STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY (MPC-006)

TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

(TMA)

Course Code: MPC-006

Assignment Code: MPC-006/AST/TMA/2018-19
Marks: 100

NOTE: All Questions Are Compulsory

SECTION – A

nswer the following question in about 1000 words (wherever applicable) each.
15x3=45 Marks

1. Discuss hypothesis testing with a focus on general procedure for testing a hypothesis and
error in hypothesis testing.
2. Using ANOVA find out if significant difference exists between the scores obtained by
the three groups of students on self concept.

Group A 34 23 32 34 54 34 22 35 38

Group B 12 14 45 18 23 24 26 27 32

Group C 23 32 34 45 23 22 21 26 32

3. Discuss the concept of normal curve. Explain the characteristics of normal probability
curve with the help of suitable diagrams.

SECTION - B

Answer the following questions in about 400 words (wherever applicable) each.
5x5=25 Marks
4. Discuss assumption, advantages and disadvantages of nonparametric statistics.
. Compute Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation for the following two sets of scores.

Data 1 7 8 6 5 3 5 9 16 12 12

Data 2 2 4 10 6 13 10 1 5 3 4
6. With the help of Mann Whitney ‘U’ test find if significant difference exists between the
scores obtained on organizational climate scale by male and female employees in an
organization.

Scores on Organisational Climate Scale

Male employees 23, 34, 45, 54, 56, 45, 45, 54, 56, 67, 32, 31, 23, 25, 29, 30

Female employee 56, 43, 34, 45, 56, 54, 32, 33, 31, 34, 32, 35, 56, 65, 43, 67

7. Describe two way ANOVA and discuss its merits and demerits.

8.
R U OM
Compute Chi-square for the following data:

G U U.C
NT UR
Phases of Adolescents Achievement Motivation Scores

ME TG High Average Low

Early
G N
I NM E N 23 25 23
S
S IG
Middle
A
U ASS
33 34 12

O Late 54 45 23

IGN NOU
. IG SECTION - C

WWW
Answer the following in about 50 words each 10x3=30 Marks

9. The median test

0. Ogive
11. Level of significance
12. Positive and negative relationship
13. Phi coefficient
14. Multiple regression
15. Outliers
16. Measuring Kurtosis
17. Wilcoxon matched pair rank test
18. Sampling error and standard error
 ASSIGNMENT GURU 2018 2019

MPC-06
STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY
Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions given in the Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private Teachers/
Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance of the student to get an idea of how he/she can answer the Questions given in the Assignments. We do not claim 100% accuracy of these sample answers as
these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions given in the
assignment. As these solutions and answers are prepared by the private teacher/tutor so the chances of error or mistake cannot be denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care
has been taken while preparing these Sample Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date and exact information, data and
solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the university.

Answer the following question in about 1000 words (wherever applicable) each.

1. Discuss hypothesis testing with a focus on general procedure for testing a hypothesis and
error in hypothesis testing.

R U OM
G U U.C
Ans.Hypothesis testing has a vital role in psychological measurements. By hypothesis, we mean
the tentative answer to any question. Hypothesis testing is a systematic procedure for deciding

NT UR
whether the results of a research study, which examines a sample, support a particular theory or
practical innovation, which applies to a population. Hypothesis testing is the central theme in most
psychology research.
ME TG
GN
I NM E N
Hypothesis testing involves grasping ideas that make little sense. Real life psychology research
S
involves samples of many individuals. At the same time, there are studies which involve a single
S IG
individual.
A
U AS S
O
The Corelogic of Hypothesis Testing

IGN NOU
There is a standard kind of reasoning researchers use for any hypothesis testing problem. For

IG
example, ordinarily, among the population of babies that are not given the specially purified vitamin,
.
the chance of a baby’s starting to walk at age 8 months or earlier would be less than 2%. Thus,

