CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN ORGANISM - Group of similar cells and the materials surrounding

them
- Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
Basic Terms
4. Organ
▪ Anatomy
- Composed of two or more tissue types that
- The scientific discipline that investigates the body’s
perform one or more common functions
structure
5. Organ system
- No two humans are structurally identical
- Group of organs that work towards a common
a. Developmental anatomy
function
- Studies the structural changes that occur
6. Organism
between conception and adulthood
- Any living thing composed of a whole
b. Embryology
- With organ systems that mutually depend on
- Under developmental anatomy
each other
- Changes from conception to eighth week
of development
Characteristics of Life
c. Gross anatomy
1. Organization
- Studies structures that can be observed
- Specific interrelationships among the parts of an
without a microscope
organism
- Either system (system by system) or
- Living things are highly organized
regional (area by area)
2. Metabolism
d. Surface anatomy
- All the chemical reactions taking place in an organism
- Study of the external form of the body and
- Includes breakdown of food and the synthesizing of
its relation to deeper structures
molecules
▪ Anatomical imaging
3. Responsiveness
- Uses radiographs (x-rays), ultrasounds, MRIs, etc to
- Organism’s ability to sense and adapt to changes in
create pictures of internal structures
external or internal environment
▪ Anatomical anomalies
4. Growth
- Physical characteristics that differ from the normal
- Increase in the size or number of cells -> overall
pattern (can be harmless or life-threatening)
enlargement of all or part of an organism
▪ Physiology
5. Development
- Scientific investigation of the process or functions of
- Changes an organism undergoes through time
living things
- Greatest developmental changes occur before birth
- Used to predict the responses to stimuli
- Involves differentiation (change in cell structure and fx
a. Cell physiology
from general to specialized) and morphogenesis
b. Systemic physiology
(change in the shape of tissues, organs, entire
c. Neurophysiology
organism)
d. Cardio-vascular physiology
6. Reproduction
e. Exercise physiology
- Formation of new cells or new organisms
- The changes in function and structure
caused by exercise
▪ Biomedical research
▪ Pathology
- Why is it important to study other organisms along
- Medical science dealing with the aspects of disease,
with humans?
with emphasis on the cause and development
- Because we share many characteristics with
- Considers structural and functional changes resulting
other organisms, whether from single-celled or
from disease
multicellular organisms
- However, we must still appreciate the
Structural and Functional Organization of the Human Body: The
differences between other animals and humans
Six Levels of Organization
1. Chemical
- Interactions between atoms, molecules
- Function of a molecule related to its structure
2. Cell
- Cells as basic structural functional life unit
- Composed of organelles
3. Tissue
Homeostasis
▪ Homeostasis
- Existence and maintenance of a relatively constant
environment within the body
- Fluids that surround each body cell must remain
within a narrow range
- Homeostatic mechanisms have a set point (ideal
normal value), with increases and decreases around
the set point to get a normal range of values
▪ Negative Feedback
- Any deviation from the set point is resisted/made
smaller
- Ex. Blood pressure
- With 3 components (receptor, control center, and
effector)

▪ Anatomical position
- A person standing erect with face directed forward,
upper limbs hanging to the sides, and the palms of the
hands facing forward
▪ Positive Feedback
- Deviation from the set point makes response to
stimulus even greater
- Ex. Contractions during birth

Body Positions

Body Parts and Regions

▪ Trunk
- Thorax, abdomen, and pelvis
▪ Upper limb
- Arm, forearm, wrist, and hand
▪ Lower limb
- Thigh, leg, ankle, foot

Planes
▪ Sagittal plane
- Vertically though the body, dividing into left and right
portions
▪ Medial plane
- Sagittal plane that passes through the midline of the
body
▪ Transverse (horizontal) plane
- Parallel to the ground, divides into superior and
inferior portions
▪ Frontal (coronal) plane
- Runs vertically from right to left, divides body into
anterior and posterior parts

* Oblique section is a cut made across the long axis at other

than a right angle

Body cavities

▪ Serous Membranes
- Line the trunk cavities and cover the organs within the
cavities
a. Visceral serous (inner)
b. Parietal serous (outer)
- Cavity between serous membranes usually filled with
a thin lubricating film of serous fluid

