Objective:-

Different Types of Wiring Systems and Methods of Electrical Wiring

What is Electrical Wiring?
Electrical Wiring is a process of connecting cables and wires to the related devices such as
fuse, switches, sockets, lights, fans etc to the main distribution board is a specific structure to
the utility pole for continues power supply.
Methods of Electrical Wiring Systems w.r.t Taking Connection
Wiring (a process of connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy from
supplier’s meter board to home appliances such as lamps, fans and other domestic appliances
is known as Electrical Wiring) can be done using two methods which are
 Joint box system or Tee system
 Loop – in system
They are discussed as follows:
Joint Box or Tee or Jointing System
In this method of wiring, connections to appliances are made through joints. These joints are
made in joint boxes by means of suitable connectors or joints cutouts. This method of wiring
doesn’t consume too much cables size.
You might think because this method of wiring doesn’t require too much cable it is therefore
cheaper. It is of course but the money you saved from buying cables will be used in buying
joint boxes, thus equation is balanced. This method is suitable for temporary installations and
it is cheap.
Loop-in or Looping System
This method of wiring is universally used in wiring. Lamps and other appliances are connected
in parallel so that each of the appliances can be controlled individually. When a connection is
required at a light or switch, the feed conductor is looped in by bringing it directly to the
terminal and then carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed.
The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops from one point to
another until the last on the circuit is reached. The phase or line conductors are looped either
in switchboard or box and neutrals are looped either in switchboard or from light or fan. Line
or phase should never be looped from light or fan.

Advantages of Loop-In Method of Wiring

 It doesn’t require joint boxes and so money is saved
 In loop – in systems, no joint is concealed beneath floors or in roof spaces.
 Fault location is made easy as the points are made only at outlets so that they are accessible.
Disadvantages of Loop-In Method of Wiring
 Length of wire or cables required is more and voltage drop and copper losses are therefore
more
 Looping – in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.
Different Types of Electrical Wiring Systems
The types of internal wiring usually used are

 Cleat wiring
 Wooden casing and capping wiring
 CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
 Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
 Conduit wiring
There are additional types of conduit wiring according to Pipes installation (Where steel and
PVC pipes are used for wiring connection and installation).

 Surface or open Conduit type

 Recessed or concealed or underground type Conduit
Cleat Wiring
This system of wiring comprise of ordinary VIR or PVC insulated wires (occasionally,
sheathed and weather proof cable) braided and compounded held on walls or ceilings by means
of porcelain cleats, Plastic or wood.

Cleat wiring system is a temporary wiring system therefore it is not suitable for domestic
premises. The use of cleat wiring system is over nowadays.

Advantages of Cleat Wiring:

 It is simple and cheap wiring system
 Most suitable for temporary use i.e. under construction building or army camping
 As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air, Therefore fault in cables can
be seen and repair easily.
 Cleat wiring system installation is easy and simple.
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system e.g. alteration and addition.
 Inspection is easy and simple.
Disadvantages of Cleat Wiring:
 Appearance is not so good.
 Cleat wiring can’t be use for permanent use because, Sag may be occur after sometime of
the usage.
 In this wiring system, the cables and wiring is in open air, therefore,
oil, Steam, humidity, smoke, rain, chemical and acidic effect may damage the cables and
wires.

 it is not lasting wire system because of the weather effect , risk of fire and wear & tear.
 it can be only used on 250/440 Volts on low temperature.
 There is always a risk of fire and electric shock.
 it can’t be used in important and sensitive location and places.
 It is not lasting, reliable and sustainable wiring system.
Casing and Capping wiring
Casing and Capping wiring system was famous wiring system in the past but, it is considered
obsolete this days because of Conduit and sheathed wiring system. The cables used in this kind
of wiring were either VIR or PVC or any other approved insulated cables.
The cables were carried through the wooden casing enclosures. The casing is made up of a strip
of wood with parallel grooves cut length wise so as to accommodate VIR cables. The grooves
were made to separate opposite polarity. the capping (also made of wood) used to cover the
wires and cables installed and fitted in the casing.