WW
walking at 8 months or earlier is highly unlikely among such babies. But what if the randomly
selected sample of one baby in our study does start walking by 8 months? If the specially purified
W
vitamin had no effect on this particular baby’s walking age (which means that the baby’s walking age
should be similar to that of babies that were not given the vitamin), it is highly unlikely (less than a
2% chance) that the particular baby we selected at random would start walking by 8 months. So, if the
baby in our study does in fact start walking by 8 months, that allows us to reject the idea that the
specially purified vitamin has no effect. And if we reject the idea that the specially purified vitamin
has no effect, then we must also accept the idea that the specially purified vitamin does have an effect.
Using the same reasoning, if the baby starts walking by 8 months, we can reject the idea that this baby
comes from a population of babies with a mean walking age of 14 months. We, therefore, conclude
that babies given the specially purified vitamin will start to walk before 14 months. Our explanation
for the baby’s early-walking age in the study is that the specially purified vitamin speeded up the
baby’s development.The researchers first spelled out what would have to happen for them to
conclude that the special purification procedure makes a difference. Having laid this out in advance,
the researchers could then go on to carry out their study. In this example, carrying out the study
means giving the specially
purified vitamin to a randomly selected baby and watching to see how early that baby walks. Suppose
the result of the study is that the baby starts walking before 8 months. The researchers would then
conclude that it is unlikely the specially purified vitamin makes no difference, and thus, also conclude
that it does make a difference.

There are five steps involved in testing a hypothesis:

(1)Formulate a Hypothesis: The first step is to set up two hypotheses instead of one in such a way
that if one hypothesis is true, the other is false. Alternatively, if one hypothesis is false or
rejected, then the other is true or accepted.

(2)Set up a Suitable Significance Level: Having formulated the hypothesis, the next step is to test
its validity at a certain level of significance. The confidence with which a null hypothesis is
rejected or accepted depends upon the significance level used for the purpose. A significance level of,
say 5 per cent, means that in the long-run, the risk of making the wrong decision is about 5 per cent.
In other words, one is likely to be wrong in accepting a false hypothesis or in rejecting a true
hypothesis on 5 out of 100 occasions. A significance level of, say, 1 per cent implies that there is a
risk of being wrong in accepting or rejecting the hypothesis on 1 out of every 100 occasions. Thus, a 1
per cent significance level provides greater confidence to the decision than a 5 per cent significance
level.
R U OM
G U U.C
(3)Select Test Criterion: The next step in hypothesis testing is the selection of an appropriate

NT UR
statistical technique as a test criterion. There are many techniques from which one is to be chosen. For
example, when the hypothesis pertains to a large sample of more than 30, the Z-test implying normal
E TG
distribution is used. When a sample is small (less than 30), the t-test will be more suitable. The test
M
GN
I NM E N
criteria that are frequently used in hypothesis testing are Z, t, F and

S
(4)Compute: After having selected the statistical technique to test the hypothesis, the next step
S IG
A
involves various computations necessary for the application of the particular test. These computations

U ASS
include the testing statistic as also its standard error.

O
IGN NOU
(5)Make Decision: The final step in hypothesis testing is to draw a statistical decision, involving the
acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis. This will depend on whether the computed value of the
test criterion falls in the region of acceptance or in the region of rejection at a given level of

.IG
significance. It may be noted that the statement rejecting the hypothesis is much stronger than the

WW
statement accepting it. It is much easier to prove something false than to prove it true. Thus, when we
say that the null hypothesis is not rejected, we do not categorically say that it is true.
W
In hypothesis testing, there would be no errors in decision making as long as a null hypothesis is
rejected when it is false and also a null hypothesis is accepted when it is true. But the decision to
accept or reject the null hypothesis is based on sample data. There is no testing procedure that will
ensure absolutely correct decision on the basis of sampled data. There are two types of errors
regarding decision to accept or to reject a null hypothesis.

1 Type I Error:- When the null hypothesis is true, a decision to reject it is an error and this kind of
error is known as type I error in statistics. The probability of making a type I error is denoted as ‘á’
(read as alpha). The null hypothesis is rejected if the probability ‘p’ of its being correct does not
exceed the p. The higher the chosen level of p for considering the null hypothesis, the greater is the
probability of type I error.

2 Type II Error:- When null hypothesis is false, a decision to accept it is known as type II error. The
probability of making a type II error is denoted as ‘â’ (read as beta). The lower the chosen level of
significance p for rejecting the null hypothesis, the higher is the probability of the type II error. With a
lowering of p, the rejection region as well as the probability of the type I error declines and the
acceptance region (1-p) widens correspondingly.