Cavities
▪ Thoracic
- Contains the thee serous-membrane lined cavities
a. Pericardial (surrounds heart)
b. Pleural cavity (two, surrounds the lungs)
▪ Peritoneal cavity
- Abdominopelvic cavity
▪ Mesenteries
- Two layers of fused peritoneum
- Connect the visceral peritoneum of some
abdominopelvic organs to the parietal peritoneum on
 the body wall or to the visceral peritoneum of other
abdominopelvic organs
Terms
* Retroperitoneal refers to those behind the peritoneum
▪ Inflammation of the cavities
a. Pericarditis (inflammation of pericardium)
b. Pleurisy (inflammation of the pleura)
Electrons and Chemical Bonding
CHAPTER 2: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
▪ Matter, mass, and weight
- All things composed of matter (occupies space, has
mass)
- Mass= amount of matter in an object in SI unit: kg
- Weight= gravitational force acting on an object of
given mass
▪ Elements and atoms
- Elements are the simplest type of matter with unique
chemical properties
- Carbon has an important role in body chemistry (bc it
forms covalent bonds with itself and other molecules)
- Alam nyo na kung ano ang atom (basically seeley
discusses a neutron, proton, and electron and what an
atomic number is)
▪ Isotopes
- Two or more forms of the same element with same no
of protons and electrons but diff no of neutrons
- Same atomic no, diff mass no
▪ The Mole and Molar Mass
a. Mole
- Contains avogadro’s number of entities
(6.022x10^23), such as atoms, ions, or
molecules
b. Molar mass
- Mass of 1 mole of substance expressed in (g)
▪ Ionic vs Covalent
- Alam na dis
- Cations are positively charged, anions negatively
charged
▪ Molecules
- Two or more atoms chemically combined to form a
structure that behaves as an independent unit
- Covalent compounds form molecules because sharing
electrons result in distinct units
- Ionic compounds are not molecules because they do
not consist of distinct units
- Molecular mass= adding uo the atomic masses of its
atoms
▪ Compound
- Substance resulting from the combination of two or
more different types of atoms
- Not all molecules are compounds
▪ Intermolecular forces
- Weak electrostatic attractions between oppositely
charged parts of molecules or between ions and
molecules
 a. Hydrogen bonding ▪ Temperature
- When the hydrogen in a polar molecule is - The greater the temperature, the greater the
attracted to a negatively charged F, O, or N likelihood of a chemical reaction
of another molecule
▪ Solubility ▪ Inorganic chemistry
- The ability of one substance to dissolve in another - Deals with substances without carbon/ carbon-
- Like dissolves like hydrogen bonds
▪ Electrolytes ▪ Organic chemistry
- Often cations and anions that dissociate in water and - Study of carbon containing substances
can conduct electric current ▪ Water
- Electrocardiogram= recording of electric currents - Polar, held in a lattice
produced by the heart - Water-water attraction = cohesion
▪ Nonelectrolytes - Water-substance attraction= adhesion
- Molecules that do not dissociate in water - Water can stabilize body temperature because it
- Pure water= non electrolyte resists large temperature fluctuations
- Also a lubricant
Chemical Reactions and Energy - Many substances need to be dissolved in water for a
▪ Chemical reaction reaction to take place
- Atoms, ions, molecules, or compounds interact to
form or break chemical bonds Mixtures
a. Synthesis reactions - Combination of two or more substances physically
- Two or more reactants chemically blended together but not chemical combined
combine to form a new and larger product a. Solution
- If water is a product = dehydration - Any mixture of liquids, gases, or solids
- Ex. Formation of ATP with uniform distribution
b. Decomposition reactions - Solute and solvent
- Large reactant chemically broken down b. Suspension
into two or more smaller products - Mixture with materials that separate
- Ex. Breakdown of food to glucose unless continually blended together (eg.
- Splitting of water= hydrolysis blood)
- Decomposition reactions in body c. Colloid
collectively called catabolism - Mixture in which a dispersed substance is
c. Reversible reactions distributed throughout a dispersing one
- Can proceed from reactants to products - With particles larger than a simple
or products to reactants molecule but small enough to remain
▪ Energy dispersed
- The capacity to do work (move matter) ▪ Solution concentrations
- Either potential (stored) or kinetic (doing work) - Determined in osmoles (# particles in a solution) or
- Consider law of conservation of energy milliosmoles