Advantages of Casing Capping Wiring:

 It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit wiring systems.
 It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots, then repairing is easy.
 Stay for long time in the field due to strong insulation of capping and casing..
 It stays safe from oil, Steam, smoke and rain.
 No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing & capping.
Disadvantages Casing Capping Wiring:
 There is a high risk of fire in casing & capping wiring system.
 Not suitable in the acidic, alkalies and humidity conditions
 Costly repairing and need more material.
 Material can’t be found easily in the contemporary
 White ants may damage the casing & capping of wood.
Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)
Single core or double core or three core TRS cables with a circular oval shape cables are used
in this kind of wiring. Mostly, single core cables are preferred. TRS cables are chemical proof,
water proof, steam proof, but are slightly affected by lubricating oil. The TRS cables are run
on well seasoned and straight teak wood batten with at least a thickness of 10mm.The cables
are held on the wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips (buckle clip) already fixed
on the batten with brass pins and spaced at an interval of 10cm for horizontal runs and 15cm
for vertical runs.
Advantages of Batten Wiring

 Wiring installation is simple and easy

 cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
 Paraphrase is good and beautiful
 Repairing is easy
 strong and long-lasting
 Customization can be easily done in this wiring system.
 less chance of leakage current in batten wiring system
Disadvantages of Batten Wiring
 Can’t be install in the humidity, Chemical effects, open and outdoor areas.
 High risk of firs
 Not safe from external wear & tear and weather effects (because, the wires are openly visible
to heat, dust, steam and smoke.
 Heavy wires can’t be used in batten wiring system.
 Only suitable below then 250V.
 Need more cables and wires.
Lead Sheathed Wiring
The type of wiring employs conductors that are insulated with VIR and covered with an outer
sheath of lead aluminum alloy containing about 95% of lead. The metal sheath given protection
to cables from mechanical damage, moisture and atmospheric corrosion.

The whole lead covering is made electrically continuous and is connected to earth at the point
of entry to protect against electrolytic action due to leaking current and to provide safety in
case the sheath becomes alive. The cables are run on wooden batten and fixed by means of link
clips just as in TRS wiring.

Conduit Wiring
There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation

 Surface Conduit Wiring

 Concealed Conduit Wiring
Surface Conduit Wiring
If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. in this wiring
method, they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is installed then
with the help of rawal plugs.
Concealed Conduit wiring
If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called concealed
conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or floor with the
help of plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring. obliviously, It is the most
popular, beautiful, stronger and common electrical wiring system nowadays.

In conduit wiring, steel tubes known as conduits are installed on the surface of walls by means
of pipe hooks (surface conduit wiring) or buried in walls under plaster and VIR or PVC cables
are afterwards drawn by means of a GI wire of size if about 18SWG.

In Conduit wiring system, The conduits should be electrically continuous and connected to
earth at some suitable points in case of steel conduit. Conduit wiring is a professional way of
wiring a building. Mostly PVC conduits are used in domestic wiring.

The conduit protects the cables from being damaged by rodents (when rodents bites the cables
it will cause short circuit) that is why circuit breakers are in place though but hey! Prevention
is better than cure. Lead conduits are used in factories or when the building is prone to fire
accident. Trunking is more of like surface conduit wiring. It’s gaining popularity too.

It is done by screwing a PVC trunking pipe to a wall then passing the cables through the pipe.
The cables in conduit should not be too tight. Space factor have to be put into consideration.

Types of Conduit
Following conduits are used in the conduit wiring systems (both concealed and surface conduit
wiring) which are shown in the above image.

 Metallic Conduit
 Non-metallic conduit
Metallic Conduit:
Metallic conduits are made of steel which are very strong but costly as well.

There are two types of metallic conduits.

 Class A Conduit: Low gauge conduit (Thin layer steel sheet conduit)
 Class B Conduit: High gauge conduit (Thick sheet of steel conduit)
Non-metallic Conduit:
A solid PVC conduit is used as non-metallic conduit now a days, which is flexible and easy to
bend.

Size of Conduit:
The common conduit pipes are available in different sizes genially, 13, 16.2, 18.75, 20, 25, 37,
50, and 63 mm (diameter) or 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1.25, 1.5, and 2 inch in diameter.