The goodness of a statistical test is measured by the probability of making a type I or type II error. For
a fixed sample size n, á and â are so related that reduction in one causes increase in the other.
Therefore, simultaneous reductions in á and â are not possible. If n is increased, it is possible to
decrease both á and â.

Power of a Test:- The probability of committing type II error is designated by â. Therefore, 1-

he probability of rejecting null hypothesis when it is false. This probability is known as the power of
a statistical test. It measures how well the test is working. The probability of type II error depends
upon the true value of the population parameter and sample size n.

2. Using ANOVA find out if significant difference exists between the scores obtained by
three groups of students on self concept.

R U OM
G U U.C
NT UR
ME TG
N E N
Ans. K=3 (i.e., 3 groups), n=10 (i.e., each group having 10 cases), N=30 (i.e., the total number of
G
I NM
units in the group)
S
S IG
A
Null hypothesis H o = µ 1 = µ 2 = µ 3
U ASS
O
IGN NOU
Thus,

GROUP A GROUP B GROUP C

.IG X12 X22 X32

WW
X1 X2 X3
34 1156 12 144 23 529
W 23 529 14 196 32 1024
32 1024 45 2025 34 1156
34 1156 18 324 45 2025
54 2916 23 529 23 529
34 1156 24 576 22 484
22 484 26 676 21 441
35 1225 27 729 26 676
38 1849 32 1024 32 1024
43 4225 29 841 33 1089
 ∑X 1 =34 ∑X 1 2=12939 ∑X 2 =25 ∑X 2 2=7064 ∑X 3 =291 ∑X 3 2=8977
9 0
10 10 10
34.9 25 29.1
ep-1: Correlation term

(=
∑ x) ∑ x1 + ∑ x 2 + ∑ x 3 ... ( ∑ x k )
2 2

=
n1 + n 2 + n 3 ... n k
x
N

( 349 + 250 + 291) (890 )

2 2

⇒
10 + 10 + 10
x2
30

792100
x ⇒ ⇒ 26403.30
30

Step-2: SST ( Sum of Squares of total ) = ∑ x 2 – C x

⇒ (12939 + 7064 + 8977 ) – 26403.30

⇒ 28980 – 26403.3 RU OM
G U U.C
SST ⇒ 2576.7

NT UR
( )
( )
M E TG
ep-3: SSA Sum of squares among the groups = ∑
∑x
2

– Cx

G N
I NM E N N

⇒
( ) ( ) ( )
349
2

S
S IG
+
250
2

+
291
2

– 26403.3
10
A
U ASS
10 10

⇒ O
121801 62500 84681
+ +

IGN NOU
– 26403.3
10 10 10

⇒ 12180.1 + 6250 + 8468.1 – 26403.3

. IG
⇒ 26898.2 – 26403.3 ⇒ 494.9

WWW ep-4: SSW ( Sum of squares within the groups )

SST – SSA

SSW ⇒ 2576.7 – 494.9

⇒ 2081.8

ep-5: MSSA ( Mean sum of squares Among the groups )

SS 494.9 494.9
MSSA = A ⇒ ⇒ ⇒ 247.45
k –1 3 –1 2

Step-6: MSSW ( Mean sum of squares within the groups )

SSW 2081.8 2081.8

⇒ ⇒ ⇒
N–k 30 – 3 27
MSSW = 77.10

MSSA 247.45
Step-7: F Ratio = ⇒ ⇒ 3.209
MSSW 77.10

Step-8: Summary of A nova.

Source of variance df SS MSS F Ratio

Among the groups (K-1) 494.9 247.45

3-1 = 2 3.209
Within the groups (N-K) 2081.8 77.10

30-3=27

From F table (Appendix table D) for 2 and 27 df at .05 level, the F value is 3.35. Our calculated F
value is 3.209, which is greater than F value. Therefore, the F ratio is significant at 0.5 level. Thus, the
null hypothesis is rejected.

