to bringing about a change in the jajmani
system.
6. The improved means of transport and communication has
helped in making the market transactions easier.
7. Most of the artisans prefer to get money for their goods.
Cultivators also prefer to buy articles for their daily needs, from
the market, by paying cash.
8. The jajmans, in the present day, prefer to have more political
support than depending on their kamins.