Advantage of Conduit Wiring Systems

 It is the safest wiring system (Concealed conduit wring)
 Appearance is very beautiful (in case of concealed conduit wiring)
 No risk of mechanical wear & tear and fire in case of metallic pipes.
 Customization can be easily done according to the future needs.
 Repairing and maintenance is easy.
 There is no risk of damage the cables insulation.
 it is safe from corrosion (in case of PVC conduit) and risk of fire.
 It can be used even in humidity , chemical effect and smoky areas.
 No risk of electric shock (In case of proper earthing and grounding of metallic pipes).
 It is reliable and popular wiring system.
 sustainable and long-lasting wiring system.
Disadvantages of Conduit Wiring Systems
 It is expensive wiring system (Due to PVC and Metallic pipes, Additional earthing for
metallic pipes Tee(s) and elbows etc.
 Very hard to find the defects in the wiring.
 installation is not easy and simple.
 Risk of Electric shock (In case of metallic pipes without proper earthing system)
 Very complicated to manage additional connection in the future.
Comparison between Different Wiring Systems
Below is the table which shows the comparison between all the above mentioned wiring
systems.
 Experiment 10
Objective:- How to Repair Small Appliances
Electricity furnishes the energy that powers small appliances and other electrical devices.
Current flows to the device through the hot (typically black) wire and returns through the
neutral (typically white) wire. The power that moves the current is called voltage.

In most household systems, the hot wire has about 120 volts and the white wire has zero volts.
The difference in voltage between the two wires moves the electric current and powers your
appliance.

There are three types of small, portable, or household appliances. Some appliances, such as
toasters and coffee makers, heat something. Other appliances, like food processors and vacuum
cleaners, move something. A few appliances, such as hair dryers, do both.

In this article, we'll tell you how to repair all of these appliances, and more. First, though, we'll
provide an overview on fixing small appliances.

Heating Appliances
Heating appliances convert electrical energy into heat, which is used to toast bread, warm
coffee, dry hair, or perform other helpful tasks. This heat is developed by passing current
through a special wire called an element. Since the element makes it difficult for electricity to
pass through it, some of its energy turns into heat. The electricity uses so much of its energy to
overcome the resistance of a toaster element, for instance, that it glows bright red, thus toasting
the bread.

Common heating appliances covered in this article include toasters, toaster ovens, drip coffee
makers, and percolator coffee makers. Heating appliances that work on the same principles
include clothing irons; electric fry pans, woks, griddles, and waffle irons; convection ovens;
deep fryers; slow cookers; food dehydrators; rice cookers; steam cookers; indoor grills;
espresso and cappuccino machines; iced tea makers; and popcorn poppers. Once you've learned
how to troubleshoot and repair the most popular heating appliances, it will be easy to repair
any of them.

Motor Appliances
Motor appliances convert electrical energy into movement. This power cuts and blends foods,
opens cans, grinds waste, picks up dirt, and moves air. A motor converts electrical energy into
magnetic energy that rotates a shaft. The end of this shaft may have a blade or other attachment
that does the actual work.

Motor appliances that are addressed in this article include food mixers and blenders, electric
can openers, garbage disposers, and upright and canister vacuum cleaners. Other motor
appliances with similar operation include juicers, coffee grinders, ice cream makers, electric
knives, knife sharpeners, electric pencil sharpeners, electric clocks, fans, humidifiers, and foil-
head and rotary-head electric shavers.

Combination Appliances
Some small appliances both heat and move. The most popular is the electric bread maker. It
mixes dough, then bakes it into bread. Bread makers also include diagnostic electronics that
assist the owner in troubleshooting and repair, so they are not included in this article. Other
combination appliances include hair dryers and stirring popcorn poppers.

Troubleshooting Small Appliances

Nearly all small appliances are powered by 120-volt electricity. This means that many of the
problems that can occur with toasters can also occur with garbage disposers and hair dryers.
These problems are caused by circuit breakers or fuses, switches and plugs, or grounded or
loose wires..

Appliance Cords
An appliance cord delivers electricity to an appliance. An appliance cord is typically
constructed of two or three wires and a plug. Attach the appliance end of the cord with metal
connectors or fasteners like electrical nuts.