R U OM
3. Discuss the concept of normal curve. Explain the characteristics of normal probability
U U.C
curve with the help of suitable diagrams.
G
NT UR
Ans. The Normal Probability Curve is the ideal symmetrical frequency curve. It is supposed to be
E TG
based on the data of a population. In it, the measures are concentrated closely around the centre and
M
G E N
taper off from this central point or top to the left and right. There are very few measures at the low
N
score end of the scale; an increasing number upto a maximum at the middle position; and a
I NM
S
symmetrical falling-off towards the high score end of the scale. The curve exhibits almost perfect
S IG
bilateral symmetry. It is symmetrical about central altitude. The altitude divides it into two parts,
A
which will be similar in shape and equal in area. The curve, which is also called Normal Curve, is a
U ASS
bell-shaped figure. It is very useful in psychological and educational measurements. It is shown in
O
IGN NOU
Fig. 3.1:

.IG
WWW 50%

68.26%

–3PE 3PE

–4PE –2PE –1PE 1PE 2PE 4PE

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
MEAN

Fig.: Normal Probability Curve

Normal probability curve is the frequency polygon of any normal distribution.

Theoretical Base of the Normal Probability Curve: The Normal Probability Curve is based upon the
law of probability (the various games of chance) discovered by French Mathematician Abraham
Demoiver (1667-1754). In the eighteenth century, he developed its mathematical equation and
graphical representation also.

The law of probability and the normal curve that illustrates it is based upon the law of chance or the
probable occurrence of certain events. It can be represented by a bell-shaped curve with definite
characteristics.

Characteristics or Properties of Normal Probability Curve (NPC): The characteristics of the normal
probability curve are as follows:

(1)The Normal Curve is Symmetrical: The normal probability curve is symmetrical around its
vertical axis called ordinate. The symmetry about the ordinate at the central point of the curve implies
that the size, shape and slope of the curve on one side of the curve are identical to that of the other. In
other words, the left and right halves to the middle central point are mirror images, as shown in the
Fig.

RU OM
GU U.C
NT UR
ME TG M = Md = Mo

G N
I NM E N Fig.: Normal Probability Curve
S
S IG
A
(2)The Normal Curve is Unimodal: Since there is only one maximum point in the curve, thus,
U ASS
the normal probability curve is unimodal, i.e. it has only one mode.
O
IGN NOU
(3)The Maximum Ordinate occurs at the Center: The maximum height of the ordinate always
occur at the central point of the curve, i.e. the mid-point. In the unit normal curve, it is equal to
0.3989.
. IG
WW
(4)The Normal Curve is Asymptotic to the X-Axis: The normal probability curve approaches the
horizontal axis asymptotically, i.e. the curve continuously decrease in height on both ends away from
W
the middle point (the maximum ordinate point); but it never touches the horizontal axis. Therefore, its
ends extend from minus infinity ( – ∞ ) to the plus infinity ( + ∞ ) .

–∞ +∞

Fig.

(5)The Height of the Curve declines Symmetrically: In the normal probability curve, the height
declines symmetrically in either direction from the maximum point.
6)The Points of Influx occur at point ± 1 Standard Deviation (± 1 σ ) : The normal curve
changes its direction from convex to concave at a point recognised as point of influx. If we draw the
perpendiculars from these two points of influx of the curve to the horizontal x-axis, those touch at a
distance one standard deviation unit from above and below the mean (the central point).

(7)The Total Percentage of Area of the Normal Curve within Two Points of Influxation is
fixed: Approximately 68.26% area of the curve lies within the limits of ± 1 standard deviation ( ± 1 σ )
unit from the mean.

Y = 0.3989

Point of Influx 34.13% 34.13% Point of Influx

– 1σ Z=0 + 1σ

R U OM Mean

G U U.C Fig.