▪ Chemical energy - Osmoles= Avogadro’s # of particles per kg of water
- Potential energy stored within chemical bonds - Osmolality= number of particles in a solution
- Like the potential energy in the chemical bonds of the
products ▪ Acids and bases
- If PE in reactants < products = need energy supply - Acid= proton donor
▪ Heat energy - Ba= proton acceptor
- Energy that flows between objects at different temps - Either weak or strong
- Yall know the ph scale
Speed of Chemical reactions ▪ Acidosis
▪ Activation energy - If blood pH drops below 7.35
- Minimum amount of energy needed by reactants to ▪ Alkalosis
start a chemical reaction - If blood pH goes above 7.45
▪ Catalysts ▪ Salts
- Substances that increase the rate of chemical rxns - Compound consisting of a cation that is not H+ and an
- Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts anion other than OH-
 - Formed by the interaction of acid and base
▪ Buffers
- Chemicals that resist changes in pH when acids or
bases are added to solutions
- Act as conjugate acid-base pairs
- Conjugate acid (when H given to conjugate base)
- Conjugate base (when H transferred away from acid)
Organic Chemistry
▪ Carbohydrates
- Composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- Approx. 2H:1O
- Relatively polar molecules
▪ Monosaccharides
- Simple sugars (3-6 carbons)
▪ Disaccharides
- Two simple sugars bound through a
dehydration reaction
▪ Polysaccharides
- Many monosaccharides bound together to
form straight or branched long chains
- Ex. Glycogen, starch and glucose
▪ Lipids
- Primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
with small amounts of other elements (eg. P, N)
- Less polar
- Provide protection and insulation, form plasma
membranes, store energy
a. Fats
- Major type of lipid
- Provide padding for organs and insulation
b. Triglycerides
- Constitute 95% of body far
- Consist of 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids
- Fatty acids differ in length and degree of
saturation
c. Polyunsaturated fats
- Vegetable oils
- Have covalent bonds = don’t clog arteries
d. Trans fats
- Unsaturated fats chemically altered by
adding H -> saturated
- Double covalent bonds that remain
unsaturated go from cis to trans
configuration
e. Phospholipids
- 1 glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate and
nitrogen
- Polar at phosphate end, nonpolar at the
other
f. Eicosanoids
- Group of chemicals derived from fatty
acids
- Regulatory molecules
- Include prostaglandins, thromboxanes,
and leukotrienes
g. Steroids
- Similar in solubility to lipids
- Carbon atoms bound together into four
ringlike structures
- Ex. Cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen
▪ Proteins
- Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
bound in covalent bonds
- May have some phosphorus, iron, and iodine
- Lathe molecular mass
- Have the 20 amino acid molecules as building blocks
- Covalent bonds between amino acids= peptide bonds
- Structure
a. Primary
- Determined by sequence of amino acids
b. Secondary
- From the folding or bending of
polypeptide chain due to hydrogen
bonding
- Usually pleated (folded) sheets or helixes
- If the hydrogen bonds that maintain the
protein shape are broken -> denaturation
-> nonfunctional protein
c. Tertiary
- Large scale folding of protein from
interactions within the protein and the
immediate environment
- Determines the shape of a domain (folded
sequence of 100-200 amino acids within a
protein
- Two or more proteins may form subunits
d. Quaternary
- Spatial relationships between individual
subunits
▪ Enzymes
- Protein catalysts that aren’t depleted
- Lock-and-key model and induced fit model (enzyme
slightly changes shape to better fit reactants)
- Enzymes lower the activation energy because they
reorient reactants
- Sensitive to changes in temp or pH
- Some require addition nonproteins (cofactors), which
are either ions or organic molecules. Organic cofactors
are called coenzymes.
- Each enzyme can catalyze only specific reactions
▪ Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Contains info that determines the structure of
proteins
- Consist of nucleotides in a double helix structure
(involves complementary base pairs AU GC)
- Antiparallel (side by side byt sugar-phosphate
backbones in opposite directions
▪ Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- Also made up of nucleotides
▪ Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
- Organic molecule composed of adenosine + 3
phosphate groups
- Contains potential energy between second and third
phosphate groups
- Can be used to store or provide energy