©2006 PUBLICATIONS INTERNATIONAL, LTD. A TYPICAL APPLIANCE CORD

CONNECTION.
Wires
Wires used in appliance cords are of different diameters, or gauges. The thicker the wire, the
lower the gauge number. That is, a 12-gauge wire is thinner than a 10-gauge wire. Most small
appliances use cord wires of copper strands insulated with heat-resistant plastic.

An appliance that requires less amperage to operate, such as a lamp, will typically have a two-
wire cord of 18- or 16-gauge wire. Higher-amperage heating appliances will use a two- or
three-wire cord of 14- or even 12-gauge wire. Two-strand cords include one hot wire and one
neutral wire. A three-strand cord will have one hot wire, one neutral wire, and one ground wire.

Plugs
The plug at the end of an appliance cord receives electricity from the wall receptacle. A two-
prong plug is typically used for ungrounded appliances rated at less than 15 amps. Some two-
prong plugs are polarized to ensure that the hot and neutral wires are connected correctly. The
smaller prong is the hot wire, and the larger one is neutral.

Three-prong appliance plugs include one round prong used for grounding and ensuring that the
hot and neutral prongs are inserted into the correct receptacle slots. Most small appliances are
rated at less than 15 amps. A receptacle with a T-shaped neutral slot is designed to
accommodate 20-amp appliances, though 15-amp cords can be plugged into it.

Connectors
At the other end of the cord, inside the small appliance, the wires are connected to a switch, or
controller. The wires may be connected with solder, with electrical twist-on nuts, or with
connectors. These connectors physically and electrically connect the power source with the
appliance.

The connection can be made with crimp connectors, clip or spade connectors, or with U- or O-
connectors. Internal appliance wires are typically smaller than those used for cords, which
means the gauge numbers are higher.

Repairing Appliance Cords and Wires

To test an appliance cord or wire, first make sure that it is disconnected from any electrical
source or capacitor. Then use a continuity tester or multimeter to make sure it can adequately
conduct electricity.
With the tester attached, move the wire to ensure that there is not a break in the strands that can
cause intermittent shorts. Also check the quality and pliability of the cord or wire insulation. If
there are any breaks or cracks that may eventually expose strands, replace the cord or wire with
one of equivalent rating and gauge.

Switches
Most small appliance switches are activated by hand to control the flow of current in an
appliance. A single-pole switch is pushed or moved to turn power on or off. Multiposition
switches allow set amounts of current to flow, such as a multispeed switch for a blender.

APPLIANCE CONTROLS INCLUDE THERMOSTATS, RHEOSTATS, TIMING

MECHANISMS, AND ASSORTED SWITCHES.

Thermostats
A thermostat opens and closes a circuit to furnish current based on temperature. The simplest,
a bimetallic thermostat, uses two bonded pieces of metal with different heat ratings. At room
temperature, for example, both metals are of identical length and form, allowing contact points
in the circuit to touch. Heat flexes one of the two metals and causes them to pull the contacts
apart, opening the circuit and stopping current from passing.

Thermostats can be used to turn a heating element or a motor on or off. In fact, thermostats are
used as overload protectors that open a circuit and turn off a motor if it overheats or overloads.

Rheostats
A rheostat is a variable controller. That is, it variably controls the amount of current flowing to
an appliance component. A blender with a speed control that can be turned to increase or
decrease motor speed uses a rheostat to do so. Because rheostats can be damaged by moisture,
they can easily malfunction. In that case, they must be replaced with a rheostat of the same type
and function. Rheostats are also called potentiometers or "pots."

Timing Mechanisms
A timing mechanism controls current flow based on a mechanical or digital timing device
similar to a clock. A timing mechanism in your coffee maker can furnish fresh coffee in the
morning. In most cases, timing mechanisms turn small appliances on or off. When a timed
appliance doesn't turn on, one of the first components to check is the timing mechanism. Some
can be repaired, while others must be replaced.

How Toasters Work

Most electric pop-up toasters all operate in the same manner. A slice of bread, a frozen waffle,
a toaster strudel, or some similar food item is placed through a slot in the top of the toaster and
into the carriage. The carriage is lowered into the chassis using the lever at the side of the
toaster.