N T UR
M E TG
(8)The Total Area under Normal Curve may be also considered 100 Per cent Probability: The total
area under the normal curve may be considered to approach 100 per cent probability; interpreted in

Fig.
G N
I NM E N
terms of standard deviations. The specified areas under each unit of standard deviation are shown in

S
S IG
A
U ASS
O
IGN NOU 34.13% 34.13%

.IG 0.14%
13.59% 13.59%
0.14%

WW
2.14% 2.14%
– 3σ – 2σ – 1σ Mean + 1σ + 2σ + 3σ

W 68.26%
95.44%
99.73%

Fig.: The Percentage of the Cases Falling Between Successive Standard Deviation in Normal
Distribution

(9)The Normal Curve is Bilateral: The 50% area of the curve lies to the left side of the
maximum central ordinate and 50% of the area lies to the right side. Hence, the curve is bilateral.

(10)The Normal Curve is a Mathematical Model in Behavioural Sciences Especially in Mental

Measurement: This curve is used as a measurement scale. The measurement unit of this scale is ± 1 σ

SECTION - B
Answer the following questions in about 400 words (wherever applicable) each.

Q4. Discuss assumption, advantages and disadvantages of nonparametric statistics.

Ans:- Assumptions of Non-parametric Statistics are as follows:

(1)We face many situations, where we cannot meet the assumptions and conditions, and thus,
cannot use parametric statistical procedures. In such situation, we are bound to apply non-parametric
statistics.

(2)If our sample is in the form of nominal or ordinal scale, and the distribution of sample is not
normally distributed, and also the sample size is very small; it is always advisable to make use of the
non-parametric tests for comparing samples and to make inferences or test the significance or
trustworthiness of the computed statistics. In other words, the use of non-parametric tests is
recommended in the following situations:

(i)Where sample size is quite small. If the size of the sample is as small as N=5 or N=6, the only
alternative is to make use of non-parametric tests.

U OM
(ii)When assumption like normality of the distribution of scores in the population are doubtful, we
R
use non-parametric tests.

G U U.C
T UR
(iii)When the measurement of data is available either in the form of ordinal or nominal scales or
N
ME TG
when the data can be expressed in the form of ranks or in the shape of + signs or – signs and
classification like “good-bad”, etc. we use non-parametric statistics.

GN
I NM E N
(iv)The nature of the population from which samples are drawn is not known to be normal.
S
S IG
A
(v)The variables are expressed in nominal form.
U ASS
O
IGN NOU
(vi) The data are measures, which are ranked or expressed in numerical scores, having the
strength of ranks.

IG
Advantages: Few advantages of using non-parametric statistics are as follows:
.
WWW Non-parametric methods can be used to analyse categorical (nominal scaling) data, rank
(ordinal scaling) data and interval (ratio scaling) data.

Non-parametric methods are generally easy to apply and quick to compute when sample size
is small.

Non-parametric methods require few assumptions but are very useful when the scale of
measurement is weaker than required for parametric methods. Hence, these methods are widely used
and yield a more general broad-based conclusion.

Non-parametric methods provide an approximate solution to an exact problem whereas

parametric methods provide an exact solution to an approximate problem.

Non-parametric methods provide solution to problems that do not require to make the
assumption that a population is distributed normally or any specific shape.

Limitations: Few major limitations of non-parametric statistic are follows:

 Non-parametric methods should not be used when all the assumptions of the parametric
methods can be met. However, they are equally powerful when assumptions are met, when
assumptions are not met these may be more powerful.

Non-parametric methods require more manual computational time when sample size gets
larger.

Table values for non-parametric statistics are not as readily available as of parametric
methods.

Non-parametric tests are usually not as widely used and not well known as parametric tests.

5. Compute Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation for the following two sets of scores.

R U OM
Ans.
G U U.C
Data 1 (x)
NT UR
Data 2 (y) xy x2 y2
7
ME TG 2 14 49 4
8
6
G N
I NM E N 4
10
32
60
64
36
16
100
5
S
S IG
6 30 25 36
3

U ASS
5 A 13
10
39
50
9
25
169
100

O 9 1 9 81 1

IGN NOU
16 5 80 256 25
12 3 36 144 9
12 4 48 144 16

.IG
∑x =83 ∑y = 58 ∑ xy = 398 ∑ x2 = 833 ∑ y2 =
476

WWW( ) ( )( )
=
n ∑ xy – ∑ x ∑ y
 n ∑ x 2 – ( ∑ x 2 )2   n ∑ y 2 – ( ∑ y )2 
   

10 ( 398 ) – ( 83 × 58 )
⇒
10 ( 833) – ( 83)2  10 ( 476 ) – ( 58 )2 
  

3980 – 4814 –834

⇒
[8330 – 6889][ 4760 – 3364] 1414 – 1396

–834 –834
⇒ = ⇒ –124.5
45 6.7

6. With the help of Mann Whitney ‘U’ test find if significant difference exists between the
scores obtained on organizational climate scale by male and female employees in an
organization.
 Ans:-