When it reaches the bottom, the carriage latches in position and an internal switch is activated
to start the heating process. A thermostat determines how long electric current will be sent from
the power cord to the heating elements.

The person who is operating the toaster sets the thermostat using a control knob or lever
calibrated between light and dark. When the desired temperature is reached and the heating
process is completed, the solenoid turns the current off, then unlocks the latch and allows the
carriage to spring up to its original position. At this time, the toasted food is easily reachable
and can be removed by the operator of the appliance.

How to Repair a Toaster

Common toaster repairs include servicing the latch assembly, servicing the chassis,
recalibrating the thermostat, and servicing the solenoid.

Servicing the Latch Assembly: The carriage and latch are vital components to the operation of
pop-up toasters. If they don't work smoothly, bread or other food products cannot be held in
position to be heated. To clean and lubricate the latch:

Step 1: To access the latch, remove the end panel by removing levers, knobs, and fasteners.
On some models, disassemble the entire case by removing levers, knobs, crumb tray door, and
fasteners. Fasteners are usually accessed from the bottom of the toaster, though some models
hide them under plates and self-adhesive labels on the side.

Step 2: Once the cover is removed, inspect the latch assembly to determine if there are obvious
problems such as a food particle or loose part jamming the assembly. Clean the latch area using
a can of compressed air to blow away crumbs.

Step 3: Move the carriage lever up and down to check for smooth operation. If the carriage
moves stiffly, carefully lubricate the rod on which the latch lever travels. Use a petroleum
lubricant, making sure you don't get any of it on adjacent electrical parts.

Step 4: Check the operation of the latch to ensure that it works smoothly. You may need to
carefully bend the latch so it catches properly.

Servicing the Chassis: Most of the mechanism within a toaster is mounted on a frame called
the chassis. To repair or replace many internal parts, including the heating elements, you will
need to remove the chassis from the toaster shell. Disassemble the toaster by removing levers,
knobs, and fasteners, then carefully lift the shell off the chassis.

Some toasters will require that you disconnect the power cord internally before you can fully
remove the chassis. Depending on the problem your toaster is having, you may want to replace
the entire chassis or just one or two components.

Recalibrating a Thermostat: The thermostat in a pop-up toaster performs a vital function in

telling the solenoid how long you want the heating elements to toast the bread. If your toaster
seems to ignore your setting, the thermostat may be out of adjustment. To recalibrate the
toaster:
A CALIBRATION KNOB, SCREW, OR NUT CAN BE TURNED TO RECALIBRATE THE
THERMOSTAT.

Step 1: Clean the toaster to ensure that food particles are not jamming the mechanism or
shorting out the electronics.

Step 2: To recalibrate the thermostat, make sure the toaster is cool, turn it over on its top, and
open the crumb tray cover.

Step 3: On most units, a bracket from the control

knob will be visible. On this bracket there will be a calibration knob, screw, or nut that can be
turned to recalibrate the thermostat. Moving the bracket toward the solenoid switch typically
will shorten the toasting cycle, and moving it away from the solenoid switch will lengthen the
cycle. You can shorten the cycle if the toast is

too dark or lengthen the cycle if the toast is too light.

Step 4: Close the toaster, plug it in, and toast a piece of bread to determine if the adjustment is
correct. If adjusting the thermostat doesn't solve the problem, consider replacing the thermostat
or the toaster.

Servicing a Solenoid: The thermostat activates a switch that operates the solenoid. The solenoid
releases the latch. So if your toaster burns toast or doesn't want to release the carriage, the
solenoid switch or the solenoid itself may be faulty. The solenoid switch is located near the
thermostat and can be accessed by opening the crumb tray cover. Test it with a continuity tester.
If it is faulty, remove it and replace it with a new switch.

The solenoid is located near the latch at one end of the toaster. To access it, remove the end
cover, or the shell. Test the solenoid with a continuity tester and replace if faulty. If either the
solenoid or switch is installed with rivets rather than screws, consider replacing the entire
chassis or the toaster itself. Riveted parts are difficult to remove and replace without special
tools.

How Coffee Makers Work

There are two types of coffee makers in common use: those that drip hot water once through
the coffee grounds, and those that percolate, or recycle, the water through the grounds many
times.
Most drip coffee makers are activated by switches and timers in the control panel, heating water
and pumping it up to drop through the coffee basket. The resulting hot coffee falls into a carafe.
An element under the carafe keeps the coffee warm.

Percolator coffee makers heat a small amount of water in the base of the unit, forming steam
that pushes the hot water up a tube in the center of the percolator. At the top, water falls into
the coffee basket and soaks up all that great coffee flavor from the grounds. The resulting hot
coffee then drips through holes in the basket base and into the main compartment to be
recycled. A thermostat determines when the coffee has brewed sufficiently, then turns the
percolating system off. A heating element continues to maintain the coffee at the selected
temperature.

How to Repair a Coffee Maker

Common repairs to coffee makers include servicing the on/off switch, thermostat, heating
element, and warming element.

Servicing an On/Off Switch: A coffee maker's switch is a simple device that controls current
to the heating unit and pump. Fortunately, this key controller is easy to test and to replace.
Here's how:

Step 1: Make sure the coffee maker is unplugged.

Step 2: Remove the base or shell to access the back of the switch.

Step 3: Place test probes across the terminals and activate the switch. The circuit should be
closed and show continuity as indicated by the switch positions.

The same test of continuity can be used to test other controllers, such as timers. All operate as
switches, conducting electricity in some settings and not in others.

Servicing a Drip Coffee Maker's Thermostat: A thermostat in a drip coffee maker controls
electricity to operate the heating element. It can cause problems if it doesn't work correctly. To
test the thermostat in a drip coffee maker:

Step 1: Unplug the unit, empty excess water from the reservoir, turn the unit over, and remove
the base. (Special head screwdrivers -- available at larger hardware stores -- may be required.)

Step 2: Use a continuity tester or multitester to check the thermostat, placing a probe at each
end.
Step 3: If defective, remove and replace the thermostat with one of the same rating.

Step 4: Also check the continuity of the fuse and replace it if the circuit is open.

Servicing a Percolator Coffee Maker's Thermostat: The thermostat in a percolator coffee maker
serves the same function, but looks different from one in a drip system. To test a percolator
coffee maker's thermostat:

Step 1: Unplug the coffee maker, make sure the coffee and filter are removed before turning it
over, then remove the base to expose the heating element and thermostat.

Step 2: Test the thermostat's continuity.

Step 3: If the thermostat is an open circuit, replace it. If replacing the thermostat requires
unriveting or desoldering it, consider taking it to an appliance-repair shop or replacing the
entire coffee maker.

Servicing Heating Elements: A coffee maker's heating element is a critical component. No one
wants cold coffee. The heating element in either a drip or percolator coffee maker is accessed
through the base of the appliance. To test and replace a heating element:

Step 1: Make sure all liquids and grounds are emptied from the appliance before turning it over
to remove the base.

Step 2: Once accessed, the heating element can be tested using a continuity tester or a
multitester as you would any conductor. Disconnect the unit from the circuit, then place a probe
at each terminal and verify that the element can conduct electricity.
Step 3: If no electricity is being conducted, replace the heating element unit or assembly. With
masking tape, mark the location of all wires and components you loosen so you will be able to
reconnect them with ease.

Servicing Warming Elements: Once the coffee is brewed, the warming element in the base of
the coffee maker keeps it warm. The warming element on some coffee makers remains on all
day long, so it may be the first component to fail. In addition, water or brewed coffee may spill
and leak into the warming element, shorting it out. Here's how to test and replace a warming
element:

Step 1: Remove the coffee maker's base, identify the warming element, and disconnect it from
the terminals.

Step 2: Check for continuity using a continuity tester or multitester.

Step 3: Replace the warming element, if necessary.

How Food Blenders Work

The kitchen food blender is a motorized small appliance. A blade inside a jar is connected to a
motor shaft. By varying current to the motor, the blade's speed is controlled.

Preventive maintenance can reduce the repairs needed to keep a food blender running for many
years. The two most important steps an operator can take are not to overload the blender and
to keep the seals tight.

The multispeed switch in the blender sends current to the motor based on which control buttons
are selected or how far the rheostat is turned. More current means a higher motor speed. Placing
hard foods in the blender jar and trying to chop them with a low motor speed can cause the
motor to burn out.