Male employees Rank (R 1 ) Female employees Rank (R 2 )

23 0.5 56 15
34 9 43 10.5
45 12.5 34 9
54 13 45 12.5
56 15 56 15
45 12.5 54 13
45 12.5 32 7
54 13 33 7
56
R U OM
15 31 5.5
67
32
G U U.C15.5
7
34
32
9
7
31
23
N T UR 5.5
0.5
35
56
9
15
25
M E TG 2 65 14
29
30
G N
I NM E N 3
4
43
67
10.5
15.5

S
S IG
∑ R1 = 140.5 ∑ R2 = 174.5
u=
n1 ,n 2 +
U An1 (n1 + 1)

S
2
– ΣR1 =u n1 , n 2 +
n1 (n + 1)
2 Σ R2

( N)O A S
IG NO U
u = 16 × 16 +
16 16 + 1
2
– 140.5 ⇒ 16 × 16 +
16 (16 + 1)
2
– 174.5

. IG
= 256 + 136 – 140.5 ⇒ 256 + 136 – 174.5

W WW
⇒ 392 – 140.5

⇒ 251.5
⇒ 392 – 174.5

⇒ 217.5

The critical value of U for n 1 = 16 and n 2 = 16, two-tailed alpha = 0.05, is 37. Since the smaller
obtained value of U 1 =251.5 and U 2 = 217.5 is lower than the table value the null hypotheses is
rejected.

7. Describe two way ANOVA and discuss its merits and demerits.

Ans. In two-way analysis of variance, usually the two independent variables are taken simultaneously.
It has two main effects and one interactional or joint effect on dependent variable. In such condition,
we have to use analysis of variance in two ways, i.e. vertically as well as horizontally or we have to
use ANOVA, column and row wise. Suppose we are interested to study the intelligence, i.e. I.Q. level
of boys and girls studying in VIII class in relation to their level of socio economic status (SES). In
such condition, we have the following 3 x 2 design as shown in the table .

Illustration:
 R U OM
G U U.C
From the above 3 x 2 contingency table, it is clear, first we have to study the significant difference in

NT UR
the means column wise or vertically, i.e. to compare the intelligence level of the students belonging to

E TG
different categories of socio-economic status (High, Average and Low).
M
GN E N
Secondly, we have to study the significant difference in the means row wise or horizontally, i.e. to
I NM
S
compose the intelligence level of the boys and girls.

S IG
A
Then we have to study the interactional or joint effect of sex and socio-economic status on
U ASS
intelligence level, i.e. we have to compare the significant difference in the cell means of columns
O
IGN NOU
rows.

We have more than two groups, and to study the independent as well as interaction effect of the two

.IG
variables, viz. socio-economic status and sex on dependent variable, viz. intelligence in terms of I.Q.,

WW
we have to use two-way analysis of variance, i.e. to apply analysis of variance column and row wise.

W
Therefore, in two-way analysis of variance technique, the following type of effects are to be tested:

• Significance of the effect of A variable on D.V.

• Significance of the effect of B variable on A.V.

• Significance of the interaction effect of A x B variables on D.V.

In two-way analysis of variance, the format of summary table after applying the analysis of variance
is as under:
 R U OM
G U U.C
NT UR
All the obtained F-ratios may be found insignificant even at .05 level. This shows that there is no
independent (i.e. individual) as well as interaction (i.e. joint) effect of the two independent variables
E TG
on dependant variable. Hence, null hypothesis will retain. There is no need to do further calculations.
M
GN
I NM E N
All the three obtained F-ratio’s may be found significant either at .05 level of significance or at .01

S
level of significance. This shows that there is a significant independent (i.e. individual) as wel
S IG
A
interactional (i.e. joint) effect of the independent variables on the dependant variable. Therefore,

U ASS
null hypothesis is rejected. In such condition, if the two independent variables have more than two

O
levels, i.e. three or four, we have to go for further calculations and use post-hoc comparisons by

IGN NOU
finding out various tvalues by pairing the groups.