Because the jar holds liquids, yet must be disassembled for cleaning, it has seals to keep liquids
from escaping. In addition, the blender housing has a seal around the coupling to make sure
liquids don't leak into the vulnerable motor. Keeping these seals tight and ensuring that liquids
don't overflow the jar can help keep a blender operating smoothly.

How to Repair a Food Blender

Food blender repairs include servicing a multispeed switch, replacing a fuse, servicing a motor,
tightening a drive stud, and servicing a blade assembly.
Servicing the Multispeed Switch: It's easy to see why the multispeed switch is a critical
component to the operation of your food blender. Because of its high use and complexity, it is
a frequent culprit when things go wrong. To service the multispeed switch:

Step 1: Remove the blender base.

Step 2: The multispeed switch will be attached to the base with clips or screws accessed from
underneath the base's faceplate or from inside the base. Visually inspect the switch before
removing it; in many cases, the problem is a loose terminal. Otherwise, a blackened terminal
or wire may identify where the problem has occurred.

Step 3: Check the multispeed switch with a continuity tester or multitester.

Step 4: Because of its exposed location on the front of the blender, the switch is susceptible to
damage from liquids. Use a can of compressed air or an electrical contact cleaner to clean the
switch. If necessary, replace it.

Replacing the Fuse: Fortunately, most blenders include an in-line fuse that protects the motor
from overload. If excessive current is sent to the motor, the fuse will blow. To determine if the
fuse is working:

Step 1: Remove the blender base and locate the fuse in the wire from the multispeed switch to
the motor.

Step 2: Disconnect the wire and use a continuity tester or multitester to check the fuse. If the
circuit is open, the fuse is blown.

Step 3: Replace the faulty in-line fuse with one of identical rating.
Servicing the Motor: The motor will typically withstand many years of use (though not much
abuse). Unfortunately, if the motor needs to be replaced, it may be less expensive to buy a new
blender.

Motor operation is easy to test. Because there is a circuit running from the appliance cord,
through the multispeed controls, to the motor, and back to the cord, an ohmmeter (part of your
multitester) can test the circuit. To test a blender's motor:

Step 1: Place a probe on each cord prong.

Step 2: Select a speed-control button or turn the speed controller slightly, then read the
resistance on the meter.

Step 3: Next, rotate the drive stud clockwise one turn. If the resistance reading (in ohms)
changes, the motor needs service. Take it to an appliance-repair service or replace the
appliance, depending on cost.

Tightening the Drive Stud: If the motor operates well, but the blade in the blender jar doesn't
turn as it should, the problem may be the drive stud. The most frequent cause is a loose drive
stud. To tighten the drive stud:

Step 1: Remove the base and turn the blender over. The other end of the drive shaft will
protrude from the bottom side of the motor.

Step 2: Grip the drive shaft with a wrench or pliers, then turn the blender on its side to attach
a wrench to the drive stud.

Step 3: Hold the drive shaft steady as you turn the drive stud clockwise.

The other cause of drive stud problems is the rounding of its corners, requiring a new drive
stud. To replace a worn drive stud, reverse the instructions for tightening a drive stud, install
the new part, and tighten it.

Service the Blade Assembly: The blender's blade assembly is simple in function. It is rotated
by the drive stud, which blends or chops food within the jar.
The most common problem is caused by the jar leaking liquids. The solution is to tighten the
base. If this doesn't solve the problem, inspect and, if necessary, replace the gasket.

If the drive stud is turning but the blade assembly isn't, inspect the assembly socket into which
the drive stud fits. It may be worn and require replacement. This is a common problem on
blenders with metal drive studs and plastic blade-assembly sockets.

How to Repair a Canister Vacuum Cleaner

A canister vacuum cleaner has its own set of repair procedures. Here they are:

Servicing an On/Off Switch: Like the switches on most small appliances, the on/off switch on
a canister vacuum cleaner gets a lot of use. Considering the ease of repair and its low
replacement cost, this switch is one of the first components to check if a vacuum doesn't turn
on or off correctly. To test and replace the switch:

Step 1: Open or remove the canister housing to access the back side of the switch.

Step 2: Use a continuity tester or multitester to ensure that there is an open circuit when the
switch is in the OFF position and a closed circuit when the switch is in the ON position.

Step 3: Also check the wiring and terminals to ensure that they are connected properly.
Step 4: If the switch doesn't test correctly, remove it and replace it. Some switches are fastened
to the housing with screws, others with clips or friction snaps. A few are riveted in place.

Servicing a Power-Head Wire Connection: An advantage of the canister vacuum is that the part
that is pushed and pulled across the floor is lighter than with a single-unit upright vacuum. A
disadvantage is that power must be delivered first to the canister, then to the separate power
head.

The wire connection between the two units is often a source of problems, even in better-quality
canister vacuum cleaners. The reason is that there are four sections to the connecting wire: from
canister to hose, from one end of the hose to the other, from one end of the power-head tube to
the other, and within the power head itself. The end of each section of wire has a connector. If
the connection is not made sufficiently, the power head doesn't operate or operates
intermittently.

In most cases, servicing the power-head wire connection simply requires that each connector
be checked and tightened as needed. If a specific connector frequently makes a poor
connection, you can clean the male and female connections with a small piece of emery paper
and a can of compressed air.

Broken wires or worn insulators can sometimes be reconnected and wrapped with electrical
tape. However, the wire may be located inside the hose, requiring that the hose be replaced as
well.

Servicing a Beater Bar: The beater bar on a canister vacuum cleaner is serviced in almost the
same manner as one on an upright unit. Here's how:

Step 1: Remove the clips at each end of the beater bar, and pull it and the drive belt from the
power-head case. In many cases, all you have to do is clean the brush and the two ends. Remove
any excess pet hair or carpet fibers that get wound into them.

Step 2: If needed, remove the beater bar end cap and flange to remove the brush from the shaft
and clean or replace it.

Step 3: Also check the drive belt and replace it if it is worn or damaged.

Step 4: When reinstalling the beater bar, make sure there is sufficient tension on the drive belt
to rotate the bar by pulling on the belt. If the belt is loose, adjust it following the instructions
in the owner's manual.
Servicing a Motor: The motor for a canister vacuum cleaner is easy to access on most models.
To test and replace the motor's brushes:

Step 1: Open the canister's top cover and remove the motor cover to expose the motor itself.

Step 2: Place the probes of a continuity tester or multitester on the two wires that lead to the
motor from the on/off switch.

Step 3: Rotate the motor shaft a few revolutions by hand. The motor should test as a closed
circuit with some resistance. If an ohmmeter indicates no resistance or infinite resistance, the
motor is probably damaged.

Step 4: Check the motor's brushes in the same manner, if they are accessible. Replace the
brushes if needed.

For other motor repairs, take the appliance to an appliance-repair service or motor-repair shop.
If the motor needs replacing, evaluate the overall condition of the vacuum and consider
replacing the entire appliance.

Servicing a Cord Reel: The cord reel on a canister vacuum cleaner is a gadget that simply
makes storage of the cord easier. It doesn't clean anything. The cord reel unit is usually located
at the rear of the canister.

An internal spring offers sufficient tension to retract the cord onto the reel. The cord reel winds
the cord in a circle, so the internal end of the cord must also move in a circle. At the same time,
it must be electrically connected to the motor.

To make this work, the cord is attached to a rotating contact called a commutator block. It is a
circular conductor of electricity that passes current from the internal end of the cord to a
stationary block. If the blocks become dirty or corroded, they will not pass current to the motor.
To remove and clean or replace the cord reel:

Step 1: Open the top cover of the canister. Another sealing cover will protect the cord reel --
and probably the motor as well -- from the vacuum chamber.

Step 2: Depending on whether you're cleaning or replacing the cord reel, you may need to
remove it from the housing. To do so, find the clips or fasteners holding it into place and undo
them. If necessary, cut the two wires leading from the cord reel to the motor. In some cases,
you may be able to make adjustments and repairs without cutting the motor wires.

Step 3: Clean the cord reel of dirt, then clean the commutator and stationary block with some
isopropyl alcohol on a soft rag. If pitted, the blocks should be lightly sanded and wiped clean.

Step 4: Adjust the spring as needed and reinstall the unit in reverse order, replacing any cut
wires.