Similarly, the significant interactional effect will also be studied further by applying t-test of

.IG
significance or by applying graphical method.

WWW
At least one or two obtained F-ratio will be found significant either at .05 level of significance or at
.01 level of significance. Thus, the null hypothesis may partially be retained. In such condition too, we
have to do further calculations, by making post-hoc comparisons and use t-test of significance, if the
independent variables have more than two levels.

The merits and demerits of two-way analysis of variance are as follows:

Merits:

(1) This technique is used to analyse two types of effects, viz. main effects and Interaction Effects.

(2) More than two factors effects are analysed by this technique.

(3) For analysing the data obtained on the basis of factorial designs, this technique is used.

(4) This technique is used to analyse the data for complex experimental studies.
Demerits:

(1) When there are more than two classifications of a factor(s) of study, F-ratio value provides global
picture of difference among the main treatment effects. The inference can be specified by using t-
in case when F-ratio is found significant for a treatment.

(2) This technique also follows the assumptions on which one-way analysis of variance is based. If
these assumptions are not fulfilled, the use of this technique may give us spurious results.

(3) This technique is difficult and time consuming.

(4) As the number of factors are increased in a study, the complexity of analysis in increased and
interpretation of results become difficult.

(5) This technique requires high-level arithmetical and calculative ability. Similarly, it also requires
high level of imaginative and logical ability to interpret the obtained results.

8. Compute Chi-square for the following data:

R U OM
G U U.C
N T UR
M E TG
G N
I NM E N
S
S IG
A
U ASS
O
IGN NOU
Ans:-

. IG
Phases of Adolescent Achievement Motivation scores

WW
High Average Low Total
Early 23 25 23 71

W
Middle
Late
33
54
34
45
12
23
79
122
Total 110 104 58 272
we take the hypothesis that the populations are homogeneous with respect to different types of
Achievement motivation scores they prefer:-

110 × 71 7810 104 × 71 7384

11 = ⇒ ⇒ 28.7 E 21 = = = 27.14
272 272 272 272

110 × 79 8690 104 × 79 8216

12 = = ⇒ 31.9 E 22 = = = 30.20
272 272 272 272

110 × 122 13420 104 × 122 12688

13 = ⇒ = 49.3 E 23 = = = 46.6
272 272 272 272

58 × 71 4118 58 × 79 4582 58 × 122 7076

31 = ⇒ ⇒ 15.1 E 32 = = ⇒ 16.8 E 33 = ⇒ ⇒ 26.01 Applying x 2 test
272 272 272 272 272 272
 E (0 – E) (0 – E)
2 2E

28.7 32.49 1.132

31.9 1.21 0.037
49.3 22.09 0.448
27.14 4.5796 0.168
30.20 14.44 0.478
46.6 25.6 0.054
15.1 62.41 4.133
16.8 23.04 1.371
26.01 9.0601 0.348
∑ ( 0 – E ) =
2E
8.169
 

 ( 0 – E )2 
∴ x2 =
∑ =8.169
 E 

SECTION - C

U OM
Answer the following in about 50 words each
R
9. The median test
G U U.C
NT UR
M E TG
Ans:- The Median test is used for testing whether two independent samples differ in central
tendencies. It gives information as to whether it is likely that two independent samples have been

G N E N
drawn from populations with the same median. It is particularly useful whenever the measurements
I NM
S
for the two samples are expressed in an ordinal scale.
S IG
A
U ASS
10. Ogive

O
IGN NOU
Ans:- An ogive is the roundly tapered end of a two-dimensional or three-dimensional object. Ogive
curves and surfaces are used in engineering, architecture and woodworking.

. IG
In statistics, an ogive is a free-hand graph showing the curve of a cumulative distribution function.

WWW
The points plotted are the upper class limit and the corresponding cumulative frequency. (which, for
the normal distribution, resembles one side of an Arabesque or ogival arch). The term can also be
used to refer to the empirical cumulative distribution function.

Q11. Level of significance

Ans.The level of significance refers to the degree of significance with which we accept or reject a
particular hypothesis. Since 100 per cent accuracy is not possible in taking a decision over the
acceptance or rejection of a hypothesis, we have to take the decision at a particular level of confidence
which would speak of the probability of one being correct or wrong in accepting or rejecting a
hypothesis. In most of the cases of hypothesis testing, such a confidence is fixed at 5 per cent level,
which implies that our decisions would be correct to the extent of 95 per cent. For a greater precise,
however, such a confidence may be fixed at 1 per cent level which would imply that the decision
would be correct to the extent of 99 per cent. This level is usually denoted by the symbol, (alpha)
which represents the probability of committing the type I error (i.e. rejecting a null hypothesis which
is true).
Q12. Positive and negative relationship

Ans:- Positive Correlation:- A correlation in the same direction is called a positive correlation. If one
variable increases the other also increases and when one variable decreases the other also decreases.
For example, the length of an iron bar will increase as the temperature increases.

Negative Correlation:- Correlation in the opposite direction is called a negative correlation. Here if
one variable increases the other decreases and vice versa. For example, the volume of gas will
decrease as the pressure increases, or the demand for a particular commodity increases as the price of
such commodity decreases.

13. Phi coefficient

Ans. The phi ( φ ) coefficient is used when both variables are genuine dichotomies scored 1 or 0. For
example, phi would be used to describe the relationship between the gender of high school students
and whether they are counseled to take college preparatory courses or not. Gender is dichotomised as
male = 0, female = 1. Being counseled to take college preparatory courses is scored 1, and not being
so counseled is scored 0. It is possible to enter the pairs of dichotomous scores (1's and 0's) into a

U OM
programme that computers Pearson r's and arrive at the phi-coefficient.

R
U U.C
14. Multiple regression
G
NT UR
Ans. In multiple regression, we try to predict the value of one variable given the values of other
E TG
variables. Let us consider the case of three variables y, x 1 and x 2 . We assume there exists linear
M
GN
I NM E N
relationship between them. Thus, y = a + bx 1 + cx 2

S
S IG
where, a, b and c are constants.
A
U ASS
15. Outliers
O
IGN NOU
Ans:- Outliers are extreme score on one of the variables or both the variables. The presence of
outliers has deterring impact on the correlation value. The strength and degree of the correlation are

.IG
affected by the presence of outlier. Suppose we want to compute correlation between height and
weight. They are known to correlate positively. Look at the figure below. One of the scores has low

WW
score on weight and high score on height (probably, some anorexia patient).

W 16. Measuring Kurtosis

Ans:- For judging whether a distribution lacks normal symmetry or peakedness; it may detected by
inspection of the frequency polygon obtained. If a peak of curve is thin and sides are narrow to the
centre, the distribution is leptokurtic and if the peak of the frequency distribution is too flat and sides
of the curve are deviating from the centre towards ±4σ or ±5σ then the distribution is platykurtic.

Q17. Wilcoxon matched pair rank test

Ans. The Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks test is also a nonparametric analogue of the t-
for matched samples. However, this test is based on richer information than the sign test. Not only are
the signs of the difference scores considered, but also their ranks. Nevertheless, since the Wilcoxon
matched-pairs signed-ranks test is not based on the magnitude of the difference scores, but is based on
their ranking, it makes use of less rich information than the t-test. Despite this loss of information, it
may be usefully applied if the distributions of the two sets of related scores are not normal.
 Q18. Sampling error and standard error

Ans.Sampling error refers to the difference between the mean of the entire population and the
mean obtained of the sample taken from the population.

The standard error refers to the intra differences in the sample measurements of number of samples
taken from a single population.

As the intra differences in the number of sampling observation, i.e. the statistics of the same parent
population is less and tending to zero, we may say the obtained sample statistics is quite reliable and
can be considered as representative of the M pop or M.

RU OM
G U U.C
NT UR
ME TG
G N
I NM E N
S
S IG
A
U ASS
O
IGN NOU
. IG
W